2 IMPACT

In an era when littleis certain, three thingsare clear: (1) Florida’snatural resource sector(agriculture, forestry,aquaculture, fisheriesand parts of tourism)will continue to becentral to the state’swell-being; (2) powerfulforces will reshape andchallenge this criticalsector; and (3) UF’sInstitute of Food andAgricultural Sciences(UF/IFAS) will play a

key role in how challenges are met and how the sectoris reshaped.

• Pressure on and competition for land and water– Farmland is being converted for urban, residential andtourism uses. Since 1980, farm and forest land has de-clined by 22 percent. Farmland encroachment has beenaccompanied by a corresponding competition for andconflict over water. Crop and pasture irrigation shortagesare occurring as water is directed for residential and ur-ban use. There also are concerns about agriculture’simpact on water quality. In both cases, it is likely thatwater use will face growing pressures and increased inter-ventions from regulators.

• International competition – For decades, theUnited States has pursued policies aimed at loweringbarriers to international trade. Examples include theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Amove toward the Free Trade Area of the Americas(FTAA) treaty will further intensify competitive pressureon Florida farmers, forcing greater efficiencies and newmarketing strategies.

• Shifting crop production patterns – Global com-petition and high land prices have caused Florida’sfarmers to make geographic and structural adjustments.For example, population growth has accelerated a shift incitrus and cattle production to less populated areas.Even more dramatic has been the change in the state’scrop mix. Farmers have moved away from crops requir-ing extensive land to high-value, intensive land-usecrops. Traditional crops such as tobacco, potatoes, cot-ton, vegetables and sugar cane have been replaced inpart by nursery products, ornamentals and sod (greenproducts). Aquaculture has grown significantly inrecent years.

By Michael V. Martin

PerspectivePerspective• Increased government regulation – Different

forms of regulation may increase production costs forproducers. Restrictions on chemicals such as methyl bro-mide will have far-reaching consequences, especially ifinternational trading partners fail to impose similar regu-lations. Consumer concerns over food safety, nutrition,animal rights and other issues will constrain what is pro-duced and how it is produced, as well as how food isprocessed and delivered.

• Relative labor scarcity – While Florida’s popula-tion is growing, it is growing relatively slowly in the agepool that supplies the basic labor market. Other Floridaeconomic sectors, such as tourism, compete with the nat-ural resource sector for labor from this limited pool.When one compares Florida’s labor availability and costto major international competitors, it is clear the differ-entials will amplify the adverse impacts of free trade.

• Invasive pests and species – Florida’s climate in-vites all types of pests. For many of the state’s mostvaluable crops, new diseases or pests may be the greatestthreat to sustained viability.

• Segmented consumer preferences – Higher in-comes have led to greater market segmentation. Manyconsumers now desire more individualized packages ofgoods and services, creating “niche” marketing opportu-nities for foods, beverages and other products.

• Shifting domestic markets and transportation –Florida’s transportation system (highways and railways)originally linked producers with the population centersin the Northeast, but population and markets havechanged. Domestic market growth is now in the Westand Southwest, and the transportation system servingFlorida agriculture is less efficient.

To meet future challenges, Florida will depend heavilyon science and education. However, unlike many otherstates, Florida receives relatively little research and devel-opment (R&D) support from the private sector. Thediversity of Florida’s agricultural and natural resource in-dustries is not viewed as profitable for private R&Dinvestments. Thus, these industries will continue to relyheavily on public R&D, particularly UF/IFAS – the mostcomprehensive research, development and educationalinstitution dedicated to advancing the state’s primaryeconomic sector.

This issue of IMPACT includes developments byUF/IFAS to keep Florida strong and competitive. It dem-onstrates how UF/IFAS is working for you.

Mike MartinVice Presidentfor Agriculture

and Natural Resources

SUMMER 2003 3

IMPACT is publishedby the University ofFlorida’s Institute ofFood and AgriculturalSciences (UF/IFAS) andis produced by IFASCommunicationServices,Ashley M. Wood,director.

