HYGIENIC PRODUCTIONOF MILK

S B BarbuddheB K Swain

¥~~ICAR

Animal Sciences SectionICAR RESEARCH COMPLEX FOR GOA(Indian Council of Agricultural Research)

Ela, Old Goa - 403 402, Goa India

UYGIENIC PRODUCTION OF MILK

S B BarbuddheB K Swain

'lWp3Fj'lICAR

Animal ScivncC2SSvctionICAR RESEARCH COMPLEX FOR GOA,

Ela, Old Goa 403 402

Copyright © 2008, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)All Rights Reserved

For reproduction of this document or any part thereof,permission of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),

New Delhi must be obtained.

Published by:Dr. V. S. KorikanthimathDirectorICAR Research Complex for GoaEla, Old Goa - 403 402, Goa, India

FaxPhoneEmailWeb site

: 91-832 - 2285649: 91-832 - 2284678,2284679: director@icargoa.res.in: http://www.icargoa.res.in

: Barbuddhe S B and Swain B K (2008) HygienicProduction of Milk. Technical Bulletin No: 11, ICARResearch Complex for Goa (Indian Council ofAgricultural Research), Ela, Old Goa- 403 402, Goa,India

I . CONTENTS· IPage No.

1. Introduction 01

2. Milk hygiene practices in India and othercountries 01

3. Quality assurance of milk and milk products 02

4. Hygiene milk production at the farm 04

5. Milk transport to processing factory 09

6. Cleaning in place 11

7. Pasteurization and milk preservation 11

8. Residues of drugs, pesticides and otherforeign substances in milk 13

9. Legislation 14

10. Bacteriological standards 17

Milk from an apparently healthyanimal is pure, clean, safe, sound andwholesome. These properties definealmost all desired characteristics of milk.Pure means unadulterated, clean, safe,sound and wholesome are thecharacteristics which are ensured by aPublic Health Veterinarian who practicesfood, sanitation, safety, protection andpreservation. Milk is nature's ideal andperfect single food both for new born andmature human beings. But because of itshigh nutritive value and high moisturecontent, it also serves as a good mediumfor the growth of microorganisms. Goodquality milk is essential for production ofgood quality dairy products, taste andflavour, free from pathogens and longkeeping quality. Good quality dairyproducts cannot and can never be madefrom poor quality raw milk. As such, it isessential that the milch animals shouldadequately be protected from diseasesbecause the causative agents of thesediseases may be either excreted into milkor they may contaminate milk throughenvironmental contamination.

An efficient hygiene programshould begin at the farm. Essentially milkhygiene practice has interests inpreventing the transmission of diseasefrom animals to man, preventing thetransmission of communicable diseasesof man through milk, preventing diseasesor physical defects that may arise frommalnutrition and improving the nutritional

status of man in general and of infants,children, and mother in particular.

Good quality raw milk must be:

a. Free from debris and sediment.

b. Free from off-flavours.

c. Low in bacterial counts.

d. Normal composition and acidity.

e. Free of antibiotics and chemicalresidues.

In order for milk to reach theprocessor and ultimately the consumerstill in good condition, a number of pointsmust be observed right from the farm levelto the processing factory, and thereafter tothe retailers and consumer.

Apart from taking hygienicprecautions, the growth of microbes canbe restricted by cooling or other methodssuch as activation of natural inhibitorysystems like lactoperoxidase - thiocyanate- hydrogen peroxidase system and otherfood grade bio-preservatives, which cantemporarily restrict the multiplication ofmicroorganisms in milk. However,pasteurization is the universally adoptedmethod to enhance the shelf life of milkand make it safe for human consumption.

Milk hygiene practices in India andother countries.

Generally, animals are milked atleast twice a day worldwide includingIndia, which can influence hygienic qualityof milk considerably. Tropical climate,

inadequate cooling facilities, widespreadadulteration, lack of quality consciousnessand small-scale scattered production arethe prevailing conditions in India. In India,milk production and distribution arecurrently being -fo~IGweO-in·-uAorganizec:.lway. However, in a modular system, whichis carried out in highly organized way likeANAND pattern co-operative systemoperating in Gujarat, the individual milkproducer supplies the milk within 1-3 hr. ofproduction to a village level society. This istransported twice a day in cans within 3-5hrs to the district level dairy plant underambient conditions. In Indian situationwhere dairy plant is far off, the milk fromvillage society goes to a chilling centre,cooled below 5°C and then transported tothe district level dairy plant. Here, it ispasteurized and supplied to the consumer.

