Immanuel KantImmanuel KantReason in EthicsReason in Ethics

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Practical test: How do Practical test: How do we tell right from we tell right from wrong?wrong?

Theoretical question: Theoretical question: What makes right What makes right actions right, and actions right, and wrong actions wrong?wrong actions wrong?

Rational —> RightRational —> Right

Right acts are rationalRight acts are rational Wrong acts are Wrong acts are

irrationalirrational Why be moral? It’s Why be moral? It’s

the rational thing to the rational thing to dodo

Intrinsic goodIntrinsic good

Intrinsic good: good for its own Intrinsic good: good for its own sakesake

Instrumental good: good for the Instrumental good: good for the sake of something elsesake of something else

What is good for its own sake?What is good for its own sake? Aristotle: HappinessAristotle: Happiness

Unqualified goodUnqualified good

Unqualified good: good Unqualified good: good unconditionally, good no matter unconditionally, good no matter whatwhat

Qualified good: good for Qualified good: good for something, good under certain something, good under certain conditionsconditions

What is good without What is good without qualification?qualification?

Unqualified goodUnqualified good

Unqualified good: good Unqualified good: good unconditionally, good no matter unconditionally, good no matter whatwhat

Qualified good: good for Qualified good: good for something, good under certain something, good under certain conditionsconditions

What is good without What is good without qualification?qualification?

Kant: a Kant: a good willgood will

Good WillGood Will

“Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good, without qualification, except a good will.”

VirtuesVirtues

““Intelligence, wit, judgement, and the other talents of the mind, however they may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but these gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore, constitutes what is called character, is not good.”

HappinessHappiness

“It is the same with the gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being and contentment with one's condition which is called happiness, inspire pride, and often presumption, if there is not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind, and with this also to rectify the whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end.”

Impartial Rational SpectatorImpartial Rational Spectator

“The sight of a being who is not adorned with a single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying unbroken prosperity, can never give pleasure to an impartial rational spectator. Thus a good will appears to constitute the indispensable condition even of being worthy of happiness.”

UniversalityUniversality

Good willGood will: acts on the basis of : acts on the basis of universal considerationsuniversal considerations

Not influenced by “subjective, Not influenced by “subjective, particular determinations”particular determinations”

““the proper and inestimable worth the proper and inestimable worth of an absolutely good will consists of an absolutely good will consists just in this, that the principle of just in this, that the principle of action is free from all influence of action is free from all influence of contingent grounds.”contingent grounds.”

DutyDuty

A person has a good A person has a good will, will,

and his/her act has and his/her act has moral worth, moral worth,

when he/she acts when he/she acts from duty, from duty,

out of respect for the out of respect for the moral lawmoral law

Two kinds of moral theoryTwo kinds of moral theory

Consequentialism: Consequentialism: the value of an act the value of an act depends entirely on depends entirely on its consequencesits consequences

Deontologism: the Deontologism: the value of an act value of an act depends on more depends on more than consequencesthan consequences

Evaluating ActionsEvaluating Actions

Character —> Motive —> Intention —> Action —> Character —> Motive —> Intention —> Action —> ConsequencesConsequences

Consequentialists evaluate by what (might reasonably Consequentialists evaluate by what (might reasonably be expected to) come be expected to) come afterafter the act the act

Deontologists judge by what comes Deontologists judge by what comes beforebefore the act the act

Evaluating IntentionsEvaluating Intentions

Kant is an extreme Kant is an extreme deontologistdeontologist

Moral quality of an act Moral quality of an act does not depend on does not depend on consequences at allconsequences at all

We judge act by agent’s We judge act by agent’s intentionsintentions

Maxim: “subjective Maxim: “subjective principle of action”principle of action”

Rule reflecting agent’s Rule reflecting agent’s intentionintention

ImperativesImperatives

Imperative: expresses Imperative: expresses command or obligationcommand or obligation

Hypothetical imperative: “If Hypothetical imperative: “If you are in circumstance you are in circumstance CC (or want (or want DD), then do ), then do AA.”.”

Categorical imperative: Categorical imperative: “Do “Do AA.”.”

