CCHHAAPPTTEERR 22

CCAAUUSSEE AANNDD EEFFFFEECCTT OOFF AAIIRR PPOOLLLLUUTTIIOONN Clean air

Polluted air

Sources of air pollutants

Classification of air pollutants

History of air pollution

Major air pollution disaster and accidents

Environmental pollution in India

Most polluted places in India

The most polluted cities in India

Air quality in mega cities in world and India

Urban air quality monitoring in mega cities,

Quality of air in world mega cities and in India

Major pollution affecting the mega cities

Types of effects associated with air pollution

Health impacts of specific air pollutants

17

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 22

CCAAUUSSEE AANNDD EEFFFFEECCTT OOFF AAIIRR PPOOLLLLUUTTIIOONN

“The earth does not belong to man but man belongs to earth.

Whatever he does to earth he does to himself.”

The earth is the only object known in the entire universe capable

of supporting life. The supporting property of our planet is due to its

unique atmosphere. Today there is over-whelming evidence that

various pollutants are affecting the life of the planet and the future of

the planet is going to be affected through various activities of human

being. The deleterious effects of various pollutants on human, animal,

plant life and even on our climate have been well recognized. It has

become increasingly evident that air pollution is affecting the

vegetation to some extent as it is affecting human and animal life. In

the wake of the industrialization, urbanization and the increasing

population, the basic amenities of life are being polluted continuously.

The preservation of the delicately balanced ecological system is in the

interest of whole humanity. Public interest in ecology implies a

concern for air and water quality and for the increasing demand on

limited natural resources in the context of increasing population. This

chapter deals with the cause and effect of air pollution on human,

animal as well as the material damages. 1The air is the mixture of several gases comprising primarily of

nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide a certain insert gases. Nitrogen forms

a majority volume of air with the concentration of near 78% together

with oxygen 21%.average gases in the atmosphere is given in the table

number 3.1. Air composition though has changed over a period with

the age of earth. It can consider fairly stable and suitable to life in the

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present era. The oxygen was absent in the atmosphere during the early

history of the earth. However, presently it constitutes about 20.95

percent.

POLLUTED AIR

Operational activities take place, for the most part, on the earth’s

surface within the first 2km of the atmosphere. The pollutants

produced by these activities injected directly into the troposphere

where they mixed and transported. The index 2.1 clearly defines the

polluted and non-polluted air.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

There are mainly two sources

Natural Sources

Man-made Sources

Natural Sources

Many of the air pollutants in the form of gases, mists, and

particulates are naturally present in atmosphere as background

concentration arising from various natural sources. Natural

concentrations of air pollutants are often harmless and do not pose any

global problems. However, in large concentrations at localized areas

could leading to severe air pollution problems.

Back ground concentration of some important air pollutants

Swamp Gas: Decomposition of organic matter produces methane as

swamp gas, which amounts to nearly 1600 million tons annually.

Besides, in salt marshes, H2S are also produced from the anaerobic

reduction of sulphate.

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Dust Storms: It is estimated that 30 million tons of dust comes from

the natural sources each year due to wind circulation. In India, dust

storms are common in Rajasthan.

Forest Fires: Forest and Prairie fires produce huge quantities of smoke

and other pollutants and are a common phenomenon around the world.

Volcanoes: Volcanic eruption release lot of solid particles, gases like

SO2, ashes, and heat energy.

Sea Spray: Is a continuous phenomenon and is a major source of

particulate pollution. Sea sprays originate mainly from the droplets of

ocean water injected into the atmosphere, which on by evaporation of

water molecules leave behind the salts. These salt particles travel

across the coastal landmasses and create severe problems of corrosion.

Plant Products: Problems caused pollen grains are quite severe in

some parts as they frequently lead to the development of allergic

reactions. Besides, plant products like terpenes and resins, with low

vapour pressure are vaporized into the atmosphere. Nearly 170 million

tons per year of terpenes been estimated to produce by the plant

species. Further, certain molds, yeasts, hair, furs and other particulates

present in air may also be capable of causing air pollution.

MAN _ MADE SOURCES

Man made sources are classified into

• Industrial activity

• Automobile sources

• Domestic sources

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Industrial Sources:

Industry is considered as major culprit in polluting air. The

emission of pollutants in an industry is highly vulnerable depending

upon the nature of a specific piece of equipment, materials being

processed and operating procedures and condition.

Thermal Power Plants

In India, more than 60 percent of all the power generated comes

from the thermal power plants. Coal is the main source of energy and

concentration of air pollutants in the effluent gases depends largely on

the constitution of coal. Sulphur present in the coal comes out as

sulphur oxides and ash content of Indian coal is comparatively higher

(52.9 percent). Burning of coal is estimated to mobilize more than 50

elements into the atmosphere, of which several are harmful trace

elements. In general, the major air pollutants emitted from coal-fired

plants are particulates, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides,

hydrocarbons, mercury, chromium, zinc, cadmium, iron, and

carcinogens. (A 1000 MW coal fired power plant can emit carbon

monoxide at the rate of about 270 kg per second or 16 metric tons per

minute)

Food and Feed Industry

Odours and particulates are the main air pollutants emitted from

the food and related industries. Odours are caused mainly due to the

complex mixtures of aldehydes and related compounds with traces of

amines. Fish processing units produce obnoxious odours of hydrogen

sulphide and trim ethylamine. The source of Dusts is grinding, milling,

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storage and handling of grains. Cotton ginning also emits large

amounts of fibrous dust.

Pulp and Paper

Particulate emissions primarily occur from the recovery furnace,

dissolving tanks and limekilns. Typical Kraft mill odour is due to

hydrogen sulphide, diethyl sulphide and methyl mercaptan mixture

arising mostly from the recovery furnaces. Carbon monoxide emissions

may occur from the limekilns as well as recovery furnaces.

Chemical Industries

Chemical industry produces a wide variety of chemicals (organic

and inorganic) from a wide range of raw materials leading to the

production of diverse kinds of air pollutants. Principal emissions are

mostly consisted of raw materials, intermediates, and reaction

properties. For instance, SO2, SO3, and sulphuric acid mists from

sulphuric acid plants. NO and NO2 from nitric acid plants. Chlorine

gas, CO2, CO, H2 and mercury vapors from Chlor-Alkali Industries.

Organic vapour hydrocarbons constitute the major emissions from the

industrial applications of organic solvents in manufacture of paints,

varnishes, lacquers, adhesives, plastics, textiles, rubber, shoe polishes,

floor polishes, and waxes. The index 2.2 describes the air pollutants

from chemical industries and its effect on human.

Petroleum Refining

Sources of air pollutants in refineries include the burning of low-

grade fuels in its own furnaces and boilers. There are particulate

emissions from the catalytic cracking and catalyst recovery units. H2S

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and mercaptans are originated at the time of their stripping from the

lighter grades of fuels such as kerosene, light diesel oil, and petrol.

Non Metallic Mineral Industry

Includes cement, glass, ceramics, asbestos, coal cleaning plants,

asphalt plants, talc and lime processing, gypsum manufacturing,

mineral wool production, processing of crushed stone, gravel, sand and

miscellaneous minerals such as phosphates and mica. Pollutants are

mainly in the form of dusts.

Ferrous Metallurgical Industry

Industry includes the manufacture of iron and steel from the

basic iron ore. Basic air pollution problems originate from the handling

of huge quantities of iron ore and coal. Large amounts of dust are

produced in mining and processing of ore. Blast furnace is a source of

particulates and CO. Besides, several air pollutants such as great

variety of organic gases, smoke, dust, H2S, phenols, cresols, pyridine,

NH3, HF, SO2, CO, CH4, C2H6, ethylene and several other aromatic

hydrocarbons.

Non-Ferrous Metallurgical Industry

Includes the manufacture of Cu, Pb, Zn, Al and minor metals

like Hg, Cd, Se, Be, K, Na, Ti, Mo, etc from their primary ores. Major

pollutants are particulates and sulphur dioxides which arise from the

handling of large quantities of sulphide and other ores of these metals.

For instance, copper is produced from copper sulphide ore; lead and

zinc are also obtained from their sulphide ores, results large amount of

sulphur dioxide emissions.