EditorCharles T. Woods

Copy EditorsChana J. BirdCarol Church

ContributorChris Penko

Photo EditorThomas S. Wright

PhotographersTara PiasioEric Zamora

DesignerTracy D. Zwillinger

For more informationabout UF/IFASprograms, contactDonald W. Poucher,assistant vice presidentof marketing andcommunications: (352)392-0437, or e-mail:info@mail.ifas.ufl.edu.

Changes of address,requests for extracopies and requests tobe added to the mailinglist should be addressedto Chuck Woods,PO Box 110025,University of Florida,Gainesville, FL 32611-0025, or e-mailed toctw@mail.ifas.ufl.edu.Impact is available inalternative formats;visit our home page atimpact.ifas.ufl.edu.© Copyright 2003 by theUniversity of Florida. All rightsreserved.

IMPACT©Volume 19, No. 2 Summer 2003

22 Cover Story(On the cover) Frank Mazzotti, an associate professor of wildlife ecologyand conservation at UF’s Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center,holds an American crocodile in Everglades National Park. Mazzotti recentlyled the first comprehensive survey of American crocodiles living in SouthFlorida. An increase in the number of the reptiles may be linked to afederal, state, local and private partnership to protect and restore coastalhabitats in the Florida Everglades. For the complete story, see page 22.(Cover photo by Eric Zamora)

4 Water QualityUF’s Institute of Food andAgricultural Sciences is workingwith other state and federalagencies in the new LakeOkeechobee Protection Program.

8 Human ImpactsResearchers have discovered that acommon fern has an amazingability to absorb arsenic fromcontaminated soil.

10 GlobalCompetitivenessTo compete against low-costproducers in Brazil, Florida’s citrusindustry needs new mechanicalharvesting systems being testedby researchers.

13 Human ResourcesGolf is big business in Florida,according to a new economic study.

16 Society-ReadyGraduatesA unique degree program inpackaging science preparesstudents for careers in a rapidlygrowing industry.

19 Public PolicyThe new Southern Plant DiagnosticNetwork provides an early warningabout dangerous plant pestsand diseases.

26 Pest ProtectionResearch and extension scientistshave developed environmentallyfriendly programs to manage a seriousplant disease.

29 Food TechnologyFood scientists have developed newfolic acid educational materials forthe state’s growing Hispaniccommunity.

4 IMPACT

ProtectingSouth Florida’s“Liquid Heart”In response to a steady decline in the waterquality of Lake Okeechobee, the University ofFlorida’s Institute of Food and AgriculturalSciences is working with a new partnership ofstate and federal agencies to protect one ofthe nation’s largest freshwater lakes.

With a surface area of 730 square miles, LakeOkeechobee is often called the “liquid heart”of South Florida – providing a natural habi-

tat for wildlife, attracting fishing and recreationenthusiasts, and supplying water for people, farms andthe environment.

But all is not well with South Florida’s liquid heart. Inrecent decades, the lake has been threatened by three en-vironmental problems: excessive phosphorus loads thatdegrade water quality and cause algae blooms and otherproblems; harmful high and low water levels; and exoticvegetation such as melaleuca and torpedograss.

To help improve water quality and correct other prob-lems in the lake, the Florida Legislature in 2000authorized the Lake Okeechobee Protection Program.Supported by about $42.5 million in state funding todate, the comprehensive program is being coordinated bythe South Florida Water Management District, theFlorida Department of Environmental Protection andthe Florida Department of Agriculture and ConsumerServices. Other participants include the U.S. Depart-ment of Agriculture’s Natural Resources ConservationServices, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the FloridaFish and Wildlife Conservation Commission and UF’sInstitute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.

“The lake has clearlysuffered over the past 30years,” said Susan Gray,who directs LakeOkeechobee restoration ef-forts for the water man-agement district in West Palm Beach.

“High water levels during the late 1990s resulted inthe loss of submerged plants, and past algae blooms havediscouraged recreation, killed fish and caused taste andodor problems in drinking water pumped from the lake,”Gray said.