In developed countries, it is acommon practice to cool the milkimmediately at the farm, and the same iscollected by the dairy plants every day oralternate day or twice a week. Thispractice requires cold storage of milk atcollection centres for 2-3 days before it isprocessed. In western countries, theproblems of milk borne disease have beensolved completely by enforcing strict laws.Animals are periodically tested forcontagious diseases and all measures aretaken to produce milk free frompathogens. Even though, these conditionsare not strictly followed in our country, thehabit of boiling the milk invariahly beforeconsumption by the consumer has

probably saved them from serious milk-borne infections.

Quality assurance of milk and milkproducts.

Quality refers to a combination ofcharacteristics that enhance theacceptability of a product. Quality is abroad term, which relates to the chemical,physical, technological, bacteriologicaland aesthetic characteristics of milk andmilk products. 'Quality Control' or 'QualityAssurance' concerns the activity orprocedure (method or programme) thatensures the maintenance and continuity ofthe specifications and standards of theproducts within the prescribed tolerancelimits during all stages of handling,processing, preparation, packaging,presentation, storage and distribution. Italso further ensures that all the originaland desirable characteristics are retainedduring these operations and remainunaltered until the product reaches theconsumer.

Protection against pathogens canbe achieved by pasteurization of milk.However, besides good quality of raw milk,the usefulness of these processes isdependent on the efficient prevention ofpost-pasteurization contamination of milk.

Quality control of milk and milkproducts is classified as (1) compositionalquality and (2) bacteriological quality.

Compositional quality,

Thacomp.o.s.ition of milk varies withbreed of the milch animal, species, stage

milk and milk products can be maintainedby examination of samples at frequentintervals. Corrective measures should betaken as and when necessary. In order to

of lactation, feed, season, diseaseconditions of udder and variation inmilking. The average composition of milk ispresented in Table 1.

Table 1 : Chemical composition of milk of different species of animals (%)

Species Water Fat Protein Lactose Ash

Cow 86.6 4.6 3.4 4.9 0.7Buffalo 84.2 6.6 3.9 5.2 0.8Goat 86.5 4.5 3.5 4.7 0.8

Bacteriological quality.

Milk is a nutritious food for humanbeings. It also serves as an ideal mediumfor the growth of microorganismsparticularly bacteria. The growth of themicrobes in milk is dependent upon bothintrinsic as well as extrinsic factors.Besides the prevalence of unfavourableccnditions ascribed to changes in pH,redox potential and oxygen pressure maynot be congenial for the growth andproliferation of some bacteria.

The basic object of microbiologicalquality control is to provide fluid milk fromdisease-free udders (physiologicallyhealthy animals) to milk processing plantsto manufacture wholesome milk and milkproducts. Microbiological quality assumessignificance because the method of masscollection and distribution of milk providesample opportunities for the contaminationand transmission of pathogens over awide area even. if there is a single act ofcarelessness at any stage.

Quality control standards of fluidachieve these objectives, a systematic

programme of microbiological qualitycontrol is required to be implemented bothat farm level as well as in the dairy plants.

Food borne illnesses continue topose a threat to human health. Foods ofanimal origin are usually implicated as avehicle for such illnesses. Production ofmilk and its products involves a longsequence of operations from harvesting tofinal consumption during which it isexposed to various microorganisms.Contamination occurs at different levels: atfarm level, during collection and storage,and at processing centres. Theemployment of hygienic practices at thetime of milking is therefore one of the firstand most important steps in clean milkproduction. The assessment of microbialload at various stages of manufacture orprocessing may serve as a useful tool forquality assessment and improvementwhich will result in longer shelf life which isa desirable market requirement. In a studyconducted at ICAR Research Complex forGoa milk samples were collected atdifferent levels of milk collection and

processing, namely farmers' field, dairyco-operative collection centre, receivingdock and market. The milk samples wereanalysed for physico-chemicalparameters like MBRT. The samples weretested for microbiological parameters likeStandard plate count (SPC), coliforms,Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes.The MBRT time decreased as the timeelapsed from milking to processing. TheSPC varied from <103 to 5.94x106 atfarmers' field, <103 to 5.94x1 06 at milkingutensils, 34.0x103to 5.00x107 at collectioncentre and 5.89 x 105 to 40.0x107 atreceiving dock. The highest counts wererecorded during March to May. Thecleaning of udder before milking, milkingutensils, milk cans and time taken fortransportation of milk from DCS to dairyhave been identified as the critical controlpoints in hygienic production of milk.