Hypothetical ImperativesHypothetical Imperatives

Hypothetical imperatives Hypothetical imperatives are conditional: are conditional:

If . . . do . . . . or If . . . do . . . . or If . . . don’t . . . .If . . . don’t . . . .

depend on depend on circumstances, goals, circumstances, goals, desiresdesires

means to end: qualified means to end: qualified goodsgoods

Categorical ImperativeCategorical Imperative

““Do . . .” or “Don’t . . .”Do . . .” or “Don’t . . .” Independent of goals, Independent of goals,

desires, circumstancesdesires, circumstances Applies universallyApplies universally Appropriate to unqualified Appropriate to unqualified

goodsgoods There is only one There is only one

unqualified good— unqualified good— a good willa good will

The Categorical ImperativeThe Categorical Imperative

There is only one possible There is only one possible categorical imperative:categorical imperative:

““You ought to have a good You ought to have a good will”will”

Good will acts only on Good will acts only on universal considerationsuniversal considerations

““You ought to act on You ought to act on universal considerations”universal considerations”

““You ought to act on You ought to act on principle”principle”

Formula of Universal LawFormula of Universal Law

““Act only on that Act only on that maxim you can at the maxim you can at the same time will to be same time will to be universal law.”universal law.”

Act as if everyone Act as if everyone were going to act were going to act according to your according to your maximmaxim

Don’t make an Don’t make an exception of yourselfexception of yourself

A Moral TestA Moral Test

Test for action Test for action AA:: (a) Identify (a) Identify AA’s maxim’s maxim

A Moral TestA Moral Test

Test for action Test for action AA:: (a) Identify (a) Identify AA’s maxim’s maxim (b) Ask, “Could it be a (b) Ask, “Could it be a

universal law?”universal law?” If not: If not: AA is unjust is unjust

A Moral TestA Moral Test

Test for action Test for action AA:: (a) Identify (a) Identify AA’s maxim’s maxim (b) Ask, “Could it be a (b) Ask, “Could it be a

universal law?”universal law?” If not: If not: AA is unjust is unjust If so: (c) Ask, “Could I If so: (c) Ask, “Could I will will it to it to

be a universal law?”be a universal law?” If not: If not: AA is immoral is immoral If so: If so: AA is permissible is permissible

Simple CaseSimple Case

Should I steal?Should I steal? (a) Identify maxim: Steal!(a) Identify maxim: Steal! (b) Ask, “Could it be a universal (b) Ask, “Could it be a universal

law?”law?” Could everyone go around Could everyone go around

stealing from everyone else? stealing from everyone else? No:No: There would be no such thing as There would be no such thing as

propertyproperty There would be no such thing as There would be no such thing as

stealingstealing

So, stealing is unjustSo, stealing is unjust

Too narrow?(Falsenegatives)

Toobroad?(Falsepositives)

Kant’s TheoryKant’s Theory

PermissiblePermissible

Maxim can Maxim can be willed as be willed as universal law universal law

False positives/negativesFalse positives/negatives

False positives?False positives? Animals:Animals:

Pulling kitten tailsPulling kitten tails

Detailed maxims:Detailed maxims: Lying to Hans on May Lying to Hans on May

12, 200912, 2009 Shooting Michael if he Shooting Michael if he

hops, juggles, and hops, juggles, and sings the Catalina sings the Catalina Magdalena Magdalena Lupensteiner Lupensteiner Wallabeine songWallabeine song

False negatives?False negatives? Economic acts:Economic acts:

Buying Apple stockBuying Apple stock Practicing lawPracticing law Eating at Mineo’sEating at Mineo’s

Playing roles:Playing roles: Playing the bassPlaying the bass Singing sopranoSinging soprano Playing wide receiverPlaying wide receiver

Being where you areBeing where you are

Kant’s ExamplesKant’s Examples

To Self To OthersTo Self To Others

Perfect obligation suicide promisesPerfect obligation suicide promises

Imperfect obligation talents charityImperfect obligation talents charity

Perfect/Imperfect ObligationsPerfect/Imperfect Obligations

Perfect obligations: Perfect obligations: specific obligations to specific obligations to specific people— give specific people— give others rights— unjust others rights— unjust to violate themto violate them

