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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Quazi, H.A, Koh, M.H, Huang, Q., and Khoo, J.W.Nanyang Business School, NTU, Singapore
ABSTRACT
To balance the work and non-work roles of employees, many organizations have
responded by implementing work-life programs (e.g., flexi-time, child care facilities,
parental leave, eldercare etc) in return for improved satisfaction and performance and lower
turnover. Literature reveals lack of such studies on Supply Chain Management (SCM)
organizations. Further, no such study has been reported in the context of South East Asian
region. We have therefore, decided to study the impact of work-life initiatives on employee
behaviour in Supply Chain Management (SCM) organizations operating in Singapore.
Singapore houses the world’s busiest port and largest shipment hub, with 21 of the 25
largest third-party logistics companies in the world. According to the 2007 World Bank
Report, Singapore was ranked as one of the leading logistics hubs in the world. Further, the
Singapore government has paid substantial attention on Work-Life harmony in the country.
In view of this, it makes good sense to examine the impact of Work-Life balance (WLB)
initiatives on various employee outcomes i.e., affective organisational commitment (AOC),
job satisfaction (JS) and employee turnover intentions (ETI) in the SCM organizations
operating in Singapore. In addition to this, the possible moderating effect of perceived
supervisory support (PSS) on the usage of Work-Life programmes and turnover intentions
of employees are also examined. Three categories of Work-Life initiatives namely, flexible
work arrangements (FWAs), leave benefits (LB) and employee support schemes (ESS) are
also analysed to examine the possible impact of these specific W-L initiatives on the
employee outcomes.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
A questionnaire based survey was conducted to collect necessary data from a number
of participating SCM organizations. Two hundred seventy one (271) completed
questionnaires were received from employees of different job positions.
Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were carried out for the various
constructs. Results of hierarchical regression showed that both perceived availability and
utilisation of Work-Life initiatives were positively related to job satisfaction (B=.12; p=.04
and B=.21; p=.01 respectively) and negatively related to turnover intentions (B=-.15;
p=.01 and B=-.21; p=.01 respectively). In contrast, AOC was found to be significantly
related to only the usage of Work-Life programme (B=.21; p=.00). Significant
relationships were also found between the usage of FWAs and AOC (B=.41; p=.02), job
satisfaction (B=.56; p=.00) as well as turnover intentions (B=-.52; p=.02). Usage of leave
benefits (LBs) demonstrated significant relationship with AOC (B=.25; p=.02) but not with
job satisfaction and turnover intentions.
Although some of the findings of this study on SCM organizations in Singapore are in
line with those of Casper & Buffardi, 2004; Perry-Smith & Blum, 2000 and others ( i.e.,
the impact of work-life initiatives is positively associated with employee outcomes) but
some are not.
INTRODUCTION
In today’s global competitive environment organization’s performance becomes
increasingly intertwined with the well-being of its employees. Employees with less worry
in their personal lives are more likely to be committed and engaged at the workplace, which
in turn enhances the company’s performance, resulting in a win-win situation by aligning
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
both corporate and employee objectives (MOM, 2007). Since 2000 Singapore has taken
various initiatives to motivate organizations to be aware of the potential benefits of
adopting work-life (W-L) initiatives. For example, in 2000 a Tripartite Committee
(comprising of government, unions, employer, employee and business association
representatives) was formed. In 2004 the Work-Life Works! (WoW!) Fund was created to
encourage employers to introduce Work-Life measures at the workplace by defraying costs
incurred. MOM works in close collaboration with the Employer Alliance, a network of
corporations committed to enabling Work-Life integration in organisations, to generate
buy-in amongst CEOs and business leaders. MOM also initiated a series of promotional
activities, including the Work-Life Conference, which brought together the government, HR
practitioners and union representatives to discuss current Work-Life trends and promote the
adoption of these practices.
The significance of the present study on the nature and extent of W-L practices is
reflected in the fact that Singapore houses the world’s busiest port and largest shipment
hub, with 21 of the 25 largest third-party logistics companies in the world. It was ranked as
the leading logistics hub above major players such as Netherlands, Germany, China and
Japan (World Bank report, 2007). For this, much can be accredited to Singapore’s
impressive capabilities, particularly its excellent connectivity and world-class
infrastructure.
The logistics and supply chain sector itself employs about 200,000 people, and
contributes approximately 9% to the nation’s GDP, forming an integral part of Singapore’s
economy (Cited from Biederman, D., 20091).
