DEVELOPMENTFrom cradle to grave -- major issues, methods, prenatal development, theories

I. Development involves the processes and stages of growth from conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive, and social behaviors.

II. Major issues

A. Nature versus nurture-are we more affected by heredity or environment?B. Continuity versus discontinuity-is developmental change gradual, or do we

progress through distinct stages?

III. Methods

A. Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in time.

B. Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many years.C. In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are studied periodically.D. Historical research revolves around the particular historical circumstances of an

era

IV. Prenatal developmentA. Physical development

1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development2. Proximodistal (from the center outward) development

C. Genetics1. Genotype refers to the total genetic composition of a person.2. Phenotype refers to the observable features of the person.

D. Teratogens are disease agents, drugs, and other environmental agents that can cause birth defects during the prenatal period.

V. Infancy

A. Physical development1. Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during

any other postnatal period.2. Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and

replace reflexes.B. Social development

1. Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort.

2. Attachment stylea. Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact, and

interaction with the caregiver after separation.b. Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the

caregiver after separation.c. Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at

about 18 months.E. Cognitive development

1. Infants show a preference for face-like patterns2. Visual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the

time they are able to crawl.

Childhood and Adolescence

I. ChildhoodA. Physical development

1. more extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain2. Growth rate continues to decline

B. Social development1. Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity.2. A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin to

become more important.

C. Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in the areas of

1. Leaming2. Language3. Thinking skills

II. AdolescenceA. Physical/ sexual development-pubertyB. Social development

1. Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.2. Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more

intimateC. Cognitive development

1. Capability for logical, hypothetical, and introspective thinking develops2. Growing awarenesss of one's own mental processes develops-

metacognition

Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy, and eating disorders.

III. Adult and later yearsI. Adulthood

A. Physical changes 1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1% a year) decline.2. Women undergo menopause, with its hormonal and reproductive changes.

B. Social changes center around such issues as:1. Mate selection2. Parenting 3. Career selection

C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines and others not.

1. Reaction time appears to decline.2. Some adults show a decline in memory.

II. Later yearsA. Physical changes

1. There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities2.Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may

develop.B.Social issues include:

1. Retirement 2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack

of mobility and declining healthC.Cognitive declines are likely to continue.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

A. Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months1. Characteristics

a. Cognitive structures or schema are the means by which humans acquire and apply knowledge about their world.

b. Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain new information.

c. Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the face of newly realized complexities in the environment.

2. Developmental achievementsa. Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as

they gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexively.b. object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to

exist even when --hidden from view.

B. Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years1. Characteristics

a. Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced.

b. Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.c. Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product

of human action. 2. Developmental achievements

a. Symbolic representation and languageb. Readiness for operational thought

C. Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence1. Characteristics

a. Use of simple logicb. Use of simple mental manipulations

2. Developmental achievementsa. Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or

decrease because of a change in form.b. Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations

can be undone.c. Class inclusion is the ability to understand the hierarchical

nature of classification groups.

D. Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood1. Characteristics.

a. Hypothetical and deductive reasoning.b. Propositional logic

2. Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual tasks.

3. Not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability.

E. Critique of Piaget1. Development may be more gradual than Piaget's stages imply.2. The nature of Piaget's tasks may have underestimated cognitive

skills of children.

Kohlberg's theory of moral developmentA. Preconventional level

1. Stage 1: characterized by avoidance of punishment2. Stage 2: characterized by a desire to further one's own interests

B. Conventional level1. Stage 3: characterized by living up to the expectations of others2. Stage 4: characterized by a sense of conscience and "doing one's duty"

C. Postconventional level

1. Stage 5: characterized by an understanding that values and rules are relative but generally need to be upheld

2. S Psychology tage 6: characterized by universal ethical principles

D. Critique of Kohlberg1. Development may be more gradual and less sequential than Kohlberg's

stages imply.2. Gilligan and others have criticized the theory for undervaluing traditional

female traits, which focus on interpersonal issues.