“Although there was recovery of submerged plants dueto the drought and low water levels of 2000-2002, lakewater level management continues to be a challenge withcurrent facilities,” she said. “We also have the continuingproblem of excess nutrients, primarily phosphorus, de-grading the water quality of the lake.”

She said algae growth in Lake Okeechobee is stimulat-ed by excessive phosphorus levels, a key issue in therestoration project.

“Given the extent of the problem and the size of thelake and its surrounding 31,000-acre watershed, theFlorida Legislature recognized that it would take several

Water QualityWater Quality

SUMMER 2003 5

“”

“”

years to meet the restoration goals,” she said. “Keepingthe project on track and funded will require stayingfocused. We’ve got interagency cooperation, public con-cern and a state mandate to get the job done.”

Gray said the lake protection program will require acombination of best management practices (BMPs) andregional treatment as well as alternative technologies.

“We’re talking about a huge reduction in phosphoruslevels, and our intention is not to put anyone out ofbusiness,” Gray said. “We want to sustain economic pro-ductivity while minimizing phosphorus runoff – it’s adifficult balancing act.”

Wendy Graham, a professor of hydrology and chair ofUF’s agricultural and biological engineering department,said the program is aimed at reducing phosphorus levelsin the lake to 40 parts per billion (ppb). Depending onweather and other conditions, phosphorus levels average110 ppb and have reached upwards of 200 ppb at times.

Graham said the 40 ppb goal for the in-lake phospho-rus concentration was selected by the FloridaDepartment of Environmental Protection (DEP) as asafe and desirable level to protect water quality in thelake. To help achieve that standard, DEP requires the re-duction of phosphorus entering Lake Okeechobee fromthe current average of 550 metric tons per year to ap-proximately 140 metric tons by the year 2015.

Many sources have caused the problem over a periodof decades. “Stormwater runoff from nearby dairies, cat-tle ranches, farms and private homes all contributes tothe problem,” she said. “Soil in some areas is so satu-rated with phosphorus that it may continue to be re-leased for years.”

Graham and Mitch Flinchum, a professor of forest andwater resources at the Everglades Research and Educa-tion Center in Belle Glade, are co-directors of the UFresearch and extension education program.

Stormwater runoff from nearby dairies,cattle ranches, farms and private homes allcontributes to the problem.

— Wendy GrahamPhoto by Thomas Wright

6 IMPACT

Graham said projects include developing remote sens-ing techniques to detect phosphorus hot spots on thelandscape, investigating alternative phosphorus remedia-tion processes, and demonstrating, evaluating andencouraging the adoption of agricultural, surburban andurban land management practices to reduce the loadingof phosphorus into the lake. The research and educationprojects are being conducted by faculty in soil and waterscience, agricultural and biological engineering, agron-omy, horticultural sciences and animal sciences.

For example, a demonstration project for cattle ranch-ing will reduce phosphorus loads from cow-calfoperations adopting BMPs in the Lake Okeechobee ba-sin, she said.

“At this point, sites have been selected at working com-mercial ranches to demonstrate various water andnutrient management practices,” Graham said. “We arecurrently installing instrumentation, and monitoring willbegin in the summer of 2003.”

Another key part of the UF research and educationprogram involves phosphorus retention and storage inisolated and constructed wetlands in the LakeOkeechobee basin.

“Phosphorus discharged from various land use activi-ties can be assimilated in farm ditches, isolated wetlandsand riparian buffers,” said Ramesh Reddy, a graduate re-search professor and chair of UF’s soil and water sciencedepartment. “Small isolated wetlands are a common fea-ture throughout the basin and may provide a significantstorage and retention capacity for phosphorus runoffwithin the landscape.”

Reddy, who chairs this phase of the UF researchproject, said isolated wetlands cover about 17 percent ofthe basin, and understanding their role in phosphorusstorage is critical to the long-term water quality efforts.In addition, constructed wetlands can be used to treat ei-ther on-farm discharges or basinwide runoff.

“The successful deployment of treatment wetlands inwatersheds north of the lake will be challenging becausephosphorus concentrations in dairy runoff are quitehigh,” Reddy said.