1 Journal of Commerce (retrieved from: http://www.joc-digital.com/joc/breakbulk20091/?pg=22)Code # 020-0009, Contact e-mail: [email protected]; 22nd Annual POMS Conference, April 29-May 02, 2011 Reno, Nevada, USA. Page 3
Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Work in the SCM industry is fast-paced, dynamic and global where “products must
move… and most jobs need the physical support of employees as goods are stored in the
warehouse”. Services are often offered 7 days a week, if not 24 hours a day, thus the Work-
Life balance (WLB) proposition has to be modified to fit the employees’ nature of work. A
survey has shown that almost half of logistics and supply chain professionals worldwide are
not satisfied with their current employer, among which nearly 10% are not satisfied in
terms of WLB. Interestingly, the proportion of employees who are dissatisfied with their
employer is significantly higher in Asia (55%) than in Europe (31%) and the Americas
(37%) (Europhia Consulting, 2007). The same research also reported that WLB is one of
the top three (i.e., ‘inspiring leadership’, ‘training/coaching’ W-L balance) important
organizational attributes in attracting and retaining logistics professionals. Further, it has
also been reported that globally, two-thirds of SCM professionals find their average
workload higher than that of their colleagues in other industries and as such, WLB may
have an influence on employee satisfaction and should be carefully considered by SCM
organizations. Provision of WLB programmes can be a used as a competitive advantage
that would allow companies to become an ‘employer of choice’ in this industry. The present
study aims to shed some lights on the nature and extent of W-L benefit practices and their
impacts on employee outcomes in the SCM industry in Singapore (Anderson, Britt and
Favre, 1997).
Besides the abstract and the introductory section presented above, this paper is
organized in eight major sections- literature and hypotheses, methods, results, discussions,
practical implications, limitations, suggestions for future research and conclusions.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
LITERATURE AND HYPOTHESES
Competition for talent and shortage of skilled workers has prompted employers to
implement Work-Life initiatives as a means to attract, retain and engage workers (Russell,
2002). WLB is associated with equilibrium and an overall sense of harmony in life (Clarke
et al., 2004 and Frone, 2003). On the other hand, The Work Foundation (2005) view
balance as having control over when, where and how one does his work, leading to the
enjoyment of an optimal quality of life. The central focus of this research will be on three
most commonly adopted Work-Life initiatives by organisations in Singapore i.e., flexible
work arrangements (FWAs), leave benefits, and employee support schemes (ESS).
Role theory illustrates the effects of perceived Supervisory support (PSS) on employee
outcomes by emphasising interactions between leaders (i.e. supervisors) and subordinates
in a work unit [Yeh, 2005]. The author argues that to increase employee commitment,
organisations should focus on the ‘affective’ component by improving the quality of leader-
member exchange (LMX) relationships. The emotional attachment associated with
affective commitment characterises the employer-employee relationship such that
employees remain with the organisation because they want to. When their needs and
expectations are met, employees tend to develop stronger affective attachment to the
organisation than those whose wants were not met [Meyer, Allen and Smith, 1993]. It is
argued that the use of Work-Life initiatives satisfy certain needs of employees, thereby
enhancing their well-being, which ultimately contributes to the positive evaluation of one’s
commitment and attachment to his or her organisation.
Social Exchange Theory, on the other hand, explains how successful relationships can
be modelled using attraction, communication, expectation formation and norm Code # 020-0009, Contact e-mail: [email protected]; 22nd Annual POMS Conference, April 29-May 02, 2011 Reno, Nevada, USA. Page 5
Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
development, to induce and maintain commitment [Gundlach, Achrol and Mentzer, 1995].
Specifically, the influence of Work-Life benefits on the organisation-employee social
exchange is most likely to be evidenced in their aggregate use, perceived availability and
value. On the whole, positive relationships with the organization can help generate
favourable outcomes such as organisational commitment, faster career progression, job
satisfaction and organisational citizenship behaviours.
Work-Life Initiatives
Recent studies conducted in Singapore have examined the impacts of WLB-related
benefits on employee outcomes such as turnover and organisational commitment. Ang et
al.’s [2005] study of an F&B firm established that employees who find Work-Life benefits
useful and valuable, and who receive support from their supervisors and top management,
are more engaged and fulfilled in their work. In turn, they are less likely to quit or be absent
from the job. Other studies have also shown the association of Work-Life benefits with
employee outcomes such as job satisfaction and turnover intentions (Grover and Crooker,
1995; Gonyea, 1993; Greenberger et al., 1989 and Asadullah and Fernandez, 2008).
Research also reveals that WLB practices contribute to increased affective commitment and
decreased turnover intentions among all employees (Grover and Crooker, 1995). In fact, the
mere availability of Work-Life programmes appears to produce similar work-related
attitudes, regardless of whether benefits are utilised at work (Nelson et al., 1990; Scandura
and Lankau, 1997).
H1 (a): Employees’ perceived availability of Work-Life programmes will have a
significant positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b)
Job Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
H1(b): Employee utilisation of Work-Life Programmes will have a significant
positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job
Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.