HYGIENIC MILK PRODUCTION AT THEFARM

Good hygiene is essential whether theanimals are milked by hand or machine.This requires that:

a. The milkers' hands and clothes areclean and he or she is in good health.

b. The milking machine and milkstorage equipment such as milkchurns are kept clean and are ingood condition.

c. Immediately after milking, the milkmust be cooled preferably to 4°C.This requires mechanicalrefrigeration or milk cooling tanks.

The following predisposing factors caninfluence the microbiological quality of

milk at different stages of production andhandling.

Milch animals.

a. Health of animal. The animals shouldnecessarily be free from systemicdiseases whose causative agents such asMycobacterium tuberculosis, Coxiellaburnetti, Brucella abortus, which can betransmitted to man through milk. Theanimals should also be free from bacterialdiseases such as salmonellosis, anthrax,shigellosis, enteropathogenic Escherichiacoli, Streptococcus, and other bacterialinfections and viral infections such asvaccinia, pseudo cowpox, Iouping ill (nckborne encephalitis), foot and mouthdisease, etc.

Mastitis control

World experience indicates that if farmersare to control mastitis successfully theyrequire some technical and laboratoryassistance. This can be provided bygovernment agencies, cooperatives or themilk collecting dairies. The support should:

• provide an extension service(veterinary, animal husbandry andmilking machine technology) to ensurethat farmers receive the correctinformation on the best routines tofollow for their environment

• report regularly to farmers (eg.monthly) giving the results ofappropriate tests made on herd bulkmilk to indicate the progess made inreducing mastitis

• ensure that good milking equipment,disinfectants and antibiotics are

available

• investigate the causes of failure inherds adopting the recommendationsbut not making progress

Although laboratory support is essential itis important to recognize that mastitis iswidespread and for successful control in anational herd or the herds in a cooperativeit is necessary that most, preferably all, theherds carry out the routine. A control thatconcentrates on improving the worst 10 to20% of herds will have little effect on thetotal problem of mastitis. Effective mastitiscontrol depends on farmers regularlyfollowing the simple managementpractices. Tests will not often provideinformation that leads to special action forfarmers to take that is additional to whatthey should be doing.

The tests for mastitis are eithermicrobiological, to detect the causativepathogen, or tests for the changes in thecomposition of milk which occurs with theinflammation. Tests for pathogens are notrequired routinely but are necessary toinvestigate special herd problems. Thetests for changes in milk composition aresimpler and some may be carried out onthe farm (eg. California Mastitis Test).

b. Contamination at farm level. Thecontaminating materials are dung, mud,bedding materials, and straws. To preventthe entry of these contaminants into milk,routine grooming, brushing and washingshould be carried out and washing of teatwith towel soaked in bleaching powder(10mg/litre) or potassium permanganate

(1%) should be adopted. The foremilk maycontain the microorganisms and it shouldbe collected in a small pail and removedfrom the cowshed.

Environment.

a. Cow-shed. The stables and barnsshould be clean, well ventilated andwell lighted.

b. Good housing and manure disposalsystem should be assured.

c. Feed and water. Milk is often madeunsalable due to feed or weed flavour.So the feeds which are giving offflavour should be avoided.

Water supply is one of the mostimportant sources of microbialcontamination; the quality of water used atfarm for different purposes should be ofsatisfactory quality. Hence, clean potablewater supply should always be available.

Milker's hygiene.

a. Absolute cleanliness of personnel isrequired specifically - Milking shouldbe carried out under good personalhygiene of the milker. He should not besuffering from diseases, especiallycough and cold, should wear cleanclothes, wash hands properly and cutnails periodically before milking. Milkershould be free from contagiousdiseases like cholera, typhoid,diphtheria and tuberculosis andshould be monitored for thesediseases rigorously on regular basis.

b. Milker should avoid the wrong milkingpractice like knuckling and incomplete

Stainless steel or aluminium cans should be used for milk transportation. Cans should becleaned properly and dried.

milking, which leads to multiplication oforganisms in the left over milk.

Dairy Sanitation at th~ Farm

It is in the interest of every farmerand milk processor that the followingpoints are observed at the dairy farm.

