Ibri

Harat as-SulayfMinistry of Heritage & Culture, Sultanate of Oman

Professor Soumyen BandyopadhyayDr Giamila QuattroneDr Martin GoffrillerDr Habib RezaJohn HarrisonDr Haitham Al-Habri

Contributors to fieldwork documentation and masterplanning

4

5

6

7

Contents

Introduction 6

Harat as-Sulayf 14

Heritage Management and Development Master Plan 37

8

Text Text Text Text Text Text Text

9

Introduction

Located at about 210 km west of Muscat, the settlement of Sulayf, at varying times called Harat as-Sulayf or Qal’at as-Sulayf, was a heavily fortified community located at the eastern access route to the oasis of ‘Ibri. This oasis, one of the largest in the Dhahira Governorate forms the main point of intersection on the route east from the Rub al-Khali desert to the west and the oasis of Buraymi to the northwest. As such the oasis of ‘Ibri has always enjoyed an important amount of commercial transit, which has had an important impact on the oasis’ relevance. Equal-ly as-Sulayf has benefitted from this trade, evidence for which is visible in the large market (suq) that lies at the foot of the settlement mound.

Geologically the ‘Ibri region is of interest due to its unusual location within a large sickle-shaped lime and sandstone formation, which envelopes the entire oasis on its north-ern and eastern sides. Water, prevented from passing the impermeable barrier formed by the limestone ridge, en-tered the interior of the formation via two narrow gaps on the northern (Wadi Araqi) and eastern side (Wadi Sulayf) thereof. It is at these two locations, on the banks of the two wadis, that the two main settlements of the ‘Ibri oasis are located: Harat ar-Ramel on the northern pass, and Harat as-Sulayf on the eastern one. There the village is located on the cliff-edge, providing a commanding po-sition and controlling the entrance into the fertile lands within the ‘Ibri oasis.

1

10

Harat as-Sulayf, a strategically important and visually prominent settlement area (harah) in the oasis of ‘Ibri, is the principal focus of the study undertaken by the Min-istry of Heritage and Culture (MHC), in collaboration with the UK-based research centre, Architecture and Cultur-al Heritage of India, Arabia and the Maghreb (ArCHIAM; www.archiam-centre.com), attached to the Manchester School of Architecture. An outline of Sulay’s history, and its architectural and urban characteristics is followed by an overview of the heritage management and develop-ment proposition, with explicit focus on how heritage could remain meaningful for future generations. MHC has already initiated extensive conservation and rebuild-ing work at as-Sulayf, taking some useful steps in that direction.

11

12

13

14

15

16

Text Text Text Text Text Text Text

17

There is only scant historical information available on as-Sulayf. Interviews with local informants compound the popular view in the area of a 600-year old settlement. While this is impossible to establish this with any degree of certainty, it is however clear that a fort was construct-ed at the foot of the Shambouh Mountain overlooking as-Sulayf valley during the reign of the Ya’aribah Imam, Sultan bin Sayf II (1123-1131 AH/1711-1718/9 CE). Due to the importance of this point as access to ‘Ibri oasis, it is plau-sible that a watch tower or a defensive outpost of some description preceded the fort, perched on the hill over-looking the wadi – both once known by the same name (Shambouh). Local lore states that the name as-Sulayf appeared later.

Harat as-Sulayf was supplied with water from a single source which lay some 5 km east of the settlement and was brought into the enclosure via a complex water har-nessing and channelling system, Falaj Shambouh. The channel was built along the narrow strip of ground be-tween the southern banks of the Wadi Sulayf and the foot of the cliff upon which the settlement sits. This provided a degree of control over the falaj, which could therefore be defended from above. Popular belief also refers to the irrigation system, Falaj Shambouh, as being considerably older than the settlement. It is considered a daudi falaj, i.e., it draws water from underground aquifers; according to Omani folklore 10,000 of these were excavated by the prophet, Sulayman bin Daud (King Solomon, the son of

Harat as-Sulayf

2

18

prophet David in Western sources). Once again, while this great antiquity of the falaj cannot be readily ascertained, an ancient water supply system could nevertheless be presumed, possibly combining readily available surface flow within the wadi at its earliest phase, which will have been boosted by the significant aflaj building initiative at the height of the Ya’aribah period (1650-1725), to which the fortification of relevant water sources clearly belongs.

Harat as-Sulayf itself lies on the southern edge of the eastern access to the oasis atop a prominent and steep cliff which provides it with a commanding view of the east-ern approaches. Indeed, the site appears to have begun life functioning primarily as a fortification controlling ac-cess to ‘Ibri from the east. While a substantial section of the settlement is defended by the sheer cliff on its northern edge, a number of towers and fortified enclosures com-plete a strong defensive setup for as-Sulayf.