Flexible Work Arrangements (FWAs)
Common FWAs include flexible working hours (flex-time), telecommuting permanent
part-time work, job-sharing, compressed workweek, and annualised hours. In the past,
FWAs have primarily been offered as exceptions to the ‘‘ideal workers’’ [Meiksins and
Whalley, 2002]. However, such arrangements are now viewed as a business imperative to
achieve strategic priorities such as higher employee productivity, job satisfaction, and lower
absenteeism [Baltes et al., 1999].
The European Foundation [2007] reported a positive relationship between work time
flexibility and job satisfaction. Specifically, Spanish and Finnish employees who had more
flexibility in adapting their working hours to match their personal needs are more satisfied
than those without such options.
Work-schedule flexibility has also been associated with organisational attachment, in
terms of increased organisational commitment and reduced turnover intentions [Aryee, Luk
and Stone, 1998]. Casper and Harris [2008] also reported positive relationship between
usage of schedule flexibility and AOC.
H2: Employee utilisation of Flexible Work Arrangements will have a significant
positive relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job
Satisfaction, and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.
Leave Benefits
Leave benefits such as Annual Leave, Sick Leave, Maternity Leave, Childcare Leave
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
and Unpaid Infant Care Leave are covered under the There is no statutory requirement for
Marriage, Paternity or Compassionate Leave, Employment Act (Singapore Statutes,
2010).Eldercare, Emergency, Study/Exam Leave or Sabbatical Leave. Such leaves are
granted depending on the employment contract or mutual agreement between employer and
employee.
Results from a study of firms in Singapore confirmed that employers generally
experienced lower voluntary turnover when employees received more generous annual
leave entitlement [Ang et al, 2005]. A recent study reported that child rearing, paternity, and
parental leaves also contributed to AOC and reduced turnover intentions [Casper and
Harris, 2008].
H3: Employee utilisation of Leave Benefits will have a significant positive
relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction,
and a negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.
Utilization of Employee Support Schemes
Literature suggests that employees who benefited from childcare, referral services and
other family-friendly practices, reported higher levels of AOC [Grover and Crooker, 1995,
Grant, Dutton and Rosso, 2008; Mohamed, Taylor and Ahmad, 2006]. A study by the
Federal Occupational Health on the benefits of employee Assistance programs (EAPs)
found that such programs help organisations achieve business goals by reducing turnover,
increased productivity and lowered absenteeism (Stieber,1999). Further, research suggests
that access to services such as information and referrals, and financing of child/elder-care,
have an effect on employees’ intentions to leave (Batt and Valcour, 2003).
H4: Utilisation of Employee Support Schemes will have a significant positive
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
relationship with (a) Affective Organisational Commitment and (b) Job Satisfaction,
and negative relationship with (c) Turnover Intentions.
Perceived Importance of Work-Life Programmes
Individuals react differently on the usage of Work-Life initiatives according to their
value systems. For instance, single employees would not reciprocate the availability of any
childcare benefit as it has no use to them. Employees are likely to vary their perception of
benefit plan usefulness according to which benefits can best help them personally and
professionally, as well as in dealing with their family obligations. Researchers have
reported mixed findings on the relationship between Perceived Importance of Work-Life
Programmes and employee outcomes. For example, Lambert (2000) found perceived
benefit usefulness to be positively correlated with organisational behaviours. Weathington
and Tetrick (2000) reported that benefit importance has an indirect relationship with
employee affective commitment. Williams et al. (2006) and Lee, Singhapakdi and Too
(2008) reported a negative relationship between perceived importance of Work-Life
benefits and turnover intentions. However, Haar and Spell (2004) failed to find any positive
relationships between the perceived value of six specific work-family practices and either
normative, affective, or continuance commitment. Similarly Blau et al. (2001) found no
significant relationships between the variables.
H5: The relationship between employee utilisation of Work-Life programmes with (a)
Affective Organisational Commitment, (b) Job Satisfaction and (c) Turnover
Intentions will be moderated by their perceived importance of the programmes.
Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS)
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
PSS is defined as “employees’ self-developed views concerning the degree to which
supervisors value their contributions and care about their well-being” (Eisenberger et al.,
2002). Some authors have reported positive association between the relationship between
PSS and AOC and negative association with turnover intentions. For example, Dawley,
Andrews and Bucklew (2008) have reported positive relationship between PSS and AOC
and Thompson, Beauvias and Lyness (1999) reported work-family benefit availability and
supportive work - family culture positively related to AOC, and negatively related to
intensions to leave the organization. There is also evidence that the impact of WLB
practices is moderated by managerial support (Beauregard and Henry, 2009). It is important
to note that the degree to which Work-Life programmes are actually available to the
individual employees depends on the immediate manager/supervisor. For example,
alternative work arrangements will not yield benefits unless the lower-level
manager/supervisor is willing to support them (Powell and Mainiero, 1999). In addition,
implementation of such arrangements may cause employee resentment if individual
managers/supervisors are inconsistent in their decision rules when approving requests
[Raabe and Beehr, 2003]. This suggests that managers/supervisors can influence employee
outcomes, such that the perceived support from managers appears to strengthen
organisational commitment and lower turnover intentions (O’Neill et al., 2009). Therefore,
we postulate that-
H6: The relationship between employee ‘usage of Work-Life programmes’ and (a)
Affective Organisational Commitment, (b) Job Satisfaction and (c) Turnover
Intentions will be moderated by ‘perceived supervisor support’.
