image classification: introduction
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Image Classification: Introduction. Lecture Notes 7 prepared by R. Lathrop 11/99 updated 3/04 Readings: ERDAS Field Guide 5th Ed. CH. 6:217-234. Where in the World?. Learning objectives. Remote sensing science concepts Rationale and theory behind image classification - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Image Classification: IntroductionLecture Notes 7
prepared by R. Lathrop 11/99
updated 3/04
Readings:
ERDAS Field Guide 5th Ed. CH. 6:217-234
Where in the World?
Learning objectives• Remote sensing science concepts
– Rationale and theory behind image classification– Image spectral vs. information classes– Unsupervised (ISODATA) algorithm– Clusterbusting
• Math Concepts– Calculating mage distance
• Skills– Applying ISODATA algorithm
Image Classification
One of the major applications of remotely sensed imagery is to provide information on the amount and spatial distribution of various types of land use and land cover
land cover - the biophysical material covering the land surface
land use - the use to which land is put by humans
Move toward more automated procedures using digital image processing to map land use-land cover
Computer-assisted classification of remotely sensed images
• Automatically categorize all pixels in an image into land cover classes or themes
Convert image data into information
• Normally uses multi-spectral data and spectral pattern recognition techniques as compared to spatial or temporal pattern recognition to aid in identification
Objective: Image to Thematic Map
Remotely Sensed Image Classification
• 1st step: identify classification scheme to be applied
• Hierarchical approach of increasing specificity Level I: most general
Level II: more specific• Level of classification depends on the spatial,
spectral, temporal and radiometric resolution of the image data
National Land Cover Dataset Classification system: 21 classes
• Water • 11 Open Water
12 Perennial Ice/Snow • Developed • 21 Low Intensity Residential
22 High Intensity Residential23 Commercial/Industrial/Transportation
• Barren • 31 Bare Rock/Sand/Clay
32 Quarries/Strip Mines/Gravel Pits33 Transitional
• Forested Upland • 41 Deciduous Forest
42 Evergreen Forest43 Mixed Forest
• Shrubland • 51 Shrubland• Non-Natural Woody • 61 Orchards/Vineyards/Other • Herbaceous Upland Natural/Semi-natural Vegetation • 71 Grasslands/Herbaceous • Herbaceous Planted/Cultivated • 81 Pasture/Hay
82 Row Crops83 Small Grains84 Fallow85 Urban/Recreational Grasses
• Wetlands • 91 Woody Wetlands
92 Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands http://landcover.usgs.gov/prodescription.asp
Feature Space Image
• Visualization of 2 bands of image data simultaneously through a 2 band scatterplot - the graph of the data file values of one band of data against the values of another band
• Feature space - abstract space that is defined by spectral units
Red Reflectance
NIRReflectance
Spectral Feature Space
Each dot represents a pixel; the warmer the colors, the higher the frequency of pixels in that portion of the feature space
Spectral Pattern Recognition
• Numerical process whereby elements of multi-spectral image data sets are categorized into a limited number of spectrally separable, discrete classes:
• 1) show (train) the computer the multiple spectral band data associated with land cover type of interest
• 2) the computer decides, using some form of classification decision rule, which land cover type each pixel most looks like
Red Reflectance
NIRReflectance
Grass
Trees
water
ImperviousSurface &Bare Soil
Spectral Feature Space
Classification can be thought of as trying to relate spectral classes or locations in the feature space with the appropriate information class
Spectral vs. Information Class
• Spectral class - group (cluster) of spectrally "like" pixels
• Information class - land use/land cover class of interest
• May take many spectral classes to describe one information class. One spectral class may represent more than 1 information class.
Spectral vs. Information Classes: May take many spectral classes to describe
one information class. One spectral class may represent more than 1 information class.