Harat as-Sulayf forms a cohesive and self-contained unit located within a relatively well preserved enclosure of a roughly triangular shape with towers at the corners and along longer stretches of the defensive walls. The mor-phology and evolution of the site were clearly determined by the steep terrain and its necessary location close to the water source of Wadi Sulayf. In this sense it is to be ex-pected that the original settlement was a small, fortified core atop the ridge, with access to the falaj via an earlier version of the well-tower. Gradual expansion of housing units occurred in a southward direction as well as moving up the slope, which was never fully built up. This incom-

19Harat as-Sulayf

20

21

plete nature of the settlement quarter could reflect the outmigration of certain tribal groups in the early Ya’aribah period (mid-seventeenth century CE) towards Dakhiliyah settlements, such as Izki and Manah (Harat al-Bilad).

An even later phase of expansion occurred in a down-hill direction by the construction of a further enclosure, forming a bailey type space at the foot of the hill, known as Harat al-Wadi. Evidently initiated with a view to having better control on the falaj, this space included two sepa-rate enclosures. These contained gender-specific spaces which provided access to water basins fed by the falaj for ritual ablutions and general usage. Originally the walls sur-rounding the female bathing area joined with the perime-ter walls of Harat al-Wadi tying the suq into the fortified en-velope of the settlement. Both bathing areas had separate accesses from the main enclosure uphill, with the males using the long steps from the gate tower, while the wom-en proceeded through an arched doorway approaching the same tower from the south, close-by to the suq.

The settlement was originally accessible from a single gate located adjacent to the suq, although this access was recently blocked in the course of restoration. It is also necessary to restore the largely demolished bathing and water access facilities along the falaj – integral to the tra-ditional way of life within the harah. The settlement itself was originally also accessible from a single point located at the base of the gate tower, although according to local informants a small door was built into the enclosure walls.

The shape and appearance of as-Sulayf are largely the products of the complex terrain which the builders had to negotiate, as well as the water runoff system that had to be taken into account in order not to expose large sections of wall to the powerful downhill streams that could occur during rainstorms. The settlement is therefore divided into distinct clusters which grew along radially disposed pas-sageways running uphill. These passageways allowed for the efficient evacuation of storm water which was chan-nelled through the enclosure wall through a number of storm water drains at its base. Any restoration effort would need to address this critical issue, as in recent years the

22

drainage system has suffered considerably through silt-ing and from blockages due to falling debris, resulting in extensive damage to the surrounding built environment.

Defence

The fort (hisn) was in effect a fortified settlement, which expanded through successive extensions southwards with towers (burj) marking the corners. These towers were given distinctive names; extending well beyond the harah, Burj ar-Rih or the tower of winds was constructed to mark the easternmost corner uphill and was possibly one of the last to appear. The other towers are, Burj as-Sa’d, Burj at-Tawi, Burj al-Murab’, Burj as-Saruj, and Burj al-Abyad. The great tower by the gate (here referred to as the ‘gate tower’) was traditionally associated with the mosque and appears not to have had a specific name.

The defensive arrangement of Harat as-Sulayf is that of a highly complex system functioning in several tiers depending on proximity to the settlement core. The first line of defence, the visual line, was covered by a system of towers located along the northern edge of the lime-stone ridge. A further tower was located at the site’s high-est point, providing a visual radius of some 15 km into the surrounding countryside and primarily guarding the eastern approaches. Further down the northern edge of the settlement one finds two more towers which covered a variety of functions. Burj al-Murab’ is a comparatively large shaft tower with an elevated access to discourage unwanted entry. Its location further downhill and on the narrowest point along the wadi (about 300 m wide at this point) gave it a strong offensive capability as an elevated gun platform. The Burj at-Tawi, on the other hand, was built on top of the falaj channel which curves around the plateau along the edge of the wadi. This tower contained a well shaft connected to the falaj below, providing the inhabitants with a secure water supply and additional gun platform.

The main defensive perimeter of as-Sulayf was located on the western side of the settlement, guarding the bai-ley (Harat al-Wadi, the area contiguous with the wadi),

the market (suq) and main access routes to the interior. On the northern corner a dwelling was integrated into this defensive disposition by containing a large D-shaped tower (Burj as-Saruj) which protruded from the wall cov-ering the northern part of the bailey. One interesting fea-ture of this tower is the narrow and barely visible postern gate which may have provided an escape route from the harah in times of danger. On the western-most point of the bailey stood a large circular tower of which now only the ground level survives. Further south along the wall the main gate was protected by a large square tower of three stories, which was attached to the mosque. The

23

Left: View into a dwelling's courtyard space

24

gate tower is one of the most prominent and widely visi-ble features of Harat as-Sulayf.