METHODS
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Sample and Procedures
Based on the literature a questionnaire was designed to collect necessary data to test
the hypotheses. Item statements for the constructs were selected from the relevant scales
developed by other researchers (refer to Table 1 below). Items were also carefully amended
to ensure appropriateness in the context of SCM environments.
The questionnaire was then pilot testes for content validity and clarity of the items by
20 subject experts working in the SCM industry and the questionnaire was amended based
on the feedback received.
Considering the large percentage of Mandarin speaking employees working in the local
industries, a dual-language (i.e. English and Mandarin) questionnaire was designed.
Organisations were approached to participate in the study through e-mail invites, cold calls,
company visits and personal contacts. The study sample included employees from various
levels of the participating organizations both in the office and/or operational departments.
Respondents’ confidentiality was emphasised to encourage their honest response to the
survey. In total, 384 questionnaires were distributed (in the form of softcopy, hardcopy, or
an online survey) to all the participating organisations and 271 usable ones were returned
for a response rate of 71%.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Figure 1: Proposed Model
Impact of Work-Life Programs on Employee Outcomes in Supply Chain Management Organizations
Independent Variables (IVs) DVs
Legends:
AOC: Affective Organizational Commitment JS: Job Satisfaction TOI: Turnover Intensions DVs: Dependent Variables
Moderator variable
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AOC
JS
TOI
1. Perceived availabilityof W-L Initiatives
2. Usage of W-L Initiativesa. Flexible Work
Arrangements (FWAs)b. Leave Benefitsc. Employee Support Scheme
(ESS)3. Perceived Importance of W-L
Initiatives (PIWLI)4. Perceived Supervisory support
(PSS)
PSS
PIWLI
Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Measures:
Dependent Variables:
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction was assessed using the Michigan Organisational Assessment Questionnaire,
job-satisfaction subscale (MOAQ-JSS) (Bowling and Hammond, 2008; α = .84).
Respondents rated on a five-point Likert scale (1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree.
The following two items were taken from this scale: (1) “In general, I am satisfied with my
job.”, and (2) “In general, I like working here”. Three other items were extracted from
Bacharach, Bamberger and Conley (1999; α = .88), and Brayfield and Rothe [1951; α
= .87]. Table 1 below shows the sources of the measurement items of various constructs.
Affective Organisational Commitment
We used a five-item scale selected from the “Affective Commitment” subscale
developed by Allen and Meyer (1990; α = .87)2. Some of the selected items are: “I would
be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this company.” and “I really feel as if my
company’s problems are my own.” Respondents used a five-point Likert scale (1= strongly
disagree, and 5= strongly agree)3.
Employee Turnover Intentions
Three items from the Michigan Organisational Assessment Questionnaire (MOAQ)
were used to measure employees’ turnover intentions, reliability of the scale was 0.81
[Cammann et al., 1979]. This scale has been used by other researchers with various
occupational samples and was reported to have high internal consistency. The item “Given
2 Selected only five items from the eight item scale. 3
Instead of the original seven-point scale 5-point scale was used to fit this study.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
a choice, I will still want to work for this company4”. A higher score represents higher
intentions to leave the organisation.
Independent Variables
Work-life benefits
This study examined widely-use Work-Life benefits categorised under Flexible Work
Arrangements (FWAs), Leave Benefits and Employee Support Scheme (ESS) (Goodstein,
1994; Ingram and Simons, 1995; Osterman, 1995). When necessary, items were reworded
to make it appropriate for the local context. Respondents were asked to provide information
on the availability and usage of Work-Life benefits in their respective companies. PSS is
also included in the list of independent variables as moderator variables always function as
independent variables (Barron and Kenny, 1986)
Moderator Variable
Perceived Supervisor Support (PSS)
A six-item scale was put together from Anderson, Coffey and Byerly [2002] to measure
PSS. Respondents reported on a five-point Likert scale5. One of the items used is: “My
supervisor really cares about the effects that work demands have on my personal and
family life.”
Control Variables
Employee demographics were controlled i.e., gender (male= 1, female=0), age, marital
status (1=single and married=2, divorced=3), salary, and number of dependants.