Spectral Class Information Class
Sunlit conifer Upland Conifer
Hillside shadowed conifers
Upland Deciduous
Deciduous broadleaf Lowland Deciduous
Spectral Classes: pixels of one land cover type tend to cluster together
Red reflectance
NIR
reflectance
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
Water 1
Water 2
Veg 1
Veg 2
Veg3
Adapted from J.A. Richards, 1986
Spectral vs. Information Classes
Red reflectance
NIR
reflectance
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
Water 1
Water 2
Veg 1
Veg 2
Veg3
Soil Information class
Adapted from J.A. Richards, 1986
Spectral & information classes do not always have a 1-to-1 match
Red reflectance
NIR
reflectance
Soil 1
Soil 2
Soil 3
Water 1
Water 2
Veg 1
Veg 2
Veg3
Same spectral class may belong to more than one information class
Adapted from J.A. Richards, 1986
Developed 1
Developed 2
Developed 3
Classification Process• 1) Training/Clustering Stage - the process of defining
criteria by which spectral patterns are recognized, developing a numerical description for each spectral class
• 2) Classification Stage - each pixel in the image data set is categorized into the spectral class it most closely resembles based on a mathematical decision rule
• 3) Output Stage - results are presented in a variety of forms (tables, graphics, etc.)
Multispectral classification
Multispectral image classification using spectral pattern recognition often relies on measuring the “likelihood” that a pixel belongs to one class vs. another. This likelihood generally relies on some measure of distance between a pixel and the various spectral classes clusters. For example, if a pixel is “closest” to Spectral Class 1 vs. Spectral Class2, then the pixel is classified into spectral Class 1.
Spectral distance can be measured in several ways:
- as simple euclidean distance in multispectral space
- as a statistical distance or probability
Spectral distance
• Spectral distance - the Euclidean distance in n-dimensional spectral space
• D = SQRT[(sum (dk - ek)2] where dk = BV of pixel d in band k
where ek = BV of pixel e in band k
• the equation is summed across k = 1 to n bands
What is the spectral distance between Pixel A and Cluster 1?
X
Y 92, 153
180, 85
Pixel A
Cluster 1
Spectral Distance example
Distance between [x1,y1] & [x2, y2][180, 85] & [92, 153]
D = SQRT[(sum (dk - ek)2]
D = SQRT[(180-92)2 + (85-153)2] = SQRT[(88)2 + (-68)2] = SQRT[7744 + 4624] = SQRT[12,368] = 111.2
Spectral Distance example
X
Y 92, 153
180, 85
Xd = 180 -92
Yd = 85-153
Supervised vs. Unsupervised Approaches
• Supervised - image analyst "supervises" the selection of spectral classes that represent patterns or land cover features that the analyst can recognize
Prior Decision
• Unsupervised - statistical "clustering" algorithms used to select spectral classes inherent to the data, more computer-automated
Posterior Decision
Supervised vs. Unsupervised
Red
NIR
Supervised Prior Decision: from Information classes in the Image to Spectral Classes in Feature Space
Unsupervised Posterior Decision: from Spectral Classes in Feature Space to Information Classes in the Image
Supervised vs. Unsupervised
Edit/evaluate signatures
Select Training fields
Classify image
Evaluate classification
Identify classes
Run clustering algorithm
Evaluate classification
Edit/evaluate signatures
ISODATA (Iterative Self-Organizing Data
Analysis Technique) Clustering Algorithm • User specified Input (as implemented in ERDAS)
• maximum number of clusters
• Initial allocation of cluster center locations
• maximum % of pixels whose class values are allowed to be unchanged between iterations.
• maximum number of iterations
• Other possible constraints (not implemented in ERDAS)
• minimum number of members in a cluster, if fall below threshold then that cluster eliminated
• maximum standard deviation: if the std dev exceeds the threshold then that cluster is split into two
• minimum distance between cluster means
Initial Cluster Allocation
• clusters allocated along the mean n-dimensional vector
• spaced according to std dev distance away from central mean
Red
NIR
Algorithm Operation• each pixel is compared to each cluster mean and
assigned to the cluster whose mean is closest in Euclidean distance ________________________________ \/(DNb1i-DNb1m)2 + ... + (DNbxi - DNbxm)2))
and a new cluster center is computed by averaging the locations of all the pixels assigned to that cluster.