Flinchum, who is working on the lake protection pro-gram with Pat Miller, Okeechobee County extensiondirector, said there’s a wide range of environmental andeconomic issues that must be addressed. Flinchum said

Mark Clark, left, a research assistant professor in UF’s soil and water science department, and Mitch Flinchum discuss a wetland elevationsurvey and placement of a water control structure near Lake Okeechobee. The red instrument on the yellow tripod is a laser leveling system thatis used with a Global Positioning System to determine the elevation contour and water storage capacity of an isolated wetland near the lake.(Photo by Eric Zamora)

SUMMER 2003 7

success of the program will depend on cooperation fromresidents in seven counties around the lake.

“Lake Okeechobee is crucial to South Florida’s envi-ronment and water resources, and BMPs can help if wehave the determination to use them,” he said. “This isthe first time UF’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sci-ences has made a committed institutional effort to workwith these agencies on legislative priorities, and we hopethe program will serve as a model for future efforts.”

Chuck Aller, who leads the Florida Department of Ag-riculture and Consumer Services’ efforts to implementBMPs and other phosphorus control strategies on farmsand ranches in the watershed, said the high level of sup-port from the agricultural community for the interagencyeffort is a good reason to be optimistic about restoringthe lake.

“The Lake Okeechobee Protection Program legislationbegins with the premise that there are ways to achieveenvironmental results for agricultural operations withoutresorting to traditional government regulatory ap-proaches,” Aller said. “By involving producers from thevery beginning in the design of BMPs that directly affect

their businesses and by providing incentives for farmersto participate, the program represents a voluntary part-nership with government.”

He said producers have responded by indicating virtu-ally a 100 percent interest in joining the program, and heexpects the trend will continue throughout the water-shed. – Chuck Woods

Chuck Aller (850) 488-3022allerc@doacs.state.fl.us

Mitch Flinchum (561) 993-1523dmflinchum@mail.ifas.edu

Wendy Graham (352) 392-1864, Ext. 120wdgraham@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Susan Gray (561) 682-6919sgray@sfwmd.gov

Pat Miller (863) 763-6469opmiller@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

K. Ramesh Reddy (352) 392-1803, Ext. 317krr@ufl.edu

Mark Clark adjusts a device that detects a laser beam to determine the soil elevation of a wetland near Lake Okeechobee. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

8 IMPACT

Human ImpactsHuman Impacts

An Amazing Arsenic-Absorbing AbilityIn breakthrough research that received worldwide mediaattention, University of Florida scientists have discovered afern that has an amazing ability to soak up arsenic fromcontaminated soil.

A common Florida fern may be useful in cleaning up thousands of sites contaminated by arsenic from industrial, mining, agricultural or other operations

around the world.

Lena Ma, a professor of soil and water science with UF’sInstitute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, said it’s thefirst plant ever found to “hyperaccumulate” arsenic, a car-cinogenic heavy metal currently used as an herbicide andwood preservative. The findings were published recently inthe scientific journal Nature.

Her research team found that the Chinese Brake Fern(Pteris vittata) not only absorbs arsenic from the soil, butdoes so with amazing efficiency – arsenic concentrationswere as much as 200 times higher in the fern than in con-taminated soils where the plant was growing.

For example, at a site contaminated by wood pressure-treated with a chromium-copper-arsenic (CCA) solution,the soil sample collected by Ken Komar, a former graduatestudent, had 38.9 parts per million (ppm) of arsenic, whilethe fern fronds had 7,526 ppm of arsenic. In greenhousetests using soil artificially infused with arsenic, concentra-tions in the fern’s fronds reached 22,630 ppm, meaningthat 2.3 percent of the plant was composed of arsenic,Ma said.

“To our surprise, we found the fern accumulates arsenicin soils that contain normal background arsenic levels ofless than one ppm,” she said. “We measured 136 ppm ofarsenic in the fronds of a fern growing on the UF campusin soil that contained just 0.47 ppm of the metal.”