Imperfect obligations: Imperfect obligations: allow choice in how to allow choice in how to fulfill— give no one fulfill— give no one else rights— wrong, else rights— wrong, but not unjust, to but not unjust, to violate themviolate them

Perfect ObligationsPerfect Obligations

To self: not to commit To self: not to commit suicidesuicide

To others: to repay debts; To others: to repay debts; more generally, to keep more generally, to keep promisespromises

Kant on PromisesKant on Promises

2. Another finds himself forced by necessity to 2. Another finds himself forced by necessity to borrow money. He knows that he will not be able borrow money. He knows that he will not be able to repay it, but sees also that nothing will be lent to repay it, but sees also that nothing will be lent to him unless he promises stoutly to repay it in a to him unless he promises stoutly to repay it in a definite time. He desires to make this promise, definite time. He desires to make this promise, but he has still so much conscience as to ask but he has still so much conscience as to ask himself: "Is it not unlawful and inconsistent with himself: "Is it not unlawful and inconsistent with duty to get out of a difficulty in this way?" duty to get out of a difficulty in this way?"

Kant on PromisesKant on Promises

[a] Suppose however that he resolves to do so: [a] Suppose however that he resolves to do so: then the maxim of his action would be expressed then the maxim of his action would be expressed thus: "When I think myself in want of money, I thus: "When I think myself in want of money, I will borrow money and promise to repay it, will borrow money and promise to repay it, although I know that I never can do so." Now although I know that I never can do so." Now this principle of self-love or of one's own this principle of self-love or of one's own advantage may perhaps be consistent with my advantage may perhaps be consistent with my whole future welfare; but the question now is, "Is whole future welfare; but the question now is, "Is it right?"it right?"

Kant on PromisesKant on Promises

[b] I change then the suggestion of self-[b] I change then the suggestion of self-love into a universal law, and state the love into a universal law, and state the question thus: "How would it be if my question thus: "How would it be if my maxim were a universal law?"maxim were a universal law?"

Kant on PromisesKant on Promises

Then I see at once that it could never hold as a Then I see at once that it could never hold as a universal law of nature, but would necessarily universal law of nature, but would necessarily contradict itself. For supposing it to be a universal contradict itself. For supposing it to be a universal law that everyone when he thinks himself in a law that everyone when he thinks himself in a difficulty should be able to promise whatever he difficulty should be able to promise whatever he pleases, with the purpose of not keeping his pleases, with the purpose of not keeping his promise, the promise itself would become promise, the promise itself would become impossible, as well as the end that one might have impossible, as well as the end that one might have in view in it, since no one would consider that in view in it, since no one would consider that anything was promised to him, but would ridicule all anything was promised to him, but would ridicule all such statements as vain pretencessuch statements as vain pretences..

Keeping PromisesKeeping Promises

Maxim: “make false promises”Maxim: “make false promises” What if everyone did that?What if everyone did that? Contradiction: no such thing as promisingContradiction: no such thing as promising So, making false promises is unjust and so So, making false promises is unjust and so

wrongwrong We have a perfect obligation to keep our We have a perfect obligation to keep our

promisespromises

Kant on SuicideKant on Suicide

1. A man reduced to despair by a series of 1. A man reduced to despair by a series of misfortunes feels wearied of life, but is still so far misfortunes feels wearied of life, but is still so far in possession of his reason that he can ask in possession of his reason that he can ask himself whether it would not be contrary to his himself whether it would not be contrary to his duty to himself to take his own life. Now he duty to himself to take his own life. Now he inquires whether the maxim of his action could inquires whether the maxim of his action could become a universal law of nature.become a universal law of nature.

[a] His maxim is: "From self-love I adopt it as a [a] His maxim is: "From self-love I adopt it as a principle to shorten my life when its longer principle to shorten my life when its longer duration is likely to bring more evil than duration is likely to bring more evil than satisfaction." satisfaction."