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ODOURS FROM INDUSTRIES

Odour is undoubtedly the most complex of all the air pollution

problems. Odour is caused in many cases by very minute quantities of

substances. Though foul smells may not cause direct damage, they are

as much a nuisance as noise, dirt, or corrosion. The primary effect of

disagreeable odours on people is the nuisance effect. Secondary effect,

in some cases, may be nausea and discomfort. Odours emitted in

industries as shown in index 2.3.

Automobile Sources

Transportation is one of the most important sources of air

pollution. On an average basis, the transportation contributes more than

50 percent of the total pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The

major pollutants generated by the automobiles are hydrocarbons,

oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, smoke and lead. CO is the major

pollutant from the exhaust gases, which comprises about 50 percent of

the total weight of the pollutants. Hydrocarbons contribute nearly 8

percent of the total pollutants, while the rest are NOx, particulates and

other pollutants. Reports indicate that automobiles account for about

70 percent of CO, 50 percent of hydrocarbons, and 30 – 40 percent of

particulates of the total air pollutants present in the big cities like Delhi

and Mumbai. Diesel engines produce much less CO, fewer

hydrocarbons, and no lead, but considerably higher amounts of NOx,

and organic acids released mainly because of the high temperature

combustion.

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Domestic sources

Generated by the domestic or household activities or infections or

using insecticides for cleaning and maintenance of houses.

Cigarette Smoking: Can be considered as personal air pollution due to

inhalation of tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke contains high quantities

of CO, polycyclic aromatic compounds, aldehydes, hydrogen cyanide,

lead, and carcinogens like benzo α pyrene. Cigarette smoke usually

provides an intermittent but high dose of pollutants, for instance, CO in

tobacco smoke may be present in the range of 400 ppm.

Household Air pollution

It refers usually to the production of smoke, soot, sulphur

dioxide, CO and nitrogen oxides from the burning of coal, wood and

other fuels for domestic heating and cooking. Burning of solid wastes

that include plastic and other organic and inorganic substances also

increase air pollution problems.

2CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Air pollutants may be broadly classified:

• According to Origin

• According to State of Matter

• According to Chemical Composition

According to Origin:

Primary Pollutants

Pollutants that are emitted directly into the atmosphere from the

sources and remain for long time in the chemical form in which they

are emitted, e.g. release of SO2 by burning of coal CO, NOx, H2S, NH3,

CO2, Cl2, etc.

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Secondary Pollutants

Pollutants those formed in the atmosphere as a result of some

reaction which may be photochemical (e.g. formation of O3, PAN, etc.)

or non-photochemical (e.g. acid rain due to H2SO4, HNO3) and may

takes place between two pollutants or between a single pollutant and a

natural constituents.

According to state of matter

Gaseous Pollutants

Pollutants either in the form of organic (e.g. Hydrocarbons,

ketoses, aldehydes, other organics) or inorganic gas (e.g. CO, NOx,

H2S, NH3, CO2, Cl2, etc.)

Particulate Pollutants

It may be solid or liquid in form. Larger particles tend to be

settling out quickly and dust fall particulates, while smaller particles

remain suspended for a longer period called suspended particulate

matter. E.g. dusts, smoke, fog, mist, aerosols, soot, etc.

According to chemical composition

Organic Pollutants

It is Organic in nature, mainly consists of carbon and hydrogen.

E.g. hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones,

alcohols, etc.

Inorganic Pollutants

It is in organic in nature, e.g. CO, SO2, NOx, H2S, HF, NH3, CO2,

Cl2, trace metals, etc.

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PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS:

Carbon monoxide

It is highly poisonous gas, tasteless, colorless, and odourless gas

with slightly lesser density than air. Background concentration is 0.1

ppm. Mean residence time is between 2 – 4 months. Mainly originated

from incomplete combustion of fuels, industrial processes, solid waste

combustion, cigarette smoking, natural sources such as volcanoes,

lightning and photochemical degradation of some reactive organic

compounds. Also formed biologically by certain brown algae, various

microorganisms, and certain oceanic organisms. Toxicity of CO is due

to its affinity for hemoglobin and considered as an asphyxiant. At

higher concentrations of 100 ppm, it may cause dizziness, headache,

lassitude, and other symptoms. At concentration of 4000 ppm is lethal

in less than one hour.

Sulphur oxides (SO2 and SO3)

Sulphur dioxide is the most important oxide of sulphur – is a

colorless gas possessing a pungent and irritating odour at higher

concentrations above 300 ppm. Background concentration of SO2 is

0.2 ppb. Lifetime of SO2 in the atmosphere is about 2 – 4 days. Coal

burning accounts for 75 percent of SO2 production and smelting of ores

of Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, etc. also contributes SO2 concentration. It is partly

converted to SO3 or H2SO4 and its salts by photochemical or catalytic

processes in the atmosphere. SO3, besides forming by oxidation of

SO2, can also be derived from combustion of sulphur containing

materials. It may also exist in the form of vapours, and readily combine

with water to form sulphuric acid.

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Oxides of Nitrogen:

Major oxides of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide

(NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O). NO is a colorless, odourless gas which

forms under high temperature combustion processes and is readily

converted into NO2 by photochemical reactions. NO2 is a reddish

brown gas with pungent odour. The gas is corrosive, irritating, and

physiologically toxic. It reacts with water to form nitric acid and

produce smog by photochemical reactions. N2O is a colorless,

odourless gas commonly present in the atmosphere (0.25 ppm in

concentration), that released due to biological activity of the soil. Also

called as laughing gas and anesthetic. Fuel combustion and nitric acid

plants produce NOx and in general, automobile exhaust contributes

nearly 40 percent of NOx.

Ammonia

Colorless, pungent, suffocating, and highly soluble gas in water.

High percentage (about 99.9 percent) is released from the natural

sources during degradation of organic matter. Anthropogenic sources

include mainly the combustion of fuels in stationary and mobile

sources, incineration of wastes, fertilizer plants, chemical plants, cake

ovens, and refineries. Background concentration is 0.1 ppbv. Lifetime

in the atmosphere is 6 days.

Hydrogen sulphide

Colorless gas with foul odour. Natural process account for nearly

one-half of the total H2S released into the atmosphere. Mainly

produced by bacterial decomposition of organic matter, from sulphur

deposits, volcanic gases, and sulphur springs. Man-made sources

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include paper mills, petroleum refineries, coke oven plants, sewage and

industrial waste disposal ponds, etc. Background concentration is 30 –

100 pptv and 330 – 810 pptv in polluted areas. Residence time in the

atmosphere is 4.4 days.

Carbon dioxide

Is not a typical air pollutant, but considered as a pollutant due to

its potential for causing global warming. Naturally, CO2 is present in

the atmosphere comprising 0.03% of the constituent gases. Natural

sources are chiefly the decay of organic matter and respiration of

organisms. Man-made sources are the combustion of fossil fuels such

as coal, oil, and natural gas from the production energy, refuse disposal

systems, burning of wood and forests, etc.

Fluorine Compounds

Fluorine is found in the as a solid particles as fluoride

compounds, fluorine gas and hydrogen fluoride. Industrial sources are

processing of fluorine containing minerals such as fluorspar and

fluorapatite for the production of fluorine compounds and phosphates

fertilizers. Significant concentrations also emitted from coal

combustion, manufacturing of steel, glass, bricks, tiles, and aluminium.

Silicon tetra fluoride and gaseous hydrogen fluoride are the primary

pollutants, which emitted from fertilizer industry. Threshold limit

value for fluorine is 3 ppm.

Chlorine

It is a dense greenish yellow gas with an irritating odour. It is a

strong oxidizing agent possessing bleaching properties and is highly

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corrosive. Many of the problems of chlorine pollution are localized due

to leaks and accidental discharge. Major commercial source is the

electrolysis of chloride salts such as sodium and potassium chloride.

Threshold limit value for chlorine is 1 ppm.

Boron

It is a highly toxic non-metallic element to humans causing

damage to brain and even death in extreme cases. Most important

sources are boron dust and burning of borane fuels in rockets and jet

engines. Some important boranes are diboranes, pentaboranes, and

decaboranes. Other sources of atmospheric boron are coal burning,

chemical industries using boron minerals and compounds.

Phosphorus

It is a solid non-metallic element found commonly in two

allotropic forms. The yellow form is highly inflammable, luminous in

dark, and poisonous. The red form is comparatively less flammable

and less poisonous. Phosphorus emitted in the atmosphere in the form

of phosphorus oxides, phosphoric acid, and organ phosphorus

compounds. Predominant atmospheric sources are oil-fired boilers,

iron and steel industry, insecticides, fungicides and transportation that

use certain organ phosphorus compounds as fuel additives.