Further along the perimeter wall that stretched off to-wards the south is located a small rounded corner tower which clearly served as a flanking position from which to cover the walls which stretched off perpendicularly from this point. The southern wall, the longest of the entire set-tlement, moves uphill towards the hilltop tower in a more or less straight line, interrupted only by one square wall tower which covered the southern flank and reputedly served as a gallows at various points in its existence. Fi-nally, the last, and most exposed, defensive feature of Harat as-Sulayf was the enclosure that formed the large space termed here as the bailey, comprised primarily by the lower bailey. This roughly triangular space starts at the base of the D-shaped tower on the edge of the settlement, from which it covers the entire western sec-tion of the settlement. Its walls are substantially thinner and lower than those of the inner defences, but at the apex they meet at a round platform. Further south the wall encloses the suq, at the edge of which was located the original entrance gate.

Dwellings

In the style common for the region the dwellings of Harat as-Sulayf are built exclusively from mud brick, and in all cases they stand on shallow stone masonry foundations. Most dwellings are characterised by their comparatively large size and grand aspect. The majority appear to have had two stories or interior courtyards and were often richly decorated with wall reliefs and paintings, and also elaborately decorated roof supports with Quranic verses, dates, dedications and other inscriptions. Large arched lobbies were common, hinting at an affluent past of the settlement’s inhabitants. The fact that there were a num-ber of overhangs connecting adjacent dwellings across the width of a street of passage suggest either a gradual saturation of the urban space or the expansion of family groups in certain quarters of the settlement. The latter appears more likely in view of the large open spac-

25

26

27

es that were never built up as one climbs the hill. Indeed, the fact that there are few overlaps between buildings suggests that plot boundaries continued to be respect-ed as buildings acquired subsequent floors. This stands in some contrast with other Omani hill-side settlements such as Harat as-Saybani in Birkat al-Mawz or Harat Al Bu Rashid in Sinaw, where the lack of space forced struc-tures to gradually overlap resulting in complex spatial ar-rangements. The current state of preservation of Sulayf’s dwellings provides the visitor an experience of entering a world of grand ruins arrested in time, that reveal glimps-es of its inner workings. However, it is only a transitory one, as the state of preservation is worsening quickly and urgent with preservation worsening quickly due to col-lapsed coverings and top floors.

Suq

One of the most interesting features of Harat as-Sulayf is the still relatively well preserved suq. While the major-ity of stalls and businesses have been abandoned, the potential for revitalization of this space makes it a high priority location for immediate attention. Located at the southwestern corner of the site, the suq of Sulayf had a total of about 24 stalls and a number of storage facilities – all located around a central open space used for auc-tioneering of livestock and other goods. This space was originally shaded from the sun by a palm-frond cover-ing supported on a series of masonry columns, most of which are still in good condition. The suq could originally be accessed from 3 sides: from the outside of the settle-ment via a gate, now blocked, from the bailey, and from the inner enclosure of Sulayf from the gate tower.

Mosque

Among the most valuable and important buildings of Su-layf is the mosque located immediately adjacent to the gate tower, known variously as the Masjid Hisn or the Masjid Harat as-Sulayf. According to local knowledge, the mosque has barely changed since its original con-struction some 600 years ago. It was built in honour of

28

29

the scholars (ulama) and the people of wisdom of Sulayf, the last of whom was Bader ibn Salim ibn Sa’id ibn Musal-lam al-Mandhari. Currently under restoration, structurally the mosque is of a relatively simple arrangement con-sisting of three shallow naves in two bays supported by three large arches. Originally the interior was accessed from the passage below the gate tower, but could also be accessed via three doorways located in the adjacent courtyard. An interesting feature of the mosque is the prominently projected prayer niche (mihrab) with small openings to admit light in – but also for the surveillance of the surrounding landscape.

Sbal and public spaces

Throughout the settlement were a series of meeting halls (s. sablah, pl. sbal), usually associated with a specif-ic gate or entrance. The main gate which gave access to the suq from the outside, had a small sablah supported by two arches above it. Of this unfortunately nothing re-mains. Another sablah is said to have existed in the in-termediate floor of the gate tower. This space has been restored recently and its original appearance cannot be ascertained due to the lack of prior documentation. It ap-pears, however, to have been a small square room with a relatively low roof and a number of small niches with gunloops in the walls acting as diminutive firing cham-bers. A further meeting space (majlis) was located in the open immediately outside the mosque overlooking the suq. Men would gather in this space called the barza to receive greetings and during Eid festivities. Inside the settlement one finds a large meeting space immediately adjacent to the entrance gate at ground level within the tower. This assembly point (burrad) was used by the men primarily on Fridays before and after prayer. Some dwell-ings incorporated private a sablah or majlis in which to receive extended family members or guests.