Kant on SuicideKant on Suicide

[b] It is asked then simply whether this principle [b] It is asked then simply whether this principle founded on self-love can become a universal law of founded on self-love can become a universal law of nature. nature.

Now we see at once that a system of nature of which it Now we see at once that a system of nature of which it should be a law to destroy life by means of the very should be a law to destroy life by means of the very feeling whose special nature it is to impel to the feeling whose special nature it is to impel to the improvement of life would contradict itself and, improvement of life would contradict itself and, therefore, could not exist as a system of nature; hence therefore, could not exist as a system of nature; hence that maxim cannot possibly exist as a universal law of that maxim cannot possibly exist as a universal law of nature and, consequently, would be wholly nature and, consequently, would be wholly inconsistent with the supreme principle of all duty.inconsistent with the supreme principle of all duty.

Against suicideAgainst suicide

Suicide: destroy life for the sake of lifeSuicide: destroy life for the sake of life ContradictoryContradictory Can’t be universal lawCan’t be universal law So, suicide is unjust, and thus wrongSo, suicide is unjust, and thus wrong

Imperfect Obligation: TalentImperfect Obligation: Talent

3. A third finds in himself a talent which with the 3. A third finds in himself a talent which with the help of some culture might make him a useful help of some culture might make him a useful man in many respects. But he finds himself in man in many respects. But he finds himself in comfortable circumstances and prefers to comfortable circumstances and prefers to indulge in pleasure rather than to take pains in indulge in pleasure rather than to take pains in enlarging and improving his happy natural enlarging and improving his happy natural capacities. capacities.

He asks, however, whether [a] his maxim of He asks, however, whether [a] his maxim of neglect of his natural gifts, besides agreeing with neglect of his natural gifts, besides agreeing with his inclination to indulgence, agrees also with his inclination to indulgence, agrees also with what is called duty.what is called duty.

Talent: Perfect Obligation?Talent: Perfect Obligation?

[b] He sees then that a system of nature [b] He sees then that a system of nature could indeed subsist with such a universal could indeed subsist with such a universal law although men (like the South Sea law although men (like the South Sea islanders) should let their talents rest and islanders) should let their talents rest and resolve to devote their lives merely to resolve to devote their lives merely to idleness, amusement, and propagation of idleness, amusement, and propagation of their species- in a word, to enjoyment; their species- in a word, to enjoyment;

Talent: Imperfect ObligationTalent: Imperfect Obligation

[c] but he cannot possibly will that this [c] but he cannot possibly will that this should be a universal law of nature, or be should be a universal law of nature, or be implanted in us as such by a natural implanted in us as such by a natural instinct. For, as a rational being, he instinct. For, as a rational being, he necessarily wills that his faculties be necessarily wills that his faculties be developed, since they serve him and have developed, since they serve him and have been given him, for all sorts of possible been given him, for all sorts of possible purposes.purposes.

Developing talentsDeveloping talents

You are a rational beingYou are a rational being You can’t help willing your own survivalYou can’t help willing your own survival You can’t help willing your own rationalityYou can’t help willing your own rationality You can’t will to be stupid, or irrational, or You can’t will to be stupid, or irrational, or

ignorant, or ineffectiveignorant, or ineffective Circumstances in which you are stupid, Circumstances in which you are stupid,

ignorant, ineffective, or irrational aren’t ignorant, ineffective, or irrational aren’t contradictory, but can’t be willedcontradictory, but can’t be willed

Kant on CharityKant on Charity

4. A fourth, who is in prosperity, while he sees 4. A fourth, who is in prosperity, while he sees that others have to contend with great that others have to contend with great wretchedness and that he could help them, wretchedness and that he could help them, thinks: thinks:

[a] "What concern is it of mine? Let everyone be [a] "What concern is it of mine? Let everyone be as happy as Heaven pleases, or as be can as happy as Heaven pleases, or as be can make himself; I will take nothing from him nor make himself; I will take nothing from him nor even envy him, only I do not wish to contribute even envy him, only I do not wish to contribute anything to his welfare or to his assistance in anything to his welfare or to his assistance in distress!" distress!"