Heavy metals

Arsenic - highly poisonous element often found associated with the

ores of copper, lead, cobalt, nickel, iron, gold, and silver. Atmospheric

sources include the smelting of the arsenic bearing ores, cotton ginning

and burning of cotton trash, combustion of coal and incineration. It

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also released in the various chemical forms during the glass and

ceramic manufacturing and from pesticides.

Cadmium - often remains associated with the ores of zinc, copper and

lead. Major atmospheric sources are processing of the cadmium

bearing ores of zinc, copper, and lead. Metallurgical processing of ores

such as roasting, sintering, and smelting also volatilize cadmium in

vapour forms. Incineration of refuse containing steel, plastics,

pigments and rubber also release cadmium.

Chromium – it is introduced into the atmosphere from the

metallurgical industry, chromate-producing industry, chrome plating,

burning of coal, and use of chromium chemicals as fuel additives and

corrosion inhibitors and chrome tanning.

Lead - heavy, soft, malleable, bluish gray metal produced mainly from

auto exhaust, combustion of coal, processing and manufacturing of

lead products, manufacturing of lead additives such as tetraethyl lead

for gasoline.

Manganese - hard, brittle, grayish white metallic element, released

into the atmosphere from the manganese and steel industries. Fumes

containing manganese are also produced from the welding rods.

Mercury -It is widely used metal with applications in several

industries from where it is emitted as air pollutant. Paint industry

seems to produce highest mercury emissions where it is used as an

antifouling and preservative agent especially in marine and latex

paints. Other industrial applications include rectifiers, batteries,

mercury lamps, barometers, thermometers, flow meters, switches,

pressure sensing devices, and relays. Processing of ore, combustion of

coal and incineration of refuse also contribute significant mercury

pollution.

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Nickel – a grayish white metallic element used commonly in making

various metal alloys and stainless steel. Released into the atmosphere

in the form of vapours and dusts. Introduced into the atmosphere from

a number of industrial activities. Burning of coal, nickel plating also

emits atmospheric nickel.

Zinc – bluish white metallic element resembling magnesium in

chemical properties. Prime atmospheric sources are smelting of ores of

zinc, lead, and copper, recovery of scrap zinc, and incineration of zinc

containing materials.

Hydrocarbons - Most of the hydrocarbons exist in the atmosphere as

gases such as methane, ethane, propane, acetylene, butane, and

isopentane. Benzo α pyrene a solid particulate hydrocarbon is also an

important pollutant. Methane constitutes about 90 % of the

hydrocarbons by volume. Natural sources are the vegetation and

organic decomposition and salt marshes. Manmade sources are

processing, distribution, storage, marketing and use of petroleum and

some organic solvents. Incineration of wastes also an important source

of hydrocarbons.

Aldehydes - Organic compounds having a general formula of R –

CHO. On oxidation they yield acids and on reduction, alcohols.

Common aldehydes are formaldehyde, acrolein-acetaldehyde.

Aldehydes are normally the product of incomplete combustion of

hydrocarbons and other organic materials.

Particulates - Particulate matter is any material that exists as a solid or

liquid in the atmosphere or in a gas stream at ordinary conditions.

Particulates present in air are generally of various size and can be

defined more specifically as “any dispersed solid or liquid with the

particles larger than a single small molecule (0.0002µ) but smaller than

32

500µ”. Particulates in air are of various natures and on this basis can be

defined as follows:

Dusts - Solid particles larger than colloidal size and are capable of

temporary suspension in air and other gases. Particles are of size 1 –

200µ and settle under the influence of gravity. Generated by crushing,

chipping, grinding and by natural disintegration of rocks and soil. If the

size is less than 100µ, it is called fine dust and greater than 100µ called

as coarse dust.

Aerosols - Suspension of solids or liquids in a gaseous media. The

particles suspended may be dust, smoke, mist, and fumes.

Smoke - It is an aerosol of very fine carbon particles of size range

from 0.5 to 1µ, which are produced by incomplete combustion of

organic particles such as coal, wood, etc.

Soot - Soot is agglomeration of carbon particles of size 1 to 10µ

impregnated with tar, formed due to incomplete combustion of

carbonaceous materials.

Fumes -Fine solid particles formed by condensation of gaseous state

after volatisation, of which particles size ranges between 0.03 to 1µ.

E.g. tobacco smoke, condensed metal oxides.

Mist -Mist is an aerosol of liquid droplets formed by the condensation

of gases or vapour. The size normally less than 10µ.

Fog - Water mist is called fog. It is a visible aerosol where the mist in

which the dispersed phase is liquid.

Smog - Smoke plus fog is expressed as smog.

Spray - Consists of liquid droplets formed by the atomization of parent

liquids. The size of particles ranges from 10 to 1000µ.

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Haze - Haze is an air pollution condition (decrease in visibility in

atmosphere) formed due to the presence of very fine dust, mist, etc. in

the atmosphere. Haze is expressed as Coefficient of Haze (COH).

Gas - Gas is matter, which is having neither independent shape nor

volume and tending to expand indefinitely.

Vapour - Gaseous phase of matter, which normally exist in a liquid or

solid state.

Aeroallergens - Airborne substances those licit an allergic response or

hypersensitivity in susceptible individuals. Most common

aeroallergens are pollen (such as of ragweed and Parthenium), danders

(small particulate organic materials such as feathers of fowl, hairs of

animals and house dust), fungi, bacteria, viruses and other particulates

of various origin. Particulates based on their size and the time for

which remains air borne grouped into following three main categories:

Condensation Nuclei (Aitken Particles)

All particles of the size below 0.1µm are called condensation

nuclei. The particles are so small that they cannot be filtered or

weighed. Formed in nature by dust storms, volcanic activity, fires, and

evaporation of sea spray leaving behind the salt particles. Industrial

combustion may also release these small particles.

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)

Most abundant particles present in the atmosphere. The size of SPM

ranges from 0.1 to 10µ. The settling velocities of these particles are

very low and therefore remain suspended for long periods. E.g. are

metallic fumes, droplets of oil, tar, acid, black soot, soil particles, etc.

Various activities like power generation, demolition, spraying,

grinding, agriculture, and stone quarrying generate suspended

34

particulate matter. Cement, iron, steel, and fertilizer industries

significantly contribute to SPM. Automobile exhaust has been found to

contain 40 – 50µg/L of particulates.

Settleable Particulate Matter (Dust Fall Particles)

These are particles larger than 10µ, which tend to settle out due

to gravitational force. The major proportion of these particles in air is

consisted of airborne soil particles, fly ash, and soot from industries.

Industrial sources of these particles are incinerators, cement plants,

steel mills, sulphuric acid, and Kraft paper mills. Enormous amounts of

dusts are also emitted into the atmosphere from the mechanical

processes such as grinding and abrasion, wind erosion, spraying and

pulverizing of materials.

SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS

Secondary pollutants are new chemicals formed by

photochemical or non-photochemical atmospheric reactions. Most

atmospheric reactions are induced by the absorption of light energy

(photons) by the molecules. This results in their dissociation to form

chemically active free radicals, which readily take part in many

chemical reactions. The reactions where the light energy is absorbed by

the molecules are called photochemical reactions.

Primary Photochemical Reactions

Most important primary photochemical reaction in the

atmosphere is the dissociation of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) into NO and

oxygen atom (O).Other reactions include the photo-dissociation of

aldehydes into free radicals. These photo-dissociations later initiate

35

several other chemical reactions in sequence owing to the production

of highly reactive oxygen atoms and free radicals.

Formation of Free Radicals:

Free radicals are highly reactive chemical species are formed by

the photo dissociation of several inorganic and organic compounds.

The main compounds forming the free radicals of air pollution

importance are aldehydes, ketoses, peroxyacetyl nitrates, hydrogen

peroxide, organic peroxides and nitrous and nitric oxides.

Many free radicals such as hydrogen, alkyl or acyl groups after

combining readily with oxygen, form peroxy radicals. These peroxy

radicals are much more reactive and react further with nitrogen oxides,

other primary pollutants and a number of derived secondary pollutants

to form again a variety of new products like more free radicals, ethers,

acids, peroxy acids, alkyl nitrates, peroxy acetyl nitrates.