Proper sanitation of milk cans.

Immediately after cans are emptied ofmilk they should be cleaned as follows:

• Cold water rinse.

• Scrubbing with brush and warmdetergent (any unperfumed liquidsoap will do).

• Cold water rinse.

• Sterilization (sanitisation) withboiling water or steam if available oruse dairy sanitising solution such ashypochlorite or commercial brandpreparations in accordance withmanufacturer's instructions.

• Dry cans on a drying rack. Exposureto sunlight will enhance killing offbacteria during drip drying of cans.

Milking machines

Milking machines should be cleanedaccording to recommended practice:

• Cold water rinse.

• CIP detergent circulation cleaningwith dairy detergent in hot water.

• Hotwaterrinse.

Timely replacement of worn outrubber parts should be undertakenregularly.

The cows

Follow proper milking hygiene;mastitic cows should be milked last andtheir milk discarded. Milk from cowstreated with antibiotics should not bemixed with milk from healthy cows.

Milktransportvessels (cans and tanks)

All milk transport vessels should becleaned in the same way as outlined formilk cans above. There should beprovision for water at milk cooling centresto enable all milk suppliers' vessels or cansto be rinsed with cold water.

For small-scale dairy farmers, setting up ofmilk cooling centre centrally may be theideal solution. Where farmers bring theirmilk to a cooling centre through a co-operative, they should do so as soon asmilking is completed. A milk cooling centrewith a capacity of 1000 - 3000 Iitres willserve up to 300 small holder farmersensuring that the quality of their milk whenproduced under hygienic conditions is wellpreserved and accepted at the processingplant.

It is important to remember that under a hotenvironment milk will be spoiled within 3-4hours. So any means of cooling that willlower the temperature of milk to 4°C atmilking will help to prevent multiplication ofbacteria. There are several optionsavailable.

a. Immersing milk cans in a watertrough connected to water tap orwater spring.

b. Using an in-can rotary cooler.

c. Using a surface milk cooler

Milk Reception at Collection-cum-Chilling Centre Premises

Rooms in the milk collection centremust be clean and risks of contaminationmay be reduced to the minimum byproviding satisfactory safeguards.Adequate provision must be made forcleaning and sterilisation of containersand utensils.

The flours of the rooms of thecollection centre may be constructed ofconcrete or other impervious material sothat it should be easily cleaned. It shall besuitably inclined to hasten rapid drainageof wash water. The walls and ceilings ofthe rooms should have a smooth non-absorbent surface so that they can beefficiently cleaned. The building should bewell lighted and adequately ventilated.The surroundings of the collection centreshould be maintained clean and free fromany water logging. Proper method shouldbe employed for pest control.

Milk Transport to Processing Factory

Bulk milk transport.

Milk cooled on the farm or coolingcentre may be transported in milk cans orin bulk tankers. Milking pails and utensilsshould be cleaned and sterilized regularlyto avoid contamination. Bulk tankers areinsulated, so the milk will remain cold untilit reaches the processing factory. Milkshould be cooled to less than 10De asquickly as possible after milking.

In-can milk transportation.

Alternatively, such milk may be filled incans and transported in milk cans. Thishas, the advantage that a farmer's can ofpoor quality milk will not be mixed withother farmers' good quality milk and spoilthe lot!. Since the cans are not insulated,the transport to the factory must beefficient enough to enable milk reach thefactory in acceptable condition.

In the case of farmers delivering milkvia pick~up (collection) points it isadvisable that the milk cans are placed in ashaded area while awaiting pick-up by amilk transport vehicle. Bad milk will berejected at the dairy plant. Hygienic milkhandling is essential at each stage; at thefarm, cooling centre and during transport.

Dairy plant hygiene.

The prerequisite for production of ahigh quality product is the cleaning andsanitization of the milk and milk productcontact surfaces, which contributes 60%of total contamination. The followingfactors influence the dairy plant hygiene:

1. Building. Maintenance of hygiene inthe plant depends upon the design ofthe building. Floor should beimpervious and sloped for efficientdrainage of water. In walls tiles upto 2m height help in efficient cleaning.Doors and windows should be of self-closing type. A distance of 3 mbetween walls and the equipment anda minimum of 42 cm to 52 cm betweenthe bottom of equipment and floor isnecessary for proper cleaning. Proper

ventilation is essential to removeodour, heat, moisture and to minimizecondensation on cooled surface.