Erikson's psychosocial theory of developmentI. Background

A. Erikson was trained in the Freudian tradition, and the first four stages borrow from Freud's psychosexual stages.

B. The developmental task of each stage involves resolving the tension between two opposite outcomes.

II. The stagesA. Trust versus mistrust -infantsB. Autonomy versus shame and doubt -toddlersC. Iniative versus guilt -young childrenD. Industry versus inferiority -older childrenE. Identity versus role confusion -adolescentsF. Intimacy versus isolation -young adultsG. Generativity versus stagnation -adultsH. Ego integrity versus despair -elderly

III. Critique of Erikson A. There is no agreed-upon set of measures for the various stages.B. The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist.C. The theory may not reflect differences in personality development

between men and women.

DEVELOPMENTDevelopmental Psychology- Study of the changes that occur in people from birth through old age.Cross sectional study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining groupsof subjects who are of different ages.Cohort- Group of people born during the same period in historical timeLongitudinal study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining the samegroup of subjects two or more times, as they grow older.Biographical or retrospective study- Method of studying developmental changes byreconstructing subject’s past through interviews and investigating the effects of events that occurred in the past on current behaviors.Prenatal- Development from conception to birthEmbryo-Developing human between 2 weeks and 3 months after conceptionFetus- Developing human between 3 months after conception and birthPlacenta- Organ by which an embryo or fetus is attached to its mother’s uterus and thatnourishes it during prenatal development.Critical period- Time when certain internal and external influences have a major effect on development; at other periods, the same influences will have little or no effectNeonate - Newborn babyRooting reflex- Reflex that causes a newborn to turn its head toward something touchingits cheek and to grope around with its mouthSwallowing reflex- Reflex that enables the newborn baby to swallow liquids without chokingGrasping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to close their fists around anythingthat is put in their hands

Stepping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to make little stepping motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surfacetemperament- Term used by psychologists to describe the physical/emotionalcharacteristics of the newborn child and young infant; also referred to as personalityMaturation- Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of the passage of timeDevelopmental norms-Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestonesSensorimotor stage- In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development between birth and 2 years of age, in which the individual develops object permanence and acquires the ability to form mental representationsObject permanence -The concept that things continue to exist even when they are out of sightMental representation- Mental image or symbol used to think about or remember an object, a person, or an eventPreoperational stage- In Piaget’s theory the stage of cognitive development.between 2 and 7, in which the individual becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe remember and reasonEgocentric- Unable to see things from another’s point of viewFormal operations- In Piaget’s theory, the state between 11 and 15, in which the indiv.becomes capable of abstract thought Holophrase- One-word sentences, commonly used by children under 2Language acquisition device- An internal mechanism for processing speech that is ‘wired In to’ all humansImprinting- Form of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals’ the newborn animal has a tendency to follow the first moving thing it sees after it is born or hatchedAttachment- Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort Autonomy- Sense of independence; desire not to be controlled by othersSocialization- Process by which children learn the behaviors and attitudes appropriate to their family and their culturesolitary play- A child engaged in some activity alone; the earliest form of playParallel play- Two children playing side by side at the same activities, paying little or no Attention to each other; the earliest kind of social interaction between toddlersCooperative play- Two or more children engaged in play that requires interactionSex role awareness- A little girl’s knowledge that she is a girl and a little boy’s knowledge that he is a boyGender constancy- The realization by a child that gender cannot be changedSex role awareness- Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each genderSex-typed behavior- Socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys and girlsPuberty- Onset of sexual maturation, with accompanying physical developmentMenarche- First menstrual periodImaginary audience- Elkind’s term for adolescents; delusion that they are constantly being observed by othersPersonal fable- Elkind’s term for adolescents; delusion that they are unique, very important and invulnerableIdentity formation- Erikson’s term for the development of a stable sense of self necessityto make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneselfIdentity crisis- Period of intense self-examination and decision making’ part of the process of identity formationPeer group- A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one anotheremotional and social support

Clique- Group of adolescents with similar interests and strong mutual attachmentAnorexia nervosa- A serious eating disorder that is associated with an intense fear of  weight gain and a distorted body imageBulimia- An eating disorder characterized by binges of eating followed by self induced vomitingmidlife crisis- A time when adults discover they no longer feel fulfilled in their jobs or  personal lives and attempt to make a decisive shift in career or lifestyleMidlife transition- According to Levinson, a process whereby adults assess the past andformulate new goals for the futureMenopause- Time in a woman’s life when menstruation ceasesAlzheimer’s disease- A disorder common in late adulthood that is characterized by progressive losses in memory and changes in personality. It is believed to be caused by a deterioration of the brain’s structure and function.