Information on salary range and level of education were also gathered. Age, salary range
4 This item was slightly rephrased
5 Although the authors used a four-point scale, we decided to use five-point scale for standardisation purpose.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
and level of education were measured by five point interval scale.
Table 1: Sources of the Measurement Items
Constructs Sources of measurement items Cronbach’s Alpha
Range of W-L Programs Ingram & Simons, 1995; Osterman 1995;
Goodstein, 1994
N/A
Job Satisfaction (JS) MOAQ-JSS; Bowling and Hammond, 2008 0.84
Bacharach, Bamberger and Conley 1991 0.88-0.91
Brayfield and Rother, 1951 0.87
Affective Organizational
Commitment (AOC)
Allen & Meyer, 1990
Buchanan, 1974
0.87
0.86
Employee Turnover
Intentions (ETI)
MOAQ (Cammann et. al., 1979 0.81
Perceived Supervisor
Support (PSS)
Anderson, Coffey and Byerly, 2002 0.89
Validity Assessment
Given that the measures used were pre-validated, assessment of their psychometric
property was possible via confirmatory factor analysis6 using Lisrel 8.80 [Jöreskog &
Sörbom, 1993]. The initial measurement model was created by loading each manifest
variable with its theoretical latent variable.
The initial model fitted the data poorly (RMSEA: 0.141) with one Heywood case. This
problem was rectified after dropping items 1 and 3 for Affective Organisational
6 In order to mitigate potential for misspecification, exploratory factor analysis was subsequently conducted via Principal Axis Factoring with Promax rotation for each scale separately (a non full-information model). Extraction of factors via Kaiser criterion, scree plot, and interpretability of pattern structure corroborates the factor structure obtained in CFA for each latent variable.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Commitment and items 1 and 2 of Job Satisfaction, yielding the final measurement model.
Despite a significant chi-square of 266.18 (df=84), the corresponding fit statistics
(RMSEA= .086 [.074 - .098], CFI= .97, SRMR= .052, and NNFI= .96) suggests a moderate
to good fit [Hu and Bentler, 1999] of the model to the data with a power of .998
[MacCallum, Browne, et al. 1996, Preacher & Coffman, 2006], thereby supporting the use
of this data for subsequent analysis.
Reliability Analysis
Reliability analysis determines the extent to which each test procedure yields the same
results on repeated trials [Carmines and Zeller, 1979]. Cronbach’s alpha of the four scales,
after item deletion, ranges from .67 to .87, which meets the .60 minimum proposed by
Nunnally and Berstein [1994]. These scales are thus suitable for hypothesis testing as
illustrated in Table 2 below:
Table 2: Internal Consistency of the Various ConstructsVariables Cronbach’s Alpha (after deletion of items)
Job satisfaction 0.848
Affective Organization Commitment 0.703
Turnover Intentions 0.665
Perceived Supervisory support 0.869
RESULTS
Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations and correlation matrix for the key
variables, together with the control variables. It is observed that 19 out of 22 of the Code # 020-0009, Contact e-mail: [email protected]; 22nd Annual POMS Conference, April 29-May 02, 2011 Reno, Nevada, USA. Page 16
Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
correlations for the study variables are significant at the .01 or .05 levels in the expected
direction. Usage of Work-Life programmes is significantly correlated to job satisfaction
(r=.23), AOC (r=.26) and turnover intentions (r=-.22). Similarly, availability of Work-Life
programmes is significantly correlated with AOC (r=.201), job satisfaction, (r=.195) and
turnover intentions (r= -.204). In addition, correlations of PSS with usage of Work-Life
programmes (r=.184), AOC (r=.606), job satisfaction (r=.727) and turnover intentions
(r=-.512) were also significantly correlated at p<.01 level. However, perceived importance
of Work-Life programmes is not significantly correlated with both availability and usage of
Work-Life programmes and is therefore, excluded from further analysis.
Usage of FWAs is significantly correlated with AOC (r=.22), job satisfaction (r=.24)
and turnover intentions (r=-.22) at p< .01. Likewise, ESS utilisation showed significant
correlations with AOC (r=.14), job satisfaction (r=.14) and turnover intentions (r=-.13) at
p< .05. Leave benefits utilisation, is correlated with AOC (r=.17; p< .01) and turnover
intentions (r=-.13; p< .05).