2. Equipment - Materials and Design.Stainless steel and aluminium alloysare widely used for equipment andutensils in dairy industry. Theequipment surface should be freefrom dents, pits, rough spots, crevicesand also it should be non-toxic, non-corrosive and non-taintable.

3. Personnel. Persons working in dairyplant should be educated on hygienichandling of milk and milk products.They should wear washable cleanwhite clothes and caps.

4. Water supply. Uninterrupted,uncontaminated, nonchlorinated,potable, soft water with hardness notexceeding 112 mg/litre is essential.

5. Air Quality. Contamination of air in theplant can be controlled by sprayingsanitizers at a level of 0.048 mg/litrewhich inactivates lacticbacteriophage. Irradiations are usedto sanitize the air in culture transferroom and packaging materials.Common sanitizers used in dairyindustry are hot water, steam, chlorine(200 mg/litre), iodophor (25 mg/litre)and quaternary ammoniumcompounds (200mg/litre).

Hygienic control of dairy equipments.

Cleaning.

Cleaning of dairy equipment refers toremoval of soil which includes milk

residues, water deposits, detergent andsanitizer residues, dust, sediments or anyother foreign matter. Improper cleaningand sanitization of dairy equipments willlead to food poisoning due tocontamination by micro-organisms likecoliforms, Bacillus etc. Cleaning andsanitization are complementary to eachother, which includes the following steps:

1. Pre-draining. Draining should be carriedout thoroughly to minimize product loss,reduce the load on the sewage and helpsin cleaning.

2. Pre-rinsing with water. Pre-rinsing helpsfor flushing of milk residues, preventsdrying and sticking of milk to the surface.Lukewarm water should be used forpre-rinsing and temperature should notexceed 60°C in order to avoid coagulationof proteins.

3. Cleaning with detergent. Blendeddetergents at an optimum temperatureand mechanical scrubbing helps inremoval of soil from the surface. Commonalkaline detergents used in dairy aresodium carbonate, caustic soda, sodiumsesquicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate ,sodium sulphate at a concentration of 0.2 -2.0% while sodium silicate used as aprotective agent for aluminium. Aciddetergents widely used include nitric acidat 0.5% and phosphoric acid at 2.0%. Aciddetergents helps to remove the milkstones and water scale.

4. Hot water rinsing (post - rinsing). Post -rinsing with lukewarm water removes alltraces of detergent, displaced dirt and

prevent deposition of lime scale.

5.Sanitizing. It involves effectivebactericidal treatment with chemical/thermal agents to reduce the bacterialcount including pathogens to a safe levelon the utensils and equipments. Sanitizingsolution used are hypochlorites, organicsolution of chlorine with 100-200 mg/L ofavailable chlorine, mixed halogens - 25mg/L of available Iodine.

6. Post - draining and drying. This is toprevent contamination of milk with theresidual sanitizer.

Cleaning in Place (CIP).

Manual cleaning is usually practisedfor easily accessible utensils andequipment. CIP is practised in biggerdairies where it is difficult to dismantle andreassemble. The CIP system is timesaving, labour saving, cost effective andminimizes the damage to the equipment.In this method detergent and sanitizersare circulated for specific period of time ata specific speed and in a specificsequence.

The efficiency of cleaning can beevaluated by visual inspection (by light,feel and odour) or staining procedure.Microbiological efficiency of sanitizationcan be assessed by swab test, rinsemethod, membrane filter technique anddirect epifluorescent filter technique.

Hazard analysis and critical controlpoints (HACCP).

The dairy industry throughout theworld has recognized the importance of

HACCP system in controlling hazards indairy products thereby not only increasingthe safety of consumers, but also winningtheir confidence. HACCP system which isscientific and systematic identifies aspecific hazard throughout the food chain,i.e. from primary production of milk till itreaches the consumer.

The most important reason foradopting HACCP approach is that no otherquality assurance system has gainedacceptance at world level, especially inclaiming ISO 9000 certification.

ISO has brought out a series ofInternational standards for qualitymanagement and quality assurancesystems. These standards are not productstandards, but are managementstandards, providing a basic framework onwhich an organization builds up its qualitymanagement system leading towardsachievement of total quality. ISO 9000 isgradually becoming a recognised methodof quality certification and establishment ofHACCP system in an unit is veryessential.