DEVELOPMENT QUIZ

1. Some researchers consider developmental psychology an applied research topic because

A. it is more easily applied to people’s lives than research such as behaviorism. B. Researchers apply findings and theories from other areas of psychology to the

specific topic of human development C. It is more commonly studied by a graduate student rather than an undergraduate

because of the applications for other research. D. Doing original research in this area is difficult, so most of the research is about

application. E. Pure research is difficult to gain support for, especially when a researcher needs to

recruit children as participants.

2. You read in your philosophy class textbook that humans are born “Tabula Rasa” or “blank slates.” As a student of psychology, which of the following responses would you have?

A. The statement is incorrect. Humans may be bon without reflexes and instincts, but we are born with the ability to learn them.

B. The statement is correct. Humans are born without instincts or other mechanisms in place to help us survive.

C. The statement is correct. Humans are born with a certain number of neurons, but most develop later as we learn.

D. The statement is incorrect. Humans are born with a set of reflexes that help us survive.

E. The statement is impossible to prove since we cannot infer what babies know or do not know due to their lack of language.

3. Which of the following statements is most true about how a newborn’s senses function?

A. A newborn’s senses function the same as an adult’s since the sensory apparatus develops in the womb.

B. All of our senses function normally when we are newborns except taste due to lack of stimulation in the womb.

C. All of our senses function normally when we are newborns except touch due to lack of stimulation in the womb.

D. A newborn’s senses function at a very low level but develop very quickly with experience.

E. Most senses function normally, but sight develops slowly with experience.

4. Most prenatal influences on humans are genetic or hormonal in origin except for

A. teratogens. B. Stress on the mother. C. Parents’ level of education about fetal development. D. Family history of mental illness.

Operant conditioning occurring before birth.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erikson was one of the first psychologists to insist that development was a life-long process rather than coming to completion at puberty or adolescence. He conceptualized eight stages spanning from birth to old age. Erikson defined these stages with a focus on tasks that each individual must master. Unsuccessful resolution of these tasks would leave a "psychological scar." Erikson's stages were developed in response to Freud's psychosexual stage theory. Whereas Freud thought that each stage was represented by a sexual crisis. Erikson thought that each stage was distinguished by a psychosocial crisis. Erikson took into account the impact of the larger society on development.

Erikson's Stages:

Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1-year): Feeling that people will take care of you vs. viewing the world as a cold, fearsome place.

The basic crisis at this stage is the infant's hope and faith that someone cares about and will take care of him or her versus a dread or fear of being abandoned. If parents consistently and successfully meet the infant's needs, the infant learns to trust his or her environment. According to Erikson, the infant's first social achievement is the willingness to let the mother out of sight without anxiety or rage because he or she is certain the mother will return. If parents do NOT successfully meet the infant's needs, the infant develops a mistrust and fear of people and objects in the environment. Failure to develop this trust also results in adults who display psychopathology of withdrawal and depression.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3-years): Independence through exploring and "testing"others vs. doubt that you can succeed.

The basic crisis at this stage is the toddler's assertion of independence through exploring and testing limits versus the toddler being made to feel ashamed for maintaining independence. "Potty training" is an important issue. Successful resolution of the crisis occurs when parents allow toddlers some autonomy (say be giving them choices) but at the same time impose some limits. This results in the development of willpower on the part of the toddler.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years): Ability to take initiative and follow through vs. guilt when others discourage this behavior.

The basis crisis is the development of the child's ability to initiate activity and see those activities through. Guilt arises from parental discouragement of a child's initiative, although Erikson argues that the parent must forbid some inappropriate behaviors, but in a manner that does not make the child feel guilty for initiating the activity. Successful resolution leaves the child with a sense of purpose and direction and confidence in planning. Unsuccessful resolution leaves the child with a feeling of unworthiness and a fear that almost everything self-initiated will go wrong.

Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 11 years): Learning culture's skills and deriving feelings of competence from peers vs. feeling inferior relative to peers.