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
Table 3: Zero-order correlations with mean and standard deviations of the variables
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1. Usage of W-L program. 1.70 1.79
2.Availability of W-L program 3.95 2.33 .574**
3.Importance of W-L program 42.76 10.82 .046 .084
4.FWA utilization .45 .70 .464** .396 .048
5.Leave benefits Utilization .87 1.18 .831** .333** .024 .094
6.ESS Utilization .37 .75 .645** .473** .024 .025 .330**
7.AOC 10.94 2.02 2.60** .201** .074 .219** .174** .139*
8.Turnover Intention 7.94 2.16 -.223** -.204** .12 -.215** -.127* -.129* -.586** -
9.Job satisfaction 10.93 2.16 .228** .195** .014 .236** .114 .142 .744** .691**
10.PSS 20.88 4.19 .184** .195** .07 .230** .067 .115 .606** .512** .727**
11.Gender .54 .5 -024 -.075 -124* -.207** .102 -.023 -.11 .073 -129* .163**
12.Age 2.61 .96 .236** .065 -135* .167** .158** .166** .220** -187** .213** .117 -.198**
13.Marital Status 1.65 .58 .243** .178** -.001 .222** .195** .072 .224** -.229** .215** .153* -.209** .461**
14.Education 2.19 1.02 -.064 .111 .142* .085 -140* -.021 .045 .03 .036 .046 -.159** -.063 -.101
15.Salary 1.99 1.04 .180** .296** .105 .345** -.013 .135* .270** -.118 .178** .154* -.249** .368** .282** .362**
16.No. of dependants 2.03 .81 .196** .077 .038 .069 .195** .10 .190** -.088 .116 .015 .162** .286** .426** -.071 .159**
** Correlation is significant at .01 level 9two tailed test)* Correlation is significant at .05 level (two tail test)
Tests of Hypothesis:
We used hierarchical moderated multiple regression analysis (Aiken & West, 1991) to
test our hypotheses and examined the interactive effects of supervisory support with the
dependent variables. In step 1, we entered the control variables (i.e., gender, marital status,
number of dependent children and salary). In Step 2, the independent variables were
entered. Finally, in step 3 we entered the two way interactions between each of the
independent variables. All predictors were centred, i.e., subtracted from the mean as
recommended by Akin and West (1991). These steps were examined for each of the three
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
employee outcomes. To facilitate interpretation of significant interactions, we plotted the
sample slopes from the respective regression models, when applicable.
We examined and reported the change in R2 to examine whether the predictor variables
contributed to the prediction of each of the outcome variables over and above the previous
steps. Standardized beta weights for the final regression equation, which indicate the
relative importance of the predictor variables after accounting for the effects of controls and
other variables in the equation are also reported (Tay & Quazi, 2010).
We predicted in Hypotheses 1(a) that perceived availability of Work-Life programmes
would be positively related to AOC and job satisfaction, and negatively to employee
turnover intentions. From the regression analysis it is observed that the relationships of the
above variable with job satisfaction and turnover intentions were statistically significant in
the hypothesised direction (B=.12; p=.04 and B= -.15; p=.01 respectively). However, the
hypothesised relationship of availability of W-L programs with AOC was not significant
(B=.09; p=.08).
Hypothesis 1 (b) predicted that employee usage of Work-Life programmes would have
significant relationships with all the three outcome variables. As predicted, statistically
significant relationships were found, providing strong support for all the three outcome
variables (B=.21; p=.00, B=.21; p=.01 and B=-.21; p=.01 respectively).
In Hypotheses 2, we posited positive relationships between usage of FWAs with AOC
and job satisfaction, and a negative relationship with turnover intentions. As hypothesized,
strong support was found for all the three outcome variables (B=.41; p=.02, B=.56; p=.00
and B= -.52; p=.01 respectively).
Regarding Hypothesis 3, support was also found for the positive relationship between Code # 020-0009, Contact e-mail: [email protected]; 22nd Annual POMS Conference, April 29-May 02, 2011 Reno, Nevada, USA. Page 19
Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
leave benefits usage and AOC (B=.25; p=.02), however, the predicted positive relationships
with job satisfaction and the negative relationship with turnover intentions were not
significant.
In hypothesis 4, the relationships between usage of ESS and the outcome variables
were not significant with any of the three outcome variables (i.e., with AOC; B=.16; p=.37:
with job satisfaction; B=.26; p=.16; and with turnover intentions; B=-.27; p=.15).
In hypothesis 5, we predicted that the relationship between the utilization of W-L
programs with the three outcome variables will be moderated by the perceived supervisor
support. Regression analysis indicates that PSS exerted significant moderating effects on
only employee turnover intentions (β=0.13 , p<.05 , ∆R2 = .012) and not on AOC or job
satisfaction.
Figure 2 shows the graphical representation of the sample slopes. It shows that the
association of usages of work-life program to turnover intensions was stronger when PSS
was high (steeper slope at -.211). However, when supervisor support is moderate (i.e.,
medium) turnover intensions was not as strong (slope: -.084) as in the case of high PSS.
Interestingly, a positive slope for turnover intentions was noticed when the supervisor
support was low.