Levels of arsenic in the plant easily eclipse the thresholdof five ppm for classification as a hazardous waste basedon the Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxicity Char-acteristic Leaching Procedure test, another surprising factin light of the plant’s verdant appearance, she said.

“The findings are all the more remarkable because ar-senic is currently used to kill weeds and other unwantedplants on golf courses and lawns,” said Ma, a trace-metals

biochemistry expert. “Why the fern accumulates arsenic isa mystery.”

She said the fern could become a star player in the na-scent industry known as phytoremediation, or using plantsto clean up toxic waste sites. More than 400 plants areknown to accumulate toxins, and many are used in a smallbut growing phytoremediation market estimated to be ex-panding from $30 million in 1998 to as much as $370million by 2005.

“Because the fern accumulates 90 percent of the arsenicin its fronds, the plant could be grown on toxic sites, andthen the fronds could be harvested for transfer to a haz-ardous waste facility,” Ma said. “The approach could beused worldwide to decontaminate soil as well as water.”

During the past century, cattle ranchers in Florida oftenused an arsenic dip on their herds to combat fleas, ticksand other parasites. As a result, there are more than 3,200sites contaminated by arsenic in Florida alone. Worldwide,there are thousands of contaminated sites associated withmining, wood preservation and pesticide use.

“The fern seems all the more promising to clean upmany of these sites because it is an easy-to-grow perennialthat prefers a sunny environment and alkaline soil,” Masaid. “In alkaline conditions, arsenic can be extractedmore easily.”

In greenhouse tests conducted by Cong Tu, a formerpostdoctoral scientist, the plant seems to fare better insoils with arsenic than in soils without arsenic, but Masaid she is puzzled as to how arsenic can enhanceplant growth.

“Our long-term goal is to understand the mechanisms ofarsenic uptake, translocation, distribution and detoxifica-tion by the Chinese Brake Fern and to maximize arsenicaccumulation by the plant,” Ma said. “We also want toidentify the genes in the plant responsible for arsenichyperaccumulation.”

SUMMER 2003 9

Lena Ma compares a sickly fern, left, with a healthy fern exposed tohigh levels of arsenic. Ma and her colleagues have discovered that acommon brake fern can soak up large amounts of arsenic fromcontaminated soil without harming the plant. (Photo by Tara Piasio)

Ma’s group has demon-strated the effectivenessof the fern in removing ar-senic from the CCA sitewhere the plant was firstdiscovered in 1998. Aftertwo croppings, 12 percentto 43 percent of the ar-senic in the top foot ofsoil was removed by theplant. Based on this ar-senic removal rate, thesite could be remediatedin a few years, a recordtime for phytoremedia-tion technology.

To expand the capabil-ity to remediate variouscontaminated sites, Ma’sgroup is screening differ-ent plants to measuretheir appetite for arsenic. Beside the Chinese Brake Fern,several other ferns in the Pteris genus have shown the capa-bility to absorb arsenic.

Currently, researchers in Ma’s group working on fern re-search include Tom Luongo, a senior chemist; postdoctoralscientists Mike Tu, Mrittunjai Srivastava, Nandita Singhand Rocky Cao; and doctoral students Abioye Fayiga, GinaKertulis and Maria Silver.

UF faculty who have contributed to the fern researchproject include David Sylvia, a former professor in the soiland water science department; Saba Rathinasabapathi, anassociate professor in the horticultural sciences depart-ment; Charles Guy, a professor in the environmentalhorticulture department; Robert Stamps, a professor in theenvironmental horticulture department and assistant direc-tor of UF’s Mid-Florida Research and Education Center inApopka; Maria Gallo-Meagher, an associate professor inthe agronomy department; Gregory MacDonald, an assis-tant professor in the agronomy department; Joseph Vu, acourtesy associate professor in the agronomy department;Rongling Wu, an associate professor in the statistics de-partment; Randolph Duran, an associate professor in thechemistry department; and James Winefordner, a graduateresearch professor in the chemistry department.