Charity: Perfect Obligation?Charity: Perfect Obligation?

[b] Now no doubt if such a mode of [b] Now no doubt if such a mode of thinking were a universal law, the human thinking were a universal law, the human race might very well subsist and doubtless race might very well subsist and doubtless even better than in a state in which even better than in a state in which everyone talks of sympathy and good-will, everyone talks of sympathy and good-will, or even takes care occasionally to put it or even takes care occasionally to put it into practice, but, on the other side, also into practice, but, on the other side, also cheats when he can, betrays the rights of cheats when he can, betrays the rights of men, or otherwise violates them. men, or otherwise violates them.

Charity: Imperfect ObligationCharity: Imperfect Obligation

[c] But although it is possible that a universal law [c] But although it is possible that a universal law of nature might exist in accordance with that of nature might exist in accordance with that maxim, it is impossible to will that such a maxim, it is impossible to will that such a principle should have the universal validity of a principle should have the universal validity of a law of nature. For a will which resolved this law of nature. For a will which resolved this would contradict itself, inasmuch as many cases would contradict itself, inasmuch as many cases might occur in which one would have need of the might occur in which one would have need of the love and sympathy of others, and in which, by love and sympathy of others, and in which, by such a law of nature, sprung from his own will, such a law of nature, sprung from his own will, he would deprive himself of all hope of the aid he would deprive himself of all hope of the aid he desires.he desires.

Kant’s Practical Test:Kant’s Practical Test:Formula of HumanityFormula of Humanity

Good will acts out of Good will acts out of respect for moral lawrespect for moral law

For others as rational For others as rational beingsbeings

““You ought to respect You ought to respect moral agents”moral agents”

““Don’t use people”Don’t use people” ““Treat people as ends, Treat people as ends,

never only as means”never only as means”

Too narrow?(False negative)

Toobroad?(Falsepositive)

Kant’s TheoryKant’s Theory

PermissiblePermissible

Treats Treats everyone as everyone as an end, not an end, not merely as a merely as a means means

ExamplesExamples

Suicide: uses him/herself to avoid painSuicide: uses him/herself to avoid pain False promise: uses the promisee to gain False promise: uses the promisee to gain

advantageadvantage Talents: uses his/her life for mere Talents: uses his/her life for mere

enjoyment; doesn’t give him/herself full enjoyment; doesn’t give him/herself full respect as moral/rational agentrespect as moral/rational agent

Charity: doesn’t give others full respect as Charity: doesn’t give others full respect as moral/rational agentsmoral/rational agents

This solves some problemsThis solves some problems

Specific maximsSpecific maxims ““Lie to Hans on May 12, 2009”—uses HansLie to Hans on May 12, 2009”—uses Hans ““Kill Michael if….”—uses MichaelKill Michael if….”—uses Michael

Economic transactionsEconomic transactions Buying stock, eating at Mineo’s, etc., need not Buying stock, eating at Mineo’s, etc., need not

use anyoneuse anyone

Playing rolesPlaying roles Singing soprano, playing bass, being where I Singing soprano, playing bass, being where I

am need not use anyoneam need not use anyone

Other ProblemsOther Problems

Treatment of animalsTreatment of animals Exceptionless rulesExceptionless rules

Benjamin Constant: “…it would be a crime to Benjamin Constant: “…it would be a crime to lie to a murderer who asked us whether a lie to a murderer who asked us whether a friend of ours whom he is pursuing has taken friend of ours whom he is pursuing has taken refuge in our house.”refuge in our house.”

Facing evilFacing evil Can’t one deceive one’s enemies, or use Can’t one deceive one’s enemies, or use

someone even to achieve great good or avoid someone even to achieve great good or avoid great evil?great evil?

AutonomyAutonomy

Autonomy: we live under Autonomy: we live under rules we set for ourselvesrules we set for ourselves

Imagine yourself Imagine yourself legislating in the kingdom legislating in the kingdom of endsof ends

Heteronomy: living under Heteronomy: living under rules set by othersrules set by others

Autonomy —> dignityAutonomy —> dignity