•ISODATA: multiple iterations from initial allocation to final assignment
•The algorithm will stop either when the # iteration threshold is reached Or the max % of unchanged pixel threshold is reached
Red
NIR
Initial clusters Final clusters
Red
NIR
Adapted from Jensen 2nd ed, 1996
Example: ISODATA clustering
Distance between Unclassified Pixel Squared distance Sum Sqr Root
Band 4 Band 5 Band 4 Band 5Cluster 1 30-10 = 20 10-10 = 0 400 0 400 20Cluster 2 30-20 = 10 10-20 = -10 100 100 200 14Cluster 3 30-30 = 0 10-20 = -10 0 100 100 10
Unclassified Pixel Assigned to Cluster 3
2. Calculating new cluster means
- Cluster 1 & 2 unchanged
- Cluster 3 migrates to Band 4mean, Band 5mean = 30, 15
1. Assigning unclassified pixels to cluster means
Initial clusters: 1 (10,10), 2 (20,20) 3 (30,20)
Unclassified Pixel (30,10)
Example of Naturally Clustered Data
Adapted from Swain
Green Vegetation
Senesced Vegetation
Red
NIR
Red
NIR
Red
NIR
Red
NIR
Red
NIR
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x
Initial cluster centers
After 1st iteration
After 2nd iteration
Final cluster centers
Final Cluster Centers
Adapted from Swain
Green Vegetation
Senesced Vegetation
Red
NIR
X
X
Red Reflectance
NI
R
Re f l e c tance
Grass
Trees
water
Impervious Surface & Bare Soil
Spectral Feature Space
In spectral feature space, generally no distinct, isolated clusters, rather a continuous gradient. Classification can be thought of as trying to subdivide the feature space into appropriate spectral regions
Algorithm Operation• The objective is to minimize the Sum of Squared Errors
(SSE) across the entire set of clusters and the original pixel data
• The Sum of Squared Errors (SSE): is the cumulative squared difference (i.e., spectral distance across all the various bands) of each pixel from its assigned cluster center
• An optimal arrangement has been reached that minimizes the distance between every pixel and a cluster center (based on that number of clusters)
HWK Example: SSE calculationInitial clusters (2,1) & (4,2) 1st iteration
X Y DistA DistB SSE
1 2 1.41 3.00 2.0
2 3 2.00 2.24 4.0
2 4 3.00 2.83 8.0
3 4 3.16 2.24 5.0
4 3 2.83 1.00 1.0
4 4 3.60 2.00 4.0
4 6 5.38 4.00 16.0
5 7 6.71 5.10 26.0
6 5 5.66 3.60 13.0 = 79
New cluster centers (1.5, 2.5)
(4, 4.6)
Post-clustering Assignment
• The analyst must then assign each spectral cluster to an information class based on available ancillary information (e.g., field reference data, maps, aerial photos, analyst experience) Posterior Decision process
• If one and only one information class can not be unequivocally assigned to a cluster then assign the cluster to a “mixed” class
Post Clustering Assignment: what information class can be assigned to each spectral cluster?
Red
NIR
Adapted from Jensen 2nd ed, 1996
31:Bare rock
84:fallow
71:grass
11:water
42 evergreen forest
41:decidous forest
33:transitional
91:wetlands
21:low intensity residential
23: Commercial
32: Quarries
22: high intensity residential
ISODATA Clustering: Pros
• clustering not geographically biased to any particular portion of the image
• highly successful at finding inherent spectral clusters
• results similar to a minimum-distance-to-means classifier
ISODATA Clustering: Cons
• analyst doesn’t know a priori number of spectral classes
• number of iterations needed, can be time consuming
• does not account for pixel spatial homogeneity
• Insensitive to variance/covariance
Cluster-busting• technique to iteratively “bust up” spectrally “mixed”
classes
• separate “good” vs. “bad” classified pixels into a binary mask
• mask out the “good” image, extract the “bad” image data and re-run the unsupervised process
• re-evaluate new clusters, keep good, toss out “bad”, cluster bust again
• create final cluster map by using a GIS overlay with a maximum dominate function
Cluster-busting: in feature space
Red
NIR
Red
NIR
Cluster-busting: in geographic space- separate “good” vs. “bad” classified pixels into a binary mask- mask out the “good” (green) image- extract the “bad”(red) image data - re-run the unsupervised process
Cluster-busting- re-evaluate new clusters, keep good, toss out “bad”, cluster bust again (if needed)- create final cluster map by using a GIS overlay with a maximum dominate function
Overlay
Cluster busting
Recode
“good” class(es) = 0
“bad” class(es) > 1
Mask original image file
Cluster bustingNew clusters = the holes
Old clusters – “bad” = swiss cheese
Overlay