Figure 2: Moderator Interaction Plot
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
DISCUSSIONS
This study explored to understand how availability and usage of WLB initiatives may
impact employee outcomes in the SCM organizations operating in Singapore. It also
examined the impact of interaction effect of supervisor support with the levels of usage of
work-life programs. This study builds on previous studies that found that the impact of the
availability and usage of work-life programs on the employee outcomes (i.e., AOC, Job
satisfaction and turnover intensions) are moderated by the level of perceived supervisor
support. Although hypotheses were developed based on the literature, some of the findings
of this study were not in agreement with it.
Key findings of this study showed that perceived availability and usage of Work-Life
programmes, along with supportive supervisors, generally led to employees with lower
turnover intentions. Hypotheses 1 (a) predicted significant positive relationships between
perceived availability of Work-Life programs with AOC and job satisfaction and negative
relationship with turnover intensions. While this predicted relationship was found to be true
with job satisfaction (in line with Thomas & Ganster, 1995; Grover and Crooker, 1995) and
turnover intensions (consistent with Allen, 2001) but not with AOC. This could be due to
the interplay of other possible antecedents of AOC such as relationships with co-workers,
organisational justice (Meyer and Allen, 1997) and leadership (Brown, 2003). This implies
that in the case of SCM industry mere availability of Work-Life programmes may not
sufficiently elicit feelings of affection towards the organisation (Allen, 2001).
In line with the prediction of hypothesis 1(b), significant relationships were found on
the utilisation of Work-Life programmes on all three study variables i.e. AOC, job
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
satisfaction and employee turnover intentions, which are in line with those of Greenberger
et al. (1989) and Beauregard and Henry (2009).
Similarly, usage of FWAs was found to be associated with higher AOC and job
satisfaction, as well as with lower turnover intentions (Hypothesis 2). These results are in
line with those of Allen (2001), who found that flexible benefits were positively related to
job satisfaction and negatively related to turnover intentions. Casper and Harris (2008) also
reported that employees who used more FWAs demonstrated higher affective commitment
to the organization.
According to hypothesis 3, utilization of leave benefits should be significantly
correlated with AOC, Job satisfaction and turnover intensions. However, results only
showed correlation with AOC but not with the other two predicted variables. Possible
Reason could be that in Singapore leave benefits are mostly covered under The
Employment Act (2010), and employees may treat these policies as an entitlement (Wellner,
2004) rather than for enabling WLB and as such may not necessarily act as a factor
affecting their level of job satisfaction and the decision to stay or leave the organisation.
Further, child/elder-care leaves appear less crucial as with Singaporeans’ growing
affluence, hiring of domestic helpers to care for dependants at home has become popular
and prevalent (Yeoh and Huang, 1995).
In hypothesis 4, non-significant relationship was found between utilisation of ESS with
all the three outcome variables. This probably can be explained by the fact that majority
(45%) of our respondents were relatively young (24-34 years old) and to them career
prospects and mobility may be more important than stability. Therefore, we suspect that
given the range of family oriented ESS used in this study, utilisation of such benefits may Code # 020-0009, Contact e-mail: [email protected]; 22nd Annual POMS Conference, April 29-May 02, 2011 Reno, Nevada, USA. Page 23
Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
not necessarily influence their decision regarding AOC and turnover.
No support for the predicted moderating role of PSS was found on the relationship
between Work-Life programmes utilisation with AOC and job satisfaction (Hypothesis 6).
This contradicts prior research findings that employees who perceived support from their
supervisor generally felt more affectively committed (Norris-Watts and Levy, 2004;
Scandura and Lankau, 1997) and satisfied at work (Thomas and Ganster, 1995). A plausible
explanation could be that job satisfaction and AOC are general attitudes intrinsically
developed as a result of factors other than solely PSS provided to employees of the SCM
organizations in achieving WLB. Further, often time some employees of this industry may
feel that the level of PSS received is enough while others may not feel that way (Saari and
Judge, 2004). However, as predicted in the same hypothesis, usage of Work-Life
programmes on turnover intentions would be moderated by PSS, was supported. A tentative
explanation is that actual usage of formal family-friendly initiatives is determined on a
case-by-case basis, giving managers discretion in these matters (Friedman and Johnson,
1997; Powell and Mainiero, 1999). In fact, findings by Powell and Mainiero indicate that
the manager’s response to an employee request for alternative work arrangement may
depend on his or her personal beliefs or past experiences with balancing work and family.
Thus, amount of support from individual managers may vary even when Work-Life
initiatives are provided on a formal basis, thereby influencing both employee decisions to
utilize family-friendly benefits and to remain in the organization (Thompson et al., 1999).
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
Particularly for the SCM industry, attention had generally been given on the “hard”
aspects, i.e. financial and operational issues (Cullen, Johnson and Sakano, 2000). The
“soft” side, i.e. human aspects, of the business have received relatively less attention.
Hence, this study adds value in exploring the Work-Life scene in this industry in Singapore.