The team’s research is supported by grants from the Na-tional Science Foundation, the U.S. Department ofAgriculture’s Tropical and Sub-Tropical Agriculture Re-search (T-STAR) program and the Florida Power and LightCompany. UF has received two patents for using the fernto clean up arsenic-contaminated soil and water. Commer-cial rights to patents have been licensed to Edenspace

Lena Ma, left, discusses the fern’s ability to absorb arsenic from thesoil with her doctoral graduate student, Abioye Fayiga. (Photo byTara Piasio)

Systems Corporation, an environmental biotechnologycompany near Washington, D.C.

For her research, Ma received the Discovery 2001 Awardfrom the Royal Geographical Society and Discovery Net-works Europe. – Chuck Woods

Lena Ma: (352) 392-9063, Ext. 208lqma@ufl.edu or http://lqma.ifas.ufl.edu

10 IMPACT

Global CompetitivenessGlobal Competitiveness

A “Shaky” Futurefor Florida CitrusHarvestingUniversity of Florida researchers say new tree-shaking mechanical harvesting systems arenine times more efficient than picking orangesby hand and will help the state’s $9 billioncitrus industry compete with low-costproducers such as Brazil.

In their search for a cheaper way to pick billions oforanges from millions of trees, University of Floridaresearchers have tried everything from tree shakers

to air-blast machines and water cannons.

Some of these mechanical harvesting systems dateback to the 1960s when research was aimed at helpinggrove workers hand pick oranges more efficiently. Now,with higher labor costs in Florida and strong competitionfrom low-cost producers such as Brazil, mechanical har-vesting is becoming a necessity on the state’s 600,000acres of processed oranges.

“In today’s global citrus market, necessity has becomethe mother of invention,” said Fritz Roka, an associateprofessor of food and resource economics at UF’s South-west Florida Research and Education Center inImmokalee, who is studying the economic aspects of me-chanical harvesting.

“The future economic viability of Florida’s citrus in-dustry will depend on our ability to grow citrus atcompetitive prices,” Roka said. “Mechanical harvestingoffers an excellent opportunity to significantly lower har-vesting costs threefold.”

Ron Muraro, a professor of food and resource econom-ics at UF’s Citrus Research and Education Center inLake Alfred, has developed cost comparisons betweenthe Brazilian and Florida citrus industries. During the2000-01 harvesting season, the cost of picking and“roadsiding” fruit into a trailer was $1.60 per 90-poundbox of fruit in Florida, compared to 38 cents per box for

growers in SãoPaulo, Brazil.

And, while the currentU.S. tariff on importedBrazilian frozen orange-juice concentrate eliminates their advantage in the do-mestic market, all tariffs on imported agriculturalcommodities would be eliminated under the proposedFree Trade Area of the Americas agreement, Muraro said.

Roka said previous mechanical harvesting research pro-grams were motivated by fears of labor shortages. “Thegoal of shake-and-catch systems during the 1970s was tohelp grove workers increase the number of boxes theycould harvest from eight or 10 boxes per hour to 30.

“Today, we’re looking at new tree-shaking and catch-frame harvesting systems that allow one person to collectmore than 90 boxes per hour. Higher labor productivityshould translate to lower harvesting costs,” he said.

Roka said the Florida Department of Citrus (FDOC)in Lakeland has invested more than $9 million since1995 from grower assessments to develop mechanicalharvesting systems.

The FDOC Harvesting Research Advisory Council,which includes growers, harvesters and processors, wasestablished in 1995 to coordinate development of me-chanical harvesting technologies. Currently, researcherswith UF’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences areevaluating 31 different machine systems from six

SUMMER 2003 11

from the ground to create a “clear trunk” of at least 12inches, he said. TSC systems are being used in groveswith tree densities up to 175 trees per acre and on treesbetween 10 and 18 years old.

He said the two shake-and-catch systems are most effi-cient in the newer groves of Southwest Florida wheretree age, height and spacing are more uniform. Oldergroves in the Ridge area of Central Florida have lots ofresets, or tree replacements, and lack the uniformityneeded for efficient machine harvest.

“One of the biggest challenges for growers is overcom-ing the idea that groves can be planted like they were 50years ago,” Roka said. “Older groves need to be replantedwith smaller trees that are closer together and more uni-form, allowing shake-and-catch machines to move downtree rows more efficiently.”