 

30

31

32

33

3: Plan for the sustainable future of Harat as-Sulayf

The development plan for as-Sulayf proposes a holistic approach to development and conservation of the ha-rah, taking into account the broader context such as the agricultural land, surrounding smaller settlements and visual corridors created by large open areas with views towards the settlement. To optimise the use of resourc-es, the proposal for managing heritage and integrating development emphasises a phased approach to ad-dress and safeguard key development and conservation needs of Harat as-Sulayf. The phasing plan would take into account the established priority action areas and structures. Additionally, a key consideration is the physi-cal state of individual structures, their ownership and the diverse approaches to conservation and development those would demand.

The best way to ensure sustained reuse of the settlement quarter is through making the settlement meaningful to the present and the future generations. The key to this is approaching reuse from an integrated economic, social and cultural perspective that is of relevance to all stake-holders concerned. The proposed developments should generate significant economic activity and social capital, while ensuring appropriate and sensitive interpretation of cultural and historical values of the past. Emerging from the broad approaches, it is the intention to achieve min-imum destruction and limited intervention based on a careful consideration of the state of preservation of the structures within the settlement.

Heritage Management and

Development Master Plan

3

Initially, the priority phase of the work carried out at Su-layf must necessarily concentrate on the consolidation of the built fabric, provision of utilities (water, electricity, sanitation, waste management etc.), readying the site for visitor transit, and restoration of the fabric and the func-tionality of the suq to provide an economic and touristic focus. This would also allow for the gradual insertion of smaller businesses and shops within the suq in order to cater for both visitors as well as the inhabitants of the sur-rounding dwellings. In a second instance, development would expect to see expansion of the touristic activities throughout the bailey area, with a managed expansion of the suq, the restoration of the falaj system, the re-structuring of the parking area in order not to disrupt the visual appearance of the site as a whole, and the development of a public area used for functions, gatherings and festivities below the walls of the settlement enclosure. The aim here is to begin re-activating the village from the ground up, hav-ing provided the basic facilities, and to engage the local population to a greater extent to gain their support and participation in the evolution of as-Sulayf.

Finally, the third phase of development would be initi-ated once the previous phases are nearing completion and the exact proceedings will have to be determined in accordance with the situation on site and in communica-tion with the local stakeholders. It is, however, the aim to address the main body of the settlement on the hill at this

34

stage with a goal towards gradually re-populating the village. With the lower section of as-Sulayf rehabilitated and drawing visitors, the core of the settlement proper will need to be addressed for restoration/ consolidation. Work currently being undertaken to restore and rebuild will need to be integrated within a master plan. The issue of vehicle access, which is bound to remain limited at best, will make wholesale habitation of the site an unlikely prospect. It is therefore proposed to take a systematquar-ter-by-quarter approach and not to engage in full-scale restoration or reconstruction without having a clear role for the structures after completion. The proposed master plan therefore considers wide-ranging possibilities; sen-sitively designed eco-tourism provisions (e.g., short-stay accommodation, food-court, etc.) would be combined with educational (heritage gallery or repository, higher education centres, etc.) and experiential functions, cre-ating a wide variety of jobs for the local community. As already pointed out, utilities must be provided to all re-constructed dwellings from the outset.

The visionary future for Harat as-Sulayf as proposed by the master plan is to restore the vibrancy and dynamism of the community which once sat at the eastern end of the ‘Ibri oasis. By integrating tourism, work and educa-tional provisions with modern water management tech-nologies and alternative energies, it is possible to cre-ate a green future for the oasis in more sense than one. The integration of modern technologies would help the younger generations to learn about these while simulta-neously providing affordable living costs and responsible growth towards a sustainable future.

35

36

37

ArCHIAM. 2012. Heritage Management and DevelopmentPlan for Haārat as-Sulayf, Ibri (Oman). Ministry of Heritageand Culture, Oman. ISBN: 978-99969-0-305-2

Damluji, S.S. 1998. The Architecture of Oman.

Garnett-Cleuziou S., & Tosi M., 2008, In the Shadow of the Ancestors: The Prehistoric Foundations of the Early Arabian Civilization in Oman, by, Ministry of Heritage & Culture, Sultanate of Oman

Wilkinson J.,. Water and Tribal Settlement in South-East Arabia:A Study of the Aflaāj of Oman. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1977

Bibliography and further reading