Since successful management ensures a balanced focus on both hard and soft aspects of
their organizations (Cullen, Johnson and Sakano, 2000), this exploratory study has
identified some areas where the management of SCM organizations may pay more
attention. .
Results from this study provide some specific points of consideration for managers in
this industry. Specifically, a crucial intermediate linkage such as the supportive behaviour
of supervisors towards the provision of Work-Life programmes and its effects on reduced
voluntary turnover has been highlighted. As previously mentioned, the organisation can
capitalise on the benefits of Work-Life programmes if supervisors are able to empathise
with employees’ usage of such programmes (Powell and Mainiero, 1999).
Managers could look into providing an innovative combination of ESS and leave
benefits beyond that of mandatory stipulations. Specifically, a large number of respondents
in this study have rated high (4-5) on the importance of staff wellness programmes,
study/examination, paid maternity and childcare leaves, a consistent trend across age
groups, marital status or number of dependants, suggesting the attractiveness of such
benefits to employees. For instance, as Singaporeans becoming more health-conscious7,
7 The Nielsen Company, (3 March 2009). Findings from a recent global online study on vitamins and dietary supplements consumption by The Nielsen Company, found that Singapore’s population are health-conscious or simply do not adhere to sensible eating habit. Retrieved from: http://www.acnielsen.com.sg/site/20090304.htm
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
companies may consider providing yoga classes or health-talks (e.g. food and nutrition,
stress management) as employees and employers alike can benefit from the adoption of a
healthy lifestyle e.g. lower absenteeism due to work-related stressors.
LIMITATIONS
Despite its practical contributions, our study was constrained by time and data
limitations. First, Work-Life programmes may have longer-term benefits which can only be
examined by longitudinal studies to determine the causal direction of relationships
involved.
Larger proportion of respondents (71%) holding deskbound jobs as compared to those
with less deskbound jobs may also limit the representativeness of the Work-Life profile
between these two groups of employees in this industry. Additionally, employees 45 years
old or above made up only 17% of the sample. This may undermine the importance of
certain Work-Life initiatives, suitable for this group of employees. Finally, a possible
concern lies with results being inflated by common method variance (Doty and Glick,
1998; Podsakoff et al., 2003), as data was solely collected from surveys. Thus, as the core
variables were self-reported, the relationships may have been inflated as respondents tend
to respond in socially-desirable ways (Donaldson and Grant-Vallone, 2002). This concern is
particularly acute in the case of turnover intentions because many of the items are sensitive
in nature. In view of the above mentioned limitations, the results of this study should be
used with caution.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
An agenda for future research could be to compare the SCM industry practices
regarding W-L balance initiatives against the other industries. Findings of such studies
might help the managers of SCM organizations better gauge the effectiveness of Work-Life
programmes in their industry.
Future research can also explore the financial impacts of Work-Life programmes on
SCM organisations. A large-scale empirical study conducted by Ang et al. [2005] on the
relationships between Work-Life practices and firm performance in Singapore showed that
employee turnover is costly and implementing Work-Life initiatives is an effective business
strategy that Singapore firms can use to reduce voluntary employee turnover. Incorporating
such analytical data into the business case would facilitate higher organisational buy-in.
Other moderating and mediating variables such as gender differences and perceived
organisational support may also be explored. The former is highlighted by Rothbard (2001)
who indicates that strong differences exist in the way males and females experience Work-
Life interface and multiple role engagement.
Lastly, given that PSS is an important factor that needs to be present for effective usage
of Work-Life benefits and the reciprocal employee outcomes, it would be worthwhile to
explore what organisational-level variables (e.g. policies regarding selection and training of
supervisors) might filter down to the individual level and result in greater perceived support
by employees. For example, supervisory development programmes that train supervisors to
recognise and appreciate Work-Life harmony may be one such effective strategy.
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Impact of Work-Life Initiatives on Employee Behavior in Supply Chain Management Organizations in Singapore.
CONCLUSIONS
Despite its limitations, this study has made several tentative contributions to the
literature in WLB issues. Firstly, it extends the findings of the previous studies which have
generally not focused on a particular industry. This study has thus initiated a new direction
for Work-Life research by specifically examining the Work-Life practices in the SCM
industry.
Findings of this study have also highlighted implications of implementing Work-Life
programmes for SCM managers in the local context. The study also underscores the impact
of PSS on the effective implementation of these programmes. Specifically, supportive
supervisors play an important role in influencing turnover intentions among users of Work-
Life programmes. Some of the W-L initiatives appeared more impactful than others, For
instance, it is found that employees in the SCM industry value leave benefits, and would
feel more affectively committed as a result from its utilisation.
This study is a first step in putting the spotlight on a specific industry. It is possibly one
of the first in initiating a focus on the SCM industry that plays an integral part of almost
every business but has received less attention regarding work-life balance.
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