Roka has developed a computer spreadsheet programso that growers can organize information on mechanicalharvesting and determine when it is profitable. Key pa-rameters include the system’s fruit recovery percentage,fruit price, crop yield and the cost difference between

A trunk-shaking system moves through a grove in southwest Florida. The shaker unit clamps around the tree trunk to remove fruit, and the fruitis deflected to a catch frame on the opposite side of the tree. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

manufacturers, and two systems are achieving commer-cial success in Southwest Florida.

“During this year’s harvesting season, the trunk-shake-catch (TSC) and the continuous-canopy-shake-catch(CCSC) systems removed at least 95 percent and recov-ered 90 percent of the fruit from trees in southwestFlorida,” Roka said.

He said CCSC systems have greater harvesting capac-ity than TSC systems. One set of CCSC machines canload up to 18,500-box trailers in one day. One set ofTSC equipment can fill five trailers in one day. However,the TSC system requires only two operators while theCCSC system requires six.

“As a result, harvest labor productivity is similar for thetwo systems,” Roka said. “Hourly labor productivity wasmeasured at more than 90 field boxes per hour, whichrepresents a ninefold increase in labor productivity overa hand-harvesting crew.”

However, in order for these systems to perform effec-tively, trees and groves must be well-prepared. Treecanopies must be trimmed or “skirted” at least 30 inches

””““

12 IMPACT

(Top photo) Fritz Roka walks by a continuous-canopy-shake-catch (CCSC) mechanicalharvesting system manufactured by OxboInternational Corp. in Clear Lake, Wis. (Photo byEric Zamora)(Bottom photo) Fritz Roka, left, and Paul Meador,owner of Everglades Harvesting and Hauling Inc.in LaBelle, Fla., watch fruit being harvested bythe Oxbo system. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

mechanical and hand harvesting. The model is availableat the UF Southwest Florida Research and EducationCenter Web site: http://www.imok.ufl.edu/economics.

“Growers need to recognize that 100-percent fruit re-covery is not necessary for increasing revenues,” Rokasaid. “A sufficiently large differential between hand andmachine costs could more than offset the value of non-recovered fruit.”

Foremost in the minds of growers is how a mechanicalharvesting system will affect the long-term health oftrees. Jodie Whitney, a retired professor of agriculturaland biological engineering at UF’s Citrus Research andEducation Center in Lake Alfred, has been involved indeveloping and testing mechanical harvesting equipmentsince the 1970s.

“Our research, coupled with the har-vesting experience of commercialgrowers, indicates that trunk or canopyshaking has no adverse effect on treeyield through seven years of harvesting,”Whitney said. “With each additionalyear of experience, uncertainty amonggrowers should diminish.”

Another tool for more efficient me-chanical harvesting is the use ofabscission agents, chemicals that helploosen mature fruit from trees, saidJackie Burns, a professor of horticultureat UF’s Lake Alfred center.

“Spraying trees with an abscissionagent a few days before harvest increasesfruit removal and makes harvestingfaster and easier,” she said. “Abscissionagents must be nontoxic, selective, cost-effective and environmentally safe.”

Burns, who manages the abscission re-search team at Lake Alfred, said theselectivity of the chemical agent is espe-cially important on Valencia trees thathave young, developing fruit and maturefruit at the same time. Removing toomuch of the developing fruit with a me-chanical harvester decreases the nextseason’s yield.

Burns and her research team areworking on three promising abscissionagents – CMNP (5-chloro-3-methyl-4-

nitro-1H-pyrazole), Ethepon and Coronatine, all ofwhich are at least five to seven years from being commer-cially available.