Pasteurization and milk preservation.

At room temperature milk can bestored only for 3 hours immediately aftermilking. The shelf life of milk can beextended to 24 hours by cooling to 5°C. It'sshelf life is further extended to 4 to 7 daysby pasteurization. By UHT treatments theshelf life is extended to few months.Pasteurization needs equipments andelectricity. Whereas by use oflactoperoxidase system milk can be

preserved for 6-12 hours without the needof equipments and electricity.

Pasteurization.

Pasteurization, refers to the process ofheating every particle of milk to atleast63°C (145°F) for 30 min. or 72°C (161°F) for15 sec. or to any other appropriate time-temperature combination. Afterpasteurization, the milk is immediatelycooled to 5°C (41°F) or below.

The main purpose of pasteurization isto destroy the undesirable and pathogenicmicroorganisms present in milk and toenhance the keeping quality of milk.

The various types of pasteurizationmethods used to heat treat the milk are:

1. Batch pasteurization / low temperaturelong time pasteurization (LTLT)

2. High temperature short timepasteurization (HTST)

3. Ultra high temperature treatment(UHT)

Post pasteurization contamination.

The post pasteurization contaminationrefers to the re-entry of microorganismsinto the pasteurized product as a result ofthe contact of the finished product with thecontaminated equipment or workers.Pathogenic microbes can be introduced into the dairy environment through raw milk,air and moisture. The presence of any ofvegetative patho§ens implies postpasteurization contamination but sporeformers are likely to enter through rawmilk.

Packaging.

i) Packaging materials should be:

Stored in a dry place away frommanufacturing areas;

Used in a clean and sanitary manner;

Non-toxic.

ii) Packaging should be carried out in such away that:

Avoids contamination of processedproducts.

Protects the product againstcontamination until the product reachesthe consumer.

Hygienic Storage offinished products.

Products should be stored in clean conditionsat appropriate temperature and humidity toprevent deterioration or permit maturation(e.g. cheese).

Hygienic Transport

Products should be transported in cleanvehicles under appropriate condition and bekept away from other goods.

Personnel Hygiene and Health.

• It is recommended that persons engagedin handling foods should be subjected tohealth checks.

• Factory premises should be provided withclean running water and goodwashrooms.

• Workers should wear clean protectiveclothing and working gear (e.g. gumboots,coats, overalls'and·caps).

Laboratory Quality Control

Milk and other raw materials should be

subjected as required to regular testing inorder to ensure wholesomeness andfreedom from pathogens.

Residues of drugs, pesticides andother foreign substances in milk.

The economic need for rationalizationin the agricultural field has led to theincreased use of pesticides and activecompounds for plants and animals.Contamination of milk with undesirableresidues may occur through the animalitself, the environment and also duringfurther processing. Sources of residues ofdifferent types are consideredtoxicological problem when present inmilk. These include antibiotics, pesticides,radionuclides, mycotoxins, plant toxinsand other chemical agents.

Antibiotics. Antibiotic residues in milk areof concern because they may curtailproper lactic acid fermentation in cultured

.products, resulting in spoilage and theingestion of antibiotic-contaminated milkmay cause a reaction in humans alreadysensitized to the contaminant.

Pesticides. Contamination of milk with

pesticides may arise from the practice ofdipping cattle in pesticides to prevent tick-borne diseases, insect control in stables,feeding stuffs and contamination from theenvironment.

Milk and milk products can becontaminated with residues oforganophosphates and carbamates fromvarious sources like animal feed treatedwith insecticides, animal feedmanufactured from plant material whichhas been treated with pesticides during thegrowing season, use of insecticides inanimal dwellings, direct contact of animalswith treated areas. These compounds arereadily metabolised in the alimentary tractand in the organs associated withdigestive processes.

Mycotoxins. Mycotoxins have beenisolated from a wide variety of agriculturalproducts, including milk or milk products,and may be responsible for human andanimal disease.

Mycotoxins are formed by potentiallytoxigenic fungi under specific conditions.Aflatoxins (produced by Aspergillus flavus)

Source Residue

1. Farm animal Veterinary drugs e.g. antibiotics, hormones, antiparaciticides, etc.Feed additives e.g. Trace elements, antioxidants, feed drugs

2. Environment Agrochemicals e.g. pesticides, growth promoters Emissions e.gaerosols, fumes, dusts

Minerals of the soil e.g. lead, cadmium.Environmental organics e.g. mycotoxins Radionuclides

3. Milking and processingHygiene formulations e.g. cleaning and disinfecting agents,insecticides

..- .- - -. . §urfac_es e.g. ~~_!a.ls,plasticisers'-,

" .

are the best known mycotoxins. AflatoxinB1 is considered the prototype of hepaticpoison responsible for tumour growth.