Formation of Ozone

Free oxygen atom, generated by the photochemical dissociation

of NO2 reacts with O2 present in the air to form ozone. Since, the

ozone formed in this way is unstable having too much energy to exist;

it transfers this excess energy to some other molecule (represented as

M) which is more often N2 or O2 in the air.

Formation of Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN):

PAN is formed in the atmosphere by reaction of acetyl peroxy

radicals with NO2, i.e., when the concentration of NO falls in the air,

the peroxy radicals react with NO2, instead of oxidizing NO.

36

If R is a methyl group, then the resultant PAN will have a chemical

formula as CH3OCOONO2.

Formation of Photochemical Smog:

Particulate air pollutants provide the extra condensation nuclei to

form the fine droplets of water, which trap both particulates and

gaseous pollutants in the stable air mass to form smog. The smog

usually allows high concentrations of pollutants that are produced by

photochemical reactions and is commonly known as photochemical

smog. Smog contains two main types of components: Reducing

components such as oxides of sulphur and particulates and Oxidizing

components such as ozone, free radical oxygen forms, PAN and other

monologues, oxides of nitrogen.

Formation of Acid Rain:

Acid rain formation involves reactions of oxides of Sulphur and

Nitrogen. SO2 present in the plumes are readily oxidized into sulphur

trioxide (SO3) in presence of metals. So formed SO3 reacts with water

vapours to form Sulphuric Acid. The presence of photo chemically

produced reactive intermediate radical species or other oxidants may

be important in oxidizing SO2 into SO3.

Similarly, NO2 in the presence of light is broken down into NO and

free oxygen atom. This starts a cycle involving NO2, NO and O3, as the

free oxygen atom reacts with O2 to form ozone. In the presence of

ozone, some NO2 can be converted into NO3.

The resultant NO3 further reacts with NO2 to form Nitrogen pentoxide.

This N2O5 is converted into nitric acid by addition of water.

37

Nitric acid can also be formed by other mechanisms like direct

hydration and catalytic oxidation of NO2.

Secondary air pollutants can be cleared from the index 2.4

3AIR POLLUTION PRESENT TRENDS IN INDIA

Millions in India’s exploding town and cities find industrial

revolution coming in through their windows. To stop this blatant

disregard of pollution control laws, the Supreme Court and High

Courts in a series of public interest litigations in 1995 ordered the

closure of industries in Delhi, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and

West Bengal states. The problems begin with units that stall blatantly

by simply refusing to accept closure or warning notices. In Delhi, the

Supreme Court ordered that about 9,000 industrial units should move

out of Delhi for being in zones not meant for industry.

In West Bengal, the shut down order for 30 units from the

Supreme Court prompted the West Bengal Pollution Control Board to

look seriously at a host of other industries. The Board hauled up to

252 units for air and water pollution, after getting notices 225 of these

cleaned up their operations and others like Indian Rayon, Reckitt &

Colman, Burn Standard, Texmaco and IFB Agro were being monitored

for compliance. An interesting point to note is that the resistance to

pollution control comes not just from management but also from

unions who fear job losses, especially if the unit is in the red category

(high polluting). In Delhi agitated workers protest regularly outside the

Supreme Court where a Division Bench is trying to decide how, when

and how many industries should move out of the city. If industrial

units are fairly closed, keeping them shut will not be easy either.

38

Several units shut down by the Court orders have been restarted either

with the help of political pressure or water supply and electricity

authorities or by managements who simply run generators and get

water supply from tankers.

In Gujarat, more than 93 industries were closed by the High

Court order. In Nandasari, 252 units were threatened with closure if

they did not clean. Less than 10 have experts to educate on issues of

cost, technology, and time. Industries, which long ignored pollution

controls are now pleading for time to find affordable technology.

4HISTORY OF AIR POLLUTION

The origin of air pollution on the earth can be traced from times

when man started using wood fire as means of cooking and space

heating. With the discovering and increase, use of coal the air pollution

problems started to become more pronounced, especially in the urban

areas. It was recognized as long as 700 years ago in London the

menace of smoke pollution, which promoted king Edward I in 1273 to

make the first anti pollution law to restrict people using coal for

domestic heating. In the year 1300, a further act passed banning the use

of coal during the sessions of parliament. The defying of the law led

even to imposition of capital punishment in some cases. The menace of

smoke pollution remained however through the centuries but it started

to immerge as a severe problem only from late 18th century with the

start of industrial revolution in the west leading to the large scale

burning of coal.

The first book on air pollution seems to be of John Evelyn, a writer,

scientist, in 1661 that described the air pollution problems and

attempted for the solutions. The measure used even today like shifting

39

of industries from cities and use of green belts were advocated in that

book. The air pollution problems started to further with the rise of

chemical industries during the mid 18th century, which leads to the

dumping of acid fumes and other chemicals in the atmosphere. The

first alkali act was passed in 1863 by royal commission to set the limits

of acid discharges in waste gases When the air pollution problems in

Europe especially in UK. Were surfacing fast, U.S.A did not have

much problems mainly because of the sparsely populated areas and

lack of big cities and towns. The coals were also substituted by

petroleum and gas little early and metrological conditions were not

adverse in several cities. it was only in the late 19th century that some

realization was made of the presence of air pollution over certain cities,

but it did not cause any concern because of heavy demand of energy

for domestic heating and industrial use. However, the air pollution

levels caused by the presence of smoke and sulphur dioxide rose in

several cities for which the reports are filed first in 1907 for st.Lousis

in 1910 for Chicago and in 1917 for Pittsburg. Smoke control laws in

United States were in late 1800 with first law in 1881 by Chicago. By

1921 almost, all the big cities have passed such laws.

As the development of industrialization continued to take place

all over the world the rise in the atmosphere pollution also continued

and finally culminating in the large-scale death and disease due to air

pollution disaster in 1930 in Meuse valley, Belgium.1948 in Donora,

Pennsylvania and 1952 in London. Alone on London more than 4000

deaths were reported due to accumulation of air pollutants over the city

for about 5 days. Therefore, the beaver committee on air pollution

established in 1953, and clean air act passed in 1956 in Britain. Today,

London among the big cities is considered as one of the cleanest cities

40

in the world. Another kind of air pollution in the beginning of

20thCentury with the development of transport system and a large-scale

use of petrol and diesel. This kind of air pollution makes a serious

problem in developed and developing countries. India has passed the

air pollution control act only in the recent years before.

MAJOR AIR POLLUTION DISASTER AND ACCIDENTS:

AIR POLLUTION DISASTER

It is very difficult to show the effects caused by continuous

exposure to air pollution. However, air pollution with high

concentrations has been found to cause acute sickness and death. In

addition, prolonged exposure to small concentrations will also result in

adverse effects. Some of the major air pollution disasters, which

occurred in this century, are summarized below.

1. Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1930

2. Donora, Pennsylvania, 1948

3. Poza Rica, Mexico, 1950

4. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1968

5. London, England, 1953

6. New York, 1953, 1962-1963, 1966

Meuse Valley, Belgium, 1930

This is one of the first documented episodes in modern, times

which aroused worldwide interest occurred in the Meuse Valley of

Belgium in December 1930. Trapped by an inversion, pollutants

accumulated in this steep-sided valley of 15 miles length. Coke ovens,

steel mills, blast furnaces, zinc smelters, glass factories, and sulfuric

acid plants produced an estimated SO2 concentration of 8 ppm. It was

41

estimated that, the SO2 concentration reached to 22,600 ug/m3. With

in a few days more than 600 people fell ill, and 63 people died from

the polluted air. Unfortunately, no measurements were made. There

seems, however, little doubt that the major culprit was sulfur dioxide,

which, with the help of fog droplets oxidized to sulfuric acid mist with

a particle size small enough to penetrate deeply into the lungs.

Donora, Pennsylvania, 1948

In October 1948, the United States experienced its first pollution

tragedy in the small town of, Donora in the Monongahela River Valley,

20 miles southeast of Pittsburgh. Effluents from a number of industries

such as a sulfuric acid plant, a steel mill, and a zinc production plant

became trapped in a shallow valley inversion to produce an

unbreathable mixture of fog and pollution. About 6,000 people or 43

percent of the population suffered various degrees of illnesses, such as

sore throats, irritation of the eyes, nose, and respiratory tract,

headaches, breathlessness, vomiting, and nausea. There were 20 deaths

in three days. Again, no ambient measurements were made during the

disaster. It was suggested that sulfur dioxide reached peak values of

about 5,500 ug/m.