The basic crisis if the for the child to learn the skills of the culture, usually in a school setting. For Erikson, school marked the child's entrance into real life. The child's constant testing of self in school and against peers is the basis for feelings of competency (industry) or lack of it (inferiority). At this stage, children are eager to be productive and learn the fundamentals of technology. If encouraged, a child will enjoy solving problems and completing tasks, and will seek intellectual stimulation. If not, a sense of inferiority will arise. However, Erikson cautions that, "If he accepts work as his only obligation, and 'what works' as his only criterion of worthwhileness, he may become the conformist and thoughtless slave of his technology and those who are in a position to exploit it."

Identify vs. Role Confusion (12 to 20 years): Asking the question "Who am I?" by trying on roles within a secure environment vs. lack of exploration and delayed sense of self.

Successful resolution of this crisis involves the development of a sense of identity, of reconciling various roles in life into a single identity. Ego identity also involves a confidence that one has a sense of sameness and continuity that is apparent to others. Unsuccessful resolution involves confusion and uncertainty over self-identity.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adults): Committing to a close, sharing relationship, surrenderingsome independence vs. keep total independence and isolation.

Successful resolution involves giving up some isolation and developing health} bonds love with another. Unsuccessful resolution involves loneliness and may possibly lead to promiscuity (Meredith Gray?). Those choosing isolation are ready, if necessary, to destroy those people who seem dangerous to them, thus the development of prejudice.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adults): Developing a concern for establishing and guiding the next generation (expanding one's concerns beyond one's immediate group to that of society and future generations) vs. feeling unfulfilled and becoming self-centered.

Successful resolution of this conflict may involve having and nurturing children, teaching, taking on younger proteges, or by productive and creative work that will live on. Unsuccessful resolution involves stagnation and selfishness.

Integrity vs. Despair (65 years on): Accepting the life one has lived without major regrets vs. despair that time has run out.

Ego integrity is the culmination of the successful resolution of the seven previous crises in development. It is an acceptance of the life one has lived without major regrets for what could or should have been done differently. The person who cannot accept the basic way his life has been lived may despair that time has run out. Many of those experiencing despair are very afraid of death. Successful resolution involves wisdom and acceptance of being in the final stages of life.

Development

Developmental PsychologyNature vs. Nurture Continuity vs. StageStability vs. ChangePrenatal development

o Conceptiono Zygoteo Embryoo Fetus

TeratogensFetal Alcohol SyndromeReflexeso Rooting reflexo Moro reflexo Babinski reflexo Grasping reflexo Sucking reflex

HabituationInfancy & Childhood Physical Development

Brain development Motor development

Maturation

Infant memoryCognitive developmentJean Piaget

Schemas Assimilation Accommodation

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor

o Object permanenceo Stanger anxiety

Preoperationalo Egocentric

o Pretend playo Theory of mindo Language development

Concrete operationalo Conservationo Mathematical transformations

Formal operationalo Abstract logico Moral reasoning

AutismReflections on Piaget’s theorySocial DevelopmentStranger anxietyAttachmentHarry Harlow’s monkeysCritical periodKonrad Lorenzo Imprinting

Mary Ainswortho Attachment differences

o Secure attachmento Insecure attachment

Deprivation of attachmentDisruption of attachmentDay care and attachment

Self-conceptChild-rearing practiceso Authoritarian parentso Authoritative parentso Permissive parents

AdolescenceAdolescencePubertyPhysical development o Primary sex characteristicso Secondary sex characteristicso Menarcheo Spermarche

Cognitive developmentReasoning powerDeveloping moralityLawrence Kohlbergo Preconventional moralityo Conventional moralityo Postconventional morality

Criticisms of KohlbergSocial Development Erik EriksonPsychosocial stages of developmento Trust vs. mistrusto Autonomy vs. shame and doubto Initiative vs. guilto Competence vs. inferiorityo Identity vs. role confusiono Intimacy vs. isolationo Generativity vs. stagnationo Integrity vs. despair

IdentityParent and Peer influence

AdulthoodPhysical development

o Changes during middle adulthoodo Menopause

o Changes during late adulthoodo Life expectancy o Sensory abilitieso Dementia o Alzheimer’s disease