Bacterial enzymes. The enzymes that aresecreted by the mammary gland includelipases, proteinases, phosphatases,xanthine oxidase, peroxidase andcatalase. Milk may contain varyingconcentrations of enzymes other thanthose secreted by the mammary gland,principally the bacterial exoenzymes andendoenzymes.

LEGISLATIONS.

Food legislations are pre-requisite forhealth protection and fair trade, alongwithother purposes like promotion of sales,guarantee for purity, development ofquality assurance system and for theultimate development of an industry by themanagement. With the scientificadvancements the markets are floodedwith a variety of food products and theconsumers battle for the product worththey pay and the health safety. Multiplelaws/regulations prescribe variedstandards regarding food additives,contaminants, food colours, preservativesand labelling. The food laws in India areenforced by the Director General of HealthServices, Ministry of Health and FamilyWelfare, Government of India. The statusof food and dairy legislations in India isbriefly discussed here.

There are various food laws applicable tofood and related products in India :-

- Prevention of Food Adulteration Act(PFA), 1954 and Rules (Ministry of Health

& FamilyWelfare).

- The Standards of Weights and~~a.~~~~~Act, 1976, and Standards of Weights andMeasures (Packaged Commodities)Rules, 1977.

- Agriculture Produce (Grading & Marking)Act (Ministry of Rural Development).

- Essential Commodities Act, 1955(Ministry of Food & Consumer Affairs).

- Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992.

- The Infant Milk Substitutes, FeedingBottles and Infant Foods (Regulation ofProduction, Supply and Distribution) Act,1992 and Rules 1993.

- Export (Quality Control and Inspection)Act, 1963.

- Environment Protection Act, 1986.

- Pollution Control (Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests).

-Industrial Licenses.

-BISAct, 1986.

Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA)Act (1954) and Rules (1955).

The Prevention of Food AdulterationAct (PFA), 1954 focuses primarily on thestablishment of regulatory standards forprimary food products, which constitutethe bulk of the Indian diet. The CentralCommittee for Food Standards, chairedby the Director General of HealthServices, is the decision making entity.The appeals process, however, iscumbersome and time consuming. Allimported products must adhere to therules as specified in the regulation,

including the labeling and markingrequirements.

The PFA Rules (1955) are formulatedto carry out smooth operation andimplementation of the Act. Main provisionsof the PFA Act and Rules:-

* It is operative in whole of India.

* PFA, 1945 and Fruit Products Order(FPO), 1955 are supplementary andcumulative. The Essential CommoditiesAct may supersede the PFA Act.

* Definitions of adulteration in terms ofpurity, nutrition, wholesomeness, safetyagainst contaminants, toxicants, bacterialtoxins, preservatives, colourants,insecticides and pest infection,misbranded or mislabeled and any thingelse which may be injurious to health.

* Government of India under this Act hasconstituted Central Committee for FoodStandards (CCFS) to advise the UnionGovernment and the State Governmentson matters related to administration of thisAct and to perform other functionsassigned to it. The members of thecommittee are Director General (Health),Director (Central Food Lab.) andrepresentatives from Central, State andUnion Territories; Agriculture, Commerceand Industry interests, Consumerinterests, Indian Council of MedicalResearch and Bureau of IndianStandards.

* One or more central food laboratories areestablished to carry out the functionsentrusted under this act. Additionalfunctions such as analysis of samples of

food, investigation for the purpose offixation of standard for any food article,collaboration studies with variouslaboratories for standardizing methods ofanalysis are also carried out. Four centralfood laboratories are located at Mysore,Pune, Ghaziabad and Calcutta for thespecified areas.