London, England, 1953

From December 5 to 8, 1952, London experienced the worst air

pollution disaster ever reported. The meteorological conditions were

ideal for pollution. Anti-cyclonic or high-pressure weather with

stagnating continental polar air masses trapped under subsidence

inversions produced a shallow mixing layer with an almost complete

absence of vertical and horizontal air motion. Fireplaces and industries

42

supplied the hygroscopic condensation nuclei into the air to form dense

fog. The daily temperatures were below the average. With such

adverse conditions, the concentrations of pollutants reached high

values. With these adverse conditions, elderly people were particularly

affected. Deaths from bronchitis increased by a factor of 10, influenza

by 7, pneumonia by 5, tuberculosis by 4.5, other respiratory diseases

by 6, heart diseases by 3 and lung cancer by 2. When a change in

weather finally cleared the fog, 4,000 Londoners had perished in their

"pea soup". Pollution disasters with similarly high concentrations

occurred in 1957-1958 and again 1962-1963. However, the numbers of

casualties during these disasters were less than that of 1952.

New York, 1953, 1962-1963

New York City also experienced air pollution disasters causing

excess deaths. New York with the nation's highest SO2 concentrations

often avoids air pollution disasters because of its excellent ventilation.

In December 1962, adverse weather conditions such as low wind

speeds and occurrence of shallow inversions, then the SO2 and smoke

concentrations, which reached peak values, were the major reasons.

Total deaths increased to 269, which was in excess of even three

standard deviations above the expected mortality for that week.

Tokyo (Japan) 1970

Tokyo is the most populous city in the world having a very large

number of motor vehicles. The monitoring of air in the city indicated

the rising level of air pollutants, especially oxidants during the day

caused by photochemical reactions involving the pollutants from auto-

exhaust. On 18 June 1970, a thick fog was reported in the monitoring,

43

which disappeared in the noon, but the visibility remained low. During

noon people complained of eye irritation and several school children

suffered from smarting of eyes and sore throat associated with

difficulty in breathing. More than 6000 people were treated in hospital

for smog poisoning.

It was realized that the symptoms of this illness were chiefly because

of large-scale formation of the photochemical oxidants in the

atmosphere. The concentration of SO2 was 0.39 ppm together with the

formation of sulphuric acid mist that contributed maximum to the

production of health symptoms.

AIR POLLUTION ACCIDENTS

Poza Rica, Mexico, 1950

The disaster, which struck Poza Rica, a town of 15,000 people on

the Gulf of Mexico, originated from an accident at one of the local

factories, which recovers sulfur rom natural gas. The release of

hydrogen sulfide into the ambient air lasted for only 25 minutes. The

spread of the gas under a shallow inversion with foggy and calm

conditions killed 22 people and hospitalized 320.

Cincinnati, Ohio. 1968

A similar accident with a fortunately less tragic ending occurred

on August 25, 1968, in Cincinnati. About 2,500 pounds of SO2

escaped into the air from a burst pipe at a chemical plant located in the

northern industrial part of Cincinnati. The release of SO2 started at mid

night and lasted for about 8 hours. People who are staying at about 200

meters to the east of the plant were affected. People were awakened by

44

a rotten-egg smell and difficulty in breathing. Fortunately, there was no

human loses.

sevoso (Italy)

On July 10, 1976 an accident occurred at sevoso near Milan in

Italy when an explosion took place in pesticide chemical factory

manufacturing2,4,5-T resulting in release of white cloud of poisonous

gas containing a dioxin(TCDD).the dioxins are extremely poisonous to

the organisms. The gas cloud was settled over the city leading to the

great damage to the population and ecology of the area. The whole

episode resulted in severe illness and death of some people and small

animals. About 187 people showed the skin chlorance (boils and

pimples), 46 showed other skin and liver complications, a few reported

abortions, and many newly born children were found to have certain

deformities.Soil was contaminated in large area. The floods, which

followed the incident, further spread the pollutants in to the

environment. The spread of the dioxin also helped by the sell of

vegetables grown in the contaminated environment. Releasing gravity

of the situation, the highly affected areas near the factory was later

completely evacuated.

Bhopal, India 1984

The biggest air pollution disaster of all time occurred in Bhopal,

India in 1984.In the morning hours of December 3, 1984, a holding

tank with 43 tones of stored MIC overheated and released toxic

heavier-than-air MIC gas mixture, which rolled along the ground

through the surrounding streets killing thousands outright. The

transportation system in the city collapsed and many people were

45

trampled trying to escape. The gases also injured anywhere from

150,000 to 600,000 people, at least 15,000 of whom later died. The

majority of deaths and serious injuries were related to pulmonary

edema, but the gas caused a wide variety of other ailments. Signs and

symptoms of methyl isocyanate exposure normally include cough,

Dyspnea, chest pain, lacrimation, eyelid edema, and unconsciousness.

These effects progressed over the next 24 to 72 hours to include acute

lung injury, cardiac arrest, and death. Because of the hypothesized

reactions that took place within the storage tank and in the surrounding

atmosphere, it is thought that apart from MIC, phosgene, and hydrogen

cyanide along with other poisonous gases all played a significant role

in this disaster.Information on the exact chemical mixture was never

provided by the company, but blood and viscera of some victims

showed cherry-red color characteristic in acute cyanide poisoning. A

series of studies made five years later showed that many of the

survivors were still suffering from one or several of the following

ailments: partial or complete blindness, persistent repertory problems,

gastrointestinal disorders, impaired immune systems, posttraumatic

stress disorders, and menstrual problems in women. A rise in

spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, and offspring with genetic defects

was also noted. In addition, a BBC investigation conducted in

November 2004 confirmed that contamination is present in drinking

water, as well as in the abandoned chemical factory site and the former

chemical dumping grounds of the factory. Most of the industrial

accidents sites are located in the thickly populated areas of Maharastra,

Tamilnadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and west Bengal. Some of

the major chemical disasters are presented in index 2.5

46

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN INDIA

The environmental problems in India are growing rapidly. The

increasing economic development and a rapidly growing population

that has taken the country from 300 million people in 1947 to over one

billion people today is putting a strain on the environment,

infrastructure, and the country’s natural resources. Industrial pollution,

soil erosion, deforestation, rapid industrialization, urbanization, and

land degradation are all worsening problems. Overexploitation of the

country's resources is its land or water and the industrialization process

has resulted in considerable environmental degradation of resources.

The cost of environmental damage in India would save 4 percent off

the country's gross domestic product.

MoEF recognizes the need to strike a balance between

development and protecting the environment in administering and

enforcing the country’s environmental laws and policies. The

government heightened the Ministry’s powers with the passage of the

1986 Environment Protection Act. This act built on the 42nd

amendment to India's constitution in 1976 that gave the government

the right to step in and protect public health, forests, and wildlife. This

amendment however had little power as it contained a clause that

stated it was not enforceable by any court. India is the first country in

the world to pass an amendment to its constitution ostensibly

protecting the environment.

Since independence, India has made great technological and

industrial advances. All these meant extensive release of toxic

chemicals, into the environment, harmful gases into the air, chemicals

in to the rivers, and pesticides into the soil. Almost all types of

industries growth in last ten years has increased rapidly. There are four

47

reasons of air pollution are - emissions from vehicles, thermal power

plants, industries and refineries. The problem of indoor air pollution in

rural areas and urban slums has assumed significant attention lately.

India’s environmental problems are exacerbated by its heavy reliance

on coal for power generation. Coal supplies more than half of the

country’s energy needs and is used nearly three-quarters for electricity

generation. While India is fortunate to have abundant reserves of coal

to power economic development, the burning of this resource,

especially given the high ash content of India’s coal, has come at a cost

in terms of heightened public risk and environmental degradation.

Reliance on coal as the major energy source has led to a nine-fold jump

in carbon emissions over the past forty years. The government

estimates the cost of environmental degradation has been running at

4.5 percent of GDP in recent years.

The low energy efficiency of power plants that burn coal is a

major air pollution contributing factor. India's coal plants are old and

are not outfitted with the most modern pollution controls. Given the

shortage of generating capacity and scarcity of public funds, these old

coal-fired plants will remain in operation for sometime. Power plant

modernization to improve the plant load factor, improvements in sub-

transmission and distribution to cut distribution losses, and new

legislation to encourage end user energy conservation were all

mentioned as part of the energy efficiency effort. The government has

taken steps to address its environmental problems. As of now, the use

of washed coal is required for all power plants.