Cognitive developmento Aging and memory

o Prospective memoryo Aging and Intelligence

o Cross-sectional studieso Longitudinal studieso Crystallized intelligenceo Fluid intelligence

o Social DevelopmentAdulthood ages and stages

o Social clock Life events Commitments Love

o Worko Death & Dyingo Kübler-Ross model

Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance

Developmental PsychologyVocabulary

1. Developmental psychology2. Stages of development: germinal, embryonic, fetal3. Zygote

4. Embryo5. Fetus6. Teratogens7. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)8. Reflexes9. Rooting reflex10. Habituation11. Maturation12. Schemas13. Assimilation14. Accommodation15. Piaget's stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete16. operational, formal operational17. Object permanence18. Conservation19. Reversibility20. Egocentrism21. Theory of mind22. Attachment23. Imprinting24. Self-concept25. Kohlberg's stages of moral development: preconventional, conventional,

postconvential26. Stranger anxiety27. Basic trust28. Identity29. Intimacy

30. Menopause31. Social clock32. Puberty33. Primary/secondary sex characteristics34. Menarche35. Erickson's stages of psychosocial development: (know all 8. approximate age, and

crisis36. associate with each)37. Stranger anxiety38. Jerome Kagan's research on infant temperament39. Harry Harlow's monkey studies40. Parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative41. Alzheimer's disease42. Crystallized intelligence vs. fluid intelligence43. Generativity44. Elizabeth Kuber-Ross' five stages of dying: denial, anger and resentment,

bargaining, depression, acceptance

Infant and Toddler Development

Development — the changes we go through during our

lifetime Physical, social, cognitive, moral

Major questions:1) Nature v. Nurture - How much do genes and experience influence our development?2) Continuity v. Discontinuity - Is development a gradual continuous

process, or does it proceed throughseparate stages

3) Stability v. Change — Do personality traits stay the same throughout life or do they change?

From reading:Zygote - fertilized eggEmbryo - developing human up to 8 weeks after conceptionFetus - developing human from 8 weeks to birthRooting reflex - innate tendency for infants to search for a nipple when cheek is stroked.

Other reflexes:Moro reflex - when startled, baby will throw arms and legs out and head back and then pull them into bodyToe curling reflex - stroke outer sole and baby spreads toes, stroke inner sole and baby curls toes.Sucking reflex - touch roof of baby's mouth and she will suckGrasping reflex - put finger in baby's palm and baby will grabTonic Neck Reflex - if baby's head is turned to side, baby makes "on guard" move with arms

Maturation — development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint Trends in physical development

O developmental norms (there is variation in the times, but not the sequence) o proximodistal trend, cephalocaudal trend

Myth #1: A.II social behavior in humans is learned. Truth: ^\ewborn's senses facilitate social responsiveness,

- See best 8-12" away- Turn toward human voice - Gaze longer at facelike objects- Identify mother's smell

Myth #2: Children who are exposed to man] adults are less distressed leaving their parentsTruth: Separation anxiety begins around age 8 months and peaks at 13 months worldwide regardless of day care experience.

Myth #3: Rabies become attached to their mothers because the] -.issochit? them with food. Truth: Soft, warm contact is more important that food in the tontiatioii of parent-child attachment. Harlow's monkey's (p. 134-135)

monkeys raised with cloth and wire "mother" preferred cloth mother, even if wire mother has food.Harlow tried different variables: cold vs. warm mother, mothers that rocked vs. still mothers

Myth #4: Children need parents to keep them safe and meet their physical needs. Love and affection is not necessary for healthy physical andemotional development.Truth: Meeting physical needs of a child is not sufficient for healthy development.

monkeys raised in isolation became withdrawn, fearful, despairing, strongly attached to blanket

- children who are severely neglected tend to have lower serotonin levels and display inreased aggression

Children in overcrowded Romanian orphanages (where physical needs were met but nurses had no time for affection) were both physically and cognitively delayed.