The Standards of Weights andMeasures Act, 1976, and Standards ofWeights and Measures

The Standards of Weights andMeasures Act, 1976 and Standards ofWeights and Measures (PackagedCommodities) Rules, 1977 are legislativemeasures are designed to establish fairtrade practices with respect to packagedcommodities. The rules prescribe that thebasic rights of consumers regarding vitalinformation about the nature of thecommodity, the name and address of themanufacturer, the net quantity, date ofmanufacture, and sale price are providedon the label. There are additionalmandatory labeling requirements for fooditems covered under the PFA. TheDepartment of Consumer Affairs in theMinistry of Consumer Affairs, Food, andPublic Distribution is the regulatoryauthority and enforcement agency.

Milk and Milk Product order (MMPO).

Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992order regulates the production,distribution, and supply of milk products;establishes sanitary requirements fordairies, machinery, premises; and setsquality control standards for milk and milkproducts. Standards specified in the order

are also equally applicable to importedmilk products.

Various provisions of the order arecompulsory registration, definition of milksheets, restriction on uneven procurementand marketing of milk, strict rates forproduction, hygienic conditions, packing,labeling and marketing, penalty etc. helpin protection and growth of the organizeddairy industry.

Pollution Control Boards. PollutionControl Boards are under the purview ofMinistry of Environment and Forests,Government of India. It is necessary toobtain no objection certificate from therespective state Pollution Control Boardfor every dairy plant discharging wasteinto specified streams.

Consumer Protection Act (1986). Itprovides protection against unfair tradepractices of manufacturers and tradersthrough the rights of consumers. This Actapplies to all the goods and services andprovides six rights of consumers, viz., rightto safety, right to be informed, right tochoose, right to be heard, right to seekredressal and right to consumereducation.

Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS 1986)

The BIS (formerly known as IndianStandards Institution) was establishedunder provision of Indian Standards Act,1987 and took over the functions, assetsand liabilities erstwhile ISI functioningfrom 1947. It is the statuary body underministry of Civil Supplies, ConsumersAffairs and Public Distribution.

The BIS has revised and formulatednew standards for some dairy-products,

viz., code of pasteurization (IS: 6397-1992), Pasteurized milk (IS: 13688-1992),Pasteurized butter (IS: 13690-1992),butter oil/butter fat (IS: 13689-1992),Skimmed milk powder - standard (IS: 134-1992). More emphasis is also laid onmicrobial requirements in recent revisionand formulation. Recently, the bureauhas launched a quality managementsystem certification scheme to developthe industry and to protect theenvironment ECOMARK scheme forenvironment friendly products.

Agricultural Produce (Grading andMarking) Act (1937). "AGMARK" is anabbreviated form of "Agricultural Marking"which provides quality standards forGrading, Packing and marking ofagricultural and animal husbandryproducts through the Agricultural ProduceAct 1937 (as amended in 1986). TheDirectorate of Marketing and Inspectionunder the Department of RuralDevelorment in the Ministry of Agricultureis vested with power to enforce andimplement the act. At present three dairyproducts viz. Ghee, butter and fat spreadare graded under this scheme.

Educative propaganda and incentivepayment plan.

There is a need to train and educatefarmer for ensuring the adoption of goodanimal husbandry practices, which shallresult in limiting bacterial contamination.To maintain the highest standards ofbacteriological quality of milk, the presentsystem of payment, which is based on fatand SNF needs to be changed toincorporate the payment based onbacteriological quality.

Bacteriological standards as prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)Bacteriological standards of row milk (18-1479 PART 111-1997)

Direct Standard Methylene One hour Presumptive

Grades Microscopic Plate Count blue reduction resuzurin coliform testcount per per ml. in

time in hours disc. No. (in 0.01 ml)ml. in lakhs lakhs Le. 1 in 100

Very good NS <2 >5 NS absent

Good <5 2-10 3-4 4 or higher absent

Fair 5-40 10-50 1-2 3.5 to 1.0 absent

Poor 40-200 > 50 < 1/2 0.5 to 0 present

Very poor > 200 NS NS NS NS

NS : Not specified

Bacteriological standards of pasteurised milk (15-6397-1971)

S.No. Test Requirement

1. Standard plate count Maximum 30000 cfu/ml2. Coliform count absent in 1:10 dilution3. MBRT more than 4 hours4. Alkaline phosphatase test negative

Type of Cream Type of CountLevel in

GradeCfu/ml or 9

Raw Cream Standard Plate count < 4 lakhs Very good4-20lakhs Good20-1001akhs Fair

Coliform Count 100lakhs Poor< 100 lakhs Satisfactory

Pasteurised Standard plate count < 60000 SatisfactoryColiform count < 10 Satisfactory