Vehicle emissions are responsible for 70 percent of the country’s

air pollution. The major problem with government efforts to safeguard

the environment has been enforcement at the local level, not with a

48

lack of laws. Air pollution from vehicle exhaust and industry is a

worsening problem for India. Exhaust from vehicles has increased

eight-fold over levels of twenty years ago; industrial pollution has risen

four times over the same period. The economy has grown two and a

half times over the past two decades but pollution control and civil

services have not kept pace. Air quality is worst in the big cities like

Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, etc. Bangalore holds the title of

being the asthma capital of the country. Studies estimate that 10 per

cent of Bangalore’s 60-lakh population and over 50 per cent of its

children below 18 years suffer from air pollution-related ailments.

Chennai: a high level of pollution from vehicles, dust from

construction debris, industrial waste, burning of municipal and garden

waste causes respiratory diseases, including asthma. At least six of the

10 top causes of death are related to respiratory disease, says Dr D

Ranganathan, director (in-charge), Institute of Thoracic Medicine.

Mumbai: Not only are levels of Suspended Particulate Matter above

permissible limits in Mumbai, but the worst pollutant after vehicular

emissions has grown at an alarming rate. The levels of Respirable

Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), or dust, in Mumbai’s air have

continued to increase over the past three years.

The air pollution in Mumbai is so high that Mumbai authorities have

purchased 42,000 liters of perfume to spray on the city’s enormous

waste dumps at Deonar and Mulund landfill sites after people living

near the landfill sites complained of the stench. The Deonar landfill

site, one of India’s largest, was first used by the British in 1927. Today,

the festering pile covers more than 120 hectares.

These cities are on the World Health Organization's list of top

most polluted cities. Vehicle exhaust, untreated smoke, and untreated

49

water all contribute to the problem. Continued economic growth,

urbanization, and an increase in the number of vehicles, together with

lax enforcement of environmental laws, will result in further increases

in pollution levels. Concern with New Delhi's air quality got so bad

that the Supreme Court recently stepped in and placed a limit on the

number of new car registrations in the capital.

The effects of air pollution are obvious: rice crop yields in southern

India are falling as brown clouds block out more and more sunlight. In

addition, the brilliant white of the famous Taj Mahal is slowly fading

to a sickly yellow. In the famous “Tajmahal Case”, a very strong step

was taken by Supreme Court to save the Tajmahal Case being polluted

by fumes and more than 200 factories were closed down. In the case of

Shatistar of 1990, AIR 1990 SC 630 (pp.8 to 13), Supreme Court

declared in a clear tone that a citizen has right for a decent environment

in his living area. Poison in the air due to Power plants. In India, air

pollution is estimated to cause, a minimum of, one-lakh deaths, and 25

million illnesses every year.

Pollution due to Mining

New Delhi-based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) on

December 29, 2007 said mining was causing displacement, pollution,

forest degradation, and social unrest. The CSE released its 356-page

sixth State of India’s Environment report, ‘Rich Lands Poor People, is

sustainable mining possible?’ According to the Centre for Science and

Environment (CSE), report the top 50 mineral producing districts, as

many as 34 falls under the 150 most backward districts identified in the

country. The CSE report has made extensive analysis of environment

degradation and pollution due to mining, wherein it has said, in 2005-

50

06 alone 1.6 billion tonnes of waste and overburden from coal, iron

ore, limestone and bauxite have added to environment pollution. With

the annual growth of mining at 10.7 per cent and 500-odd mines

awaiting approval of the Centre, the pollution would increase manifold

in the coming years.

In Orissa state, in the next five to 10 years, Jharsuguda will be

home to production of 3.1 million-tone aluminum. This, however, will

generate 3,100 tone of fluoride every year. Similarly, the State is

gearing up for power projects - mostly coal-based - targeting 20,000-

mega watt energy. This will require 3.2-lakh tone of coal daily, which

in turn can lead to generation of 1,200-tone ash a day. Besides, there is

emission of sulphur dioxide. The emissions at Jharsuguda alone will be

higher than that of all refineries in India put together. Jharsuguda will

also see 12 million tone steel annually being produced when the

projects go on stream. This will mean generation of 20 million tone of

solid waste every year.

In Jharkhand, there are abundant coalmines; most of the

coalmines were situated in Hazaribag, Chatra, Palamau, Rajmahal,

Dhanbad, and Ranchi district. Mighty Damodar River and its

tributaries flow through these coalmines. Due to extensive coal mining

and vigorous growth of industries in this area water resources have

been badly contaminated. The habitants have, however, been

compromising by taking contaminated and sometimes-polluted water,

as there is no alternative source of safe drinking water. Thus, a sizeable

populace suffers from water borne diseases. Besides mining, coal

based industries like coal washeries, coke oven plants, coal fired

thermal power plants, steel plants, and other related industries in the

region greatly impart towards degradation of the environmental

51

equality and the human health. Delhi's air is choking with pollutant PM

2.5. PM 2.5 is only 2.5 microns in diameter is very small particle. The

diameter of a human hair strand is around 40-120. Being so small, it

escapes emission apparatus prescribed by Euro II and III. Any kind of

combustion, especially of vehicular origin, contains this particle. If PM

2.5 is not regulated it will ensure major health hazards. The number of

Asthma patients will rise and in future, there may huge rise of lung

cancer cases. The toxic value of PM 2.5 is such that metals like lead

present in the PM 2.5 get inhaled deeper into lungs which deposits

there. The children are most affected by depositing lead due to inhaling

the poisonous air. The increasing amount of PM 2.5 is like a poison in

the air we breathe. Researchers believe particulates, or tiny particles of

soot, interfere with the respiratory system because they are so small

they can be breathed deeply into the lungs. Toxic smog is set to engulf

New Delhi once again this winter after a six-year respite because of the

huge number of new cars clogging the roads. New Delhi adds nearly

1,000 new cars a day to the existing four million registered in the city,

almost twice as many as before 2000. Pollution levels are up to 350

micrograms per cubic meter in 2006-2007 and the levels of nitrogen

oxides have been increasing in the city to dangerous levels, which is a

clear sign of pollution from vehicles. Of these, the diesel cars are

responsible for the pollution. Diesel- run vehicles constituted just two

percent of the total number of cars on Delhi's roads seven years ago

compared to more than 30 percent today and a projected 50 percent by

2010.Diesel is being increasingly used because it is a cheaper fuel.

Diesel emissions can trigger asthma and in the end even cause lung

cancer.

52

A survey by the Central Pollution Control Board and the All

India Institute of Medical Sciences survey showed that a majority of

people living in Delhi suffered from eye irritation, cough, sore throat,

shortness of breath and poor lung functioning. One in 10 people have

asthma in Delhi. Worse, the winter months bring respiratory attacks

and wheezing too many non-asthmatics who are old, who smoke, have

respiratory infections or chronic bronchitis. Across the national capital

and its suburbs, polluted air is killing people, bringing down the

quality of life, and leaving people feeling ill and tired.

Some studies show children are among the worst affected by the

dense haze that often shrouds the city, and doctors frequently tell

parents to keep their children indoors when smog levels are

particularly high. In a survey of almost 12,000 city schoolchildren late

last year, 17 percent reported coughing, wheezing or breathlessness,

compared to just eight percent of children in a rural area.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

India emits the fifth most carbon of any country in the world. At

253 million metric tons, only the U.S., China, Russia, and Japan

surpassed its level of carbon emissions in 1998. Carbon emissions have

grown nine-fold over the past forty years. In this Industrial Age, with

the ever-expanding consumption of hydrocarbon fuels and the resultant

increase in carbon dioxide emissions, those greenhouse gas

concentrations have reached levels causing climate change. Going

forward, carbon emissions are forecast to grow 3.2% per annum until

2020. To put this in perspective, carbon emissions levels are estimated

to increase by 3.9% for China and by 1.3% for the United States. India

is a non-Annex I country under the United Nations Framework

53

Convention on Climate Change, and as such, is not required to reduce

its carbon emissions. In India, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from

fossil fuel are increasing rapidly and cause global warming.

All inhabitants of our planet have an equal right to the

atmosphere, but the industrialized countries have greatly exceeded

their fair, per-capita share of the planet’s atmospheric resources and

have induced climate change. The most developed countries possess

the capital, technological and human resources required for successful

adaptation, while in the developing countries, a large proportion of the

population is engaged in traditional farming that is particularly

vulnerable to the changes in temperature, rainfall and extreme weather

events associated with climate change.