Myth #5: Infants have a critical period for attaching to their caregivers (like the geese in Conrad's imprinting studies). It is very important that mothers bond with their children in the first few hours of life.Truth: Although this is true with some bird species, it is NOT true in humans. Evidence shows that human children can form several attachments during their lives. Children who are separated from their parents initially exhibit symptoms of distress but recover if placed in a stable environment.

Myth #6: Parents who respond every time their child cries reinforce crying behavior. It spoils them and makes the clingy mama's boys. (Watson on parenting)Truth: Children of responsive mothers are more self-assured and less clingy that children

of unresponsive mothers. Ainsworth study, p. 136 ("strange situations")observed mother-infant pairs at home- categorized parenting as sensitive or insensitive Later observedchildren in unfamiliar situation.1. sensitive mothers had securely attached children (mom is safe base from which

to explore, distress when mom leaves and seeks her contact when she returns)

2. insensitive mothers had insecurely attached children (cling to mom, distressed when mom leaves, and hard to console when she returns, some refuse mom's comfort)

According to Erik Erikson. this is because responsive mothers teach their child that they can trust them and the world around them. Thus, they feel confident and in control of their worlds. (Dr. Spock on parenting and the crazy sixties)

Myth #7: Children do not bond with abusive or neglectful parents. Truth: Children even seem to attach to abusive parents.

Harlow made "mothers" that hit the babies when the approached them. If the hitting mechanism was disrupted.the babies still preferred the familiar, formerly abusive mother to an unfamiliar mother.

Myth #8 — Neifborns are passive observers of their surroundings. They don't understand concepts such as addition and subtraction, Truth: Infants as young as 5 months have demonstrated an understanding a simple subtraction (2-1 = 1) in habituation studies (p. 130, \Figure 4.9)

Question #1: Is it OK to put my child in day care and go back to work? Answer: We don't know.

1. Infants in daycare are more likely to be insecurely attached at 1 year old, and disobedient and aggressive atolder ages.

2. In children 2 and over, daycare provides enhanced opportunities for intellectual and social growth.3. Infants in quality daycare before 6 months were more outgoing, popular, and

academically successful thanthose without such daycare.

4. Time spent in daycare between 1 month and 6 years correlates positively with mental development (at agethree) and negatively with engaged mother-child interactions.

Question #2: When does a baby figure out that he is the person in the mirror? Answer: About 18 months.

Self-concept test (lipstick on the nose, see if she touches mirror or nose)

Question #3: Is it better to be a strict or permissive parent? Answer: // is better to be somewhere in between. Three parenting styles:

1. Authoratarian — imposes rules, expects obedience2. Permissive - few demands, little punishment, child gets his/her way a lot3. Authoratative - demanding and responsive (establishes and enforces rules, but

explains reason and allows fordiscussion when older)

Children of authoritative parents have highest self-esteen, self-reliance, and social competence (true across cultures). Correlation does not mean causation, but thought that authoritative parents make children feel in control of their lives.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Instructions: The main character in each of the scenarios following is displaying cognition at one of Piaget's developmental stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, or formal operational). Identify the stage of thinking being illustrated by each of these main characters.

1. Sheila complains because her brother has taken two big cookies and has only given her one. Her brother takes her big cookie, breaks it in half, and says, "Now we both have two." Sheila yells, "Not fair, all you did was break mine into two pieces!"

2. Rory's mom has given him five empty cardboard boxes. He lines them up in a row, puts his toys in them, and then says, "Choo, choo, here comes the train!"

3. Jenny's ball rolls out of sight under the sofa. She stares at the sofa for a few seconds, and then turns her attention to her doll.

4. Clara enjoys spending free time imagining what kind of society could be created if agroup of human beings from all over the world moved to a newly discovered, habitableplanet.

5. Sergio wants to pull his toy shovel into his playpen, but instead of grasping it by oneend or the other and pulling it lengthwise through the slats, he grabs it in the middleand keeps pulling it against the slats.

6. Shula becomes upset because her sister's scoop of ice cream looks taller than her own. Her mother squashes down the sister's scoop, and Shula is happy now that it looks like they have the same amount.

7. Boris just loves his calculus and physics classes, where he consistently receives high grades.

8. Pepe wants to make sure he distributes the jelly beans fairly, so he lines them up in one-to-one correspondence before giving some to his friend.