According to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and

the Kyoto Protocol, the most industrialized countries are mainly

responsible for causing climate change. Thus, equity requires that they

should sharply reduce their emissions in order to arrest further climate

change and allow other countries access to their fair share of

atmospheric resources in order to develop.

5Most polluted places in India

Vapi in Gujarat and Sukinda in Orrisa is among the world's top

10 most polluted places, according to the Blacksmith Institute, a New

York-based nonprofit group.

Vapi: Potentially affected people: 71,000 -Pollutants: Chemicals and

heavy metals due to its Industrial estates.

Sukinda: Potentially affected people: 2,600,000. -Pollutants:

Hexavalent chromium due to its Chromate mines.

54

THE MOST POLLUTED CITIES IN INDIA

As many as 51 Indian cities have extremely high air pollution,

Lucknow, Raipur, Faridabad and Ahmedabad topping the list. An

environment and forest ministry report, released on September 14,

2007 has identified 51 cities that do not meet the prescribed Respirable

Particulate Matter (RSPM) levels, specified under the National

Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). In 2005, an Environmental

Sustainability Index (ESI) placed India at 101st position among 146

countries.

Taking a cue from the finding, the Central Pollution Control Board

(CPCB) formulated NAAQS and checked the air quality, which led to

the revelation about air quality in leading cities. According to the

report, Gobindgarh in Punjab is the most polluted city, and Ludhiana,

Raipur and Lucknow hold the next three positions. Faridabad on the

outskirt of Delhi is the 10th most polluted city, followed by Agra, the

city of Taj Mahal. Ahmedabad is placed 12th, Indore 16th, Delhi 22nd,

Kolkata 25th, Mumbai 40th, Hyderabad 44th and Bangalore stands at

46th in the list. The Orissa town of Angul, home to National

Aluminium Company (NALCO), is the 50th polluted city of the

country.

AIR QUALITY IN MEGA CITIES IN WORLD AND INDIA

A mega city is defined as a city with an estimated population of

more than 10 million people by year 2000. Air pollution cause a series

health problems in some of the world biggest cities, and now it has

become an inescapable part of urban life everywhere. According to the

WHO and UNEP air pollution is serious threat to the cities of the

55

world. The report “urban air pollution” in mega cities of the world

approached the same levels of notorious London smog of 1952. Of the

mega cities, the Mexico is the worst affected city among the other

followed by Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and others.

Motor vehicle traffic is a major source of air pollution. The

present total number of vehicles about 630 million in the world is

expected to double with in 20 years. The pollution from the vehicles

directly affects the human beings and cause several diseases. A recent

study in St Georgia hospital medical school clears that the link between

pollution and heart attacks. Nearly 50 heart attacks are due to out door

air pollution in London. In India according to the CSE study, there has

been an increase of 28 percent in premature death of air pollution over

the last three, four years but only little is being done to deal with the

problem. According to the estimate, 51779 people have died

prematurely in 36 Indian mega cities because of air pollution in 1995,

as against 40351 in 1991-92.

In the 36 Indian cities, the number cases of sickness requiring

medical treatment has risen from 19 million in 1991-92 to 25 million in

1995. In the economy terms rupees 4600crores are spending for the

sickness. The air pollution situation in 19 Indian cities has become

critical Kanpur tops the other cities. Dehradun and jaipur are also the

polluted cities among the other cities. According to the CPCB, there is

a huge hike in the increase of air pollution in 36 cities in India, and the

death increased. In Calcutta, pollution related death have doubled in 3-

4 years. I.e. 5726 in 1991-92 and 10700 in 1995. Delhi has witnessed a

32% increase in death due to air pollution (from 7500 to 9900). The

56

world health organization (WHO) report shows that the cities are

becoming like throwbacks to an Auschwitz nightmare gas chambers.

More than 600 million people live in cities, which have high levels of

SO2 in the air. 1.2 billion Suffer unacceptable levels of SPM. Bombay,

Delhi, and Calcutta rank worst polluted cities in the world. Bangkok

tops the list. The worlds 12 most polluted cities in decreasing order are

Bangkok, Beijing, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Karachi, losangles,

manila, Moscow, new York, Rio de Janeiro and Tokyo.

India’s metropolitan city which generate alarming levels of

vehicular pollutants are Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, Bangalore,

Ahamadabad, Pune, Madras, Hydrabad, Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow, and

Nagpur. Cities in the poor and developing countries have suspended air

pollutants. A study conducted by the Maharastra govt. with the support

from the World Bank revealed that the increasing levels of CO, SPM,

and NO2 have caused a proliferation of heart and respiratory disease

among the Bombay population, which shows the higher death rate of

20 percent higher than the other states in India. In the past 15 years, the

incidence of breathless, cough, chest pain, and high blood pressure in

most polluted part of Bombay has gone up by 10 percent. Winter sees a

20-30 percent increase in cases related to asthma and bronchitis.

In India, it is clear that industrial and vehicular pollution is the

main culprit. Because of developing competition in on the track. The

trend analysis for the year 1978-1991 indicates that SPM is high,

followed by NOx and the SO2 is low compared to other pollutants.

Several study shows that daily pollution load from transport is 1550

tons per day and 418 tones from industrial sector per day. The thermal

57

power plant and domestic sector release 91 and 23 tones per day

respectively. Thus vehicular pollution in the major source in polluting

in the air. Another main threat is increase in population. Some

countries in the world increased the price of the oil and petroleum to

reduce the use of vehicle but in the case of developing countries, it is

not possible because the increase in population will lead to the usage of

petrol.

URBAN AIR QUALITY MONITORING IN MEGA CITIES

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP) operate an air pollution-monitoring

network as part of the Global Environment Monitoring System which

was set up in 1974. This network has enabled monitoring equipment to

be established in more than 50 cities of the world in 35 countries.

Initially sulphur dioxide (SO2), suspended particulate matter (SPM)

and lead were monitored, but in 1991, the network was expanded to

measure SPM less than 10 microns in diameter, carbon monoxide

(CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ozone (O3).

The Quality of Air in World Mega cities and in India

Results of the WHO / UNEP study of mega cities show that the

most severe air pollution is monitored in cities in developing countries,

but that air pollution is a widespread problem in mega cities with at

least one major air pollutant exceeding health guidelines in all of the

20 mega cities studied.The data published by WHO is presented in the

index 2.7

58

Major pollution affecting the mega cities are mention under the

following points

Air pollution is a widespread problem in mega cities. The main

pollutant of concern is suspended particulate matter. In addition, the

mega cities experiencing high SPM levels usually also experience high

sulphur dioxide levels. These pollutants can act synergistically,

exacerbating health problems. Pollutants arising from vehicle

emissions are also a major cause of poor air quality in mega cities.

There is a great need to implement control measures in most of the

mega cities of the world to improve air quality and hence protect

public health. As many of the developing countries are becoming more

industrialized, emissions of air pollutants are likely to increase

dramatically as exemplified in the past by mega cities in developed

countries. There is also a great need to improve the air pollution

monitoring capabilities in many of the mega cities; at present data,

availability is hardly comparable between the mega cities.

Suspended Particulate Matter

The worst pollutant affecting the mega cities as a whole is

suspended particulate matter (SPM), particularly amongst mega cities

in the continent of Asia. This is of particular concern, as high levels of

SPM related to increased mortality rates, and in many of the mega

cities in developing countries health care for acute cases is less

proficient than in developed countries. The sources of SPM are varied

and can include natural sources such as wind blown dust from desert

areas and the generally more toxic SPM from manufactured sources

such as power generation, motor vehicles (particularly diesel) and

industrial processes. The three-mega cities, which meet WHO

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guidelines, are those, which have undergone large-scale control

measures to reduce fabricated SPM.

Sulphur Dioxide

Many of the mega cities have reduced emissions of SO2 through

changes in fuel use from high sulphur coal and oil to cleaner fuels such

as natural gas. Three mega cities, Beijing, Mexico City and Seoul

continue to have serious SO2 problems, although the closure of a major

refinery in Mexico City is expected to lead to a reduction in levels

there. In Shanghai, SO2 is a problem due to its heavy dependence on

coal.

Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and Lead

The main source of these pollutants, and hydrocarbons which are

not monitored in all the mega cities, is road vehicles. The number of

cars across the world has grown tenfold since 1950 to around 630

million vehicles, and is expected to double within the next 20 - 30

years. Although leaded petrol has been phased out or greatly reduced

in many countries, serious lead problems are still experienced in Cairo

and Karachi. Lead has serious health implications particularly for

infants and young children

6TYPES OF EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is now becoming a widespread problem and every

human being is facing the problem caused by air pollution. Its impact

can be seen at all levels in the country. The manifestations are in the

form of alterations in visibility, intensity of sunshine, acid rain, change

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of climate by rise of temperature, melting of snow, and increase in

Carbon dioxide, increase in particulates, holes in Ozone layer, etc.

In the following points, detailed attention is devoted to the kinds

and magnitudes of effects to be produce by air pollution. They may be

grouped under five general points.

Visibility Reduction

Historically the earliest noted and currently the most easily

observed effect of air pollution is the reduction of visibility reduction

produced by the scattering light from the surface of air borne particles.

The degree of light obstruction is related to particle size, aerosol

density, thickness of the affected air mass, and certain more subtle

physical factors. Either particulates responsible for the phenomenon

may be primary pollutants, e.g. coal smoke, or secondary pollutants

e.g. photo chemical smog. At times London and East American cities

have been so seriously affected by pollution reduction in visibility as to

have experienced severe curtailment of transport and other municipal

activities. The attenuation of ultraviolet and other radiations reaching

the surface through layers of aerosols may be associated with adverse

physiological effects in man and vegetation.

Material damage

Direct damage to structural metals, surface coatings, fabrics and

other materials of commerce is a frequent and whispered effect of air

pollution. The total loss from these and the incidental increase in

cleansing and protective activities are not known accurately. However,

have been estimated a huge amount. The destruction is related to many

types of pollutants, but is chiefly attribute to acid mist, oxidants of

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various kinds, H2S, and particulate products of combustion and

industrial processing. Secondary pollutants also contribute its share.

For example, O3 is known to cause rapid and an extensive damage to

many kinds of rubber goods and textiles.

Agriculture damage

Air pollution has caused widespread damage to trees, fruits,

vegetables, flowers and in general vegetation as a whole. The total loss

from these and the incidental increase in cleansing and protective

activities are not known accurately. However, have been estimated a

huge amount. Curtailed value results from various types of leaf

damage, stunning growth, decreased size, and yield of fruits, and

destruction of flowers. When the absorption of Sulfur dioxide exceeds

a particular level, the cells become inactive and are killed, resulting in

tissue collapse and drying of leaves. Cotton, wheat, barley and apple

are more sensitive to this pollutant. Fluorides, Smog also causes injury

to plants. Chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, is also harmful to

vegetation.

Physiological effects on man and domestic animals

Donora, Pose Rica, London and the Meuse Valley of Belgium

have given dramatic proof that air pollution can kill, and together with

other evidence, they have implied less shocking but more extensive

effects of air pollutants on the health of affected populations. Some

environmental poisons can cause acute illness and even death. Air

pollution mainly affects the respiratory system. Bronchitis,

emphysema, asthma and lung cancer caused due to exposure to

polluted air. Lung cancer is caused mainly because carcinogens are

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found in polluted air. Its morality rate is higher in urban areas. Sulfur

dioxide cause cough, shortness of breath, spas of the larynx and acute

irritation to the membranes of the eyes. SO2 also act as an allergenic

agent. When it reacts with some compounds, sulfuric acid is formed

which may damage lungs. Carbon monoxide often affects the oxygen

carrying capacity of blood. Nitric oxide is reported to be a pulmonary

irritant and its excess concentration may cause pulmonary

hemorrhaged. Hydrogen sulfide is also toxic. Lead emitted from

automobile exhausts is a cumulative poison, is dangerous particularly

to children, and may cause brain damage. The particulate pollutants

such as asbestos, silica, carbon, beryllium, lead are capable of exerting

a noxious local action in the interstitial areas of the lungs. Radioactive

elements are also harmful to man and other living organisms.

Psychological effects

Since fear is a recognizable element in public reactions to air

pollution, the psychological aspects of the phenomenon cannot be

ignored. Psychosomatic illnesses are possibly related to inadequate

knowledge of a published threat. Little efforts have been directed

towards evaluation of such impacts in relation to general mental health

of affected groups or determination of their role in individual neuroses.

Only in practical politics has any significant action been based on

recognition of the psychological attitudes induced by periodic public

exposures to an air borne threat.

Health influences of specific air pollutants

Some of these gases can seriously and adversely affect the health

of the population and should be given due attention by the concerned

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authority. The gases mentioned below are mainly outdoor air

pollutants but some of them can and do occur indoor depending on the

source and the circumstances.

Tobacco smoke: Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful

chemicals and is a major cause of ill health, as it causes cancer, to not

only the smoker but affecting passive smokers too. It is well-known

that smoking affects the passive smoker (the person who is in the

vicinity of a smoker and is not himself/herself a smoker) ranging from

burning sensation in the eyes or nose, and throat irritation, to cancer,

bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in lung function. Biological

Pollutants. These are mostly allergens that can cause asthma, hay

fever, and other allergic diseases. Volatile organic compounds.

Volatile compounds can cause irritation of the eye, nose and throat. In

severe cases, there may be headaches, nausea, and loss of

coordination. In the longer run, some of them are suspected to cause

damage to the liver and other parts of the body.

Formaldehyde: Exposure causes irritation to the eyes, nose and may

cause allergies in some people.

Lead: Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous system,

digestive problems, and in some cases cause cancer. It is especially

hazardous to small children.

Radon: A radioactive gas that can accumulate inside the house, it

Originates from the rocks and soil under the house and its level is

dominated by the outdoor air and to some extent the other gases being

emitted indoors. Exposure to this gas increases the risk of lung cancer.

Ozone: Exposure to this gas makes our eyes itch, burn, and water and

it has also been associated with increase in respiratory disorders such

as asthma. It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia.

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Oxides of Nitrogen: This gas can make children susceptible to

respiratory diseases in the winters.

Carbon monoxide: CO (carbon monoxide) combines with

hemoglobin to lessen the amount of oxygen that enters our blood

through our lungs. The binding with other haeme proteins causes

changes in the function of the affected organs such as the brain and the

cardiovascular system, and also the developing fetus. It can impair our

concentration, slow our reflexes, and make us confused and sleepy.

Sulphur dioxide: SO2 (sulphur-dioxide) in the air is caused due to the

rise in combustion of fossil fuels. It can oxidize and form sulphuric

acid mist. SO2 in the air leads to diseases of the lung and other lung

disorders such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Long-term effects

are more difficult to ascertain as SO2 exposure is often combined with

that of SPM.

SPM (suspended particulate matter):

Suspended matter consists of dust, fumes, mist and smoke. The

main chemical component of SPM that is of major concern is lead,

others being nickel, arsenic, and those present in diesel exhaust. These

particles when breathed in, lodge in our lung tissues and cause lung

damage and respiratory problems. The importance of SPM as a major

pollutant needs special emphasis as a) it affects more people globally

than any other pollutant on a continuing basis; b) there is more

monitoring data available on this than any other pollutant; and c) more

epidemiological evidence has been collected on the exposure to this

than to any other pollutant. Some of the specific air pollutants are

presented in the index 2.8

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Economic Effect of Air Pollution:

Air pollution damage to property is a very important economic

aspect of pollution. Air pollution damage to property covers a wide

range - corrosion of metals, soiling and eroding of building surfaces,

fading of dyed materials, rubber cracking, spoiling or destruction of

vegetation, effects on animals, as well as interference with production

and services. Another important economic effect of air pollution is

deterioration of works of art.

From the above points, it is clear that a serious and strict action is

needed to control air pollution around the world specially developing

countries like India. Because countries ongoing population growth,

industrialization and urbanization leads to a heavy air pollution.

1Anon,“Environmental change and human health, in world resources”, New York Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1998 2 Arthur C. Stern. Air Pollution. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1976. 3Bhavana Trivedi, Sangeetha Jain, “Environmental issues in India”, Discovery publishing House, New Delhi, 2007. 4 www.unep.org 5Najma Heptulla, “Environmental protection in developing countries”, Oxford and IBH publishing company pvt ltd, New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta 1993 6Herman Koren, Michal Bisesi, “Environmental health and safety” Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai 1999