Other faculty working on the abscission agent researchteam include Masoud Salyani, a professor of agriculturaland biological engineering. He is measuring the effective-ness of various spray application technologies anddeveloping spray guidelines for growers. – Chuck Woods

Jackie Burns (863) 956-1151, Ext. 285jkburns@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Ron Muraro (863) 956-1151, Ext. 203rpmuraro@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Fritz Roka (239) 658-3400, Ext. 3412fmro@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Masoud Salyani (863) 956-1151, Ext. 225msalyani@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

SUMMER 2003 13

Greenbacks fromAll Those GreensGreenbacks fromAll Those Greens

Human ResourcesHuman Resources

With more golf courses than any other state, Florida has thenation’s largest golf industry, according to a new University ofFlorida study. Growth of the $9.2 billion industry is linked toUF research and education programs that develop newturfgrass varieties and management practices, and trainprofessionals to maintain all those greens.

World Golf Village in St. Augustine is a prime example of the industry’s far-reaching economic impact on the state’s economy.(Photo courtesy of World Golf Village)

The golf industry is up to par in Florida, generat-ing billions of dollars annually and employingtens of thousands of people.

A new study by UF’s Institute of Food and AgriculturalSciences indicates that the state’s 1,334 golf courses em-ployed 73,000 people and generated $4.4 billion in salesin 2000. That figure includes membership and playingfees, food and beverages, lodging and retail sales.

Golf-playing visitors in Florida spent $5.4 billion, andthe total economic impact of their spending on golf was

$9.2 billion in personal and business income, whichcreated 226,000 jobs.

Golf industry revenues in the state for 2000, the mostcurrent year for statistics, were 49 percent higher thanthe previous $3 billion estimate for 1991-92.

“Golf stands on its own as a very important industryand a large contributor to the economy of Florida,” saidJohn Haydu, a professor of food and resource economicsat UF’s Mid-Florida Research and Education Center inApopka. “When it comes to popular recreational

14 IMPACT

activities, there is no other sport that comes close to itin Florida.”

Haydu, who co-authored the study with Alan Hodges,an assistant in UF’s food and resource economics depart-ment, said Florida’s golf industry employment rankedsecond to the 80,000 workers employed by amusementand theme parks.

The book value of assets owned by golf courses was$10.8 billion, including land, buildings and installations,vehicles and equipment, and golf course irrigation sys-tems. The land owned by golf courses totaled 205,000acres, with 147,000 acres in maintained turf and140,000 irrigated.

The survey also indicated that the golf industry do-nated $12 million in cash and $25 million in services tocharitable causes during 2000.

With course revenues in excess of $664 million, PalmBeach County is the golf capital of the United States,Haydu said. Other counties with golf course revenues inexcess of $100 million include Collier with $476 million,Miami-Dade with $288 million, Broward with $261 mil-lion, Indian River with $211 million, Lee with $196million, Hillsborough with $193 million, Pinellas with$145 million, Orange with $131 million, Martin with$115 million and Duval with $110 million.

Rounds of golf played in Florida totaled 58.6 millionin 2000, with 33 percent by out-of-state visitors, 14 per-cent by nonlocal Florida residents and 54 percent bylocal residents. Florida golf courses hosted 26,298 tour-nament events attended by 2.11 million spectators. Allgolf-related and nongolf-related travel expenses by golf-playing visitors were estimated at $22.9 billion.

Eighty-three percent of the golf courses in Florida havebeen constructed since 1960, and 25 percent have beenbuilt during the past 10 years. The increase in new golffacilities parallels the state’s rapidly growing populationand the popularity of golf as a recreational sport. Growth

has been driven by demand.Since 1986, the number ofgolfers has increased 34 per-cent, from 19.9 million to26.7 million.

Increasingly, golf courses arebeing constructed as part oflarger residential communitydevelopment projects. Overall,the influence of golf courses on

residential development has been positive.

“Communities with golf courses, clubhouses and otherenhanced amenities are viewed as highly desirable placesto live,” Haydu said. “More than 776,000 residentialunits with an average value of $366,000 have been de-veloped with a total value of $158 billion.”

In 13 of 18 counties, property values across all landtypes were significantly higher when they were locatedwithin the same square-mile section as golf courses. Forexample, differentials were as high as $46,537 for resi-dential properties near golf courses in Martin County.

Water use for landscape irrigation is a critical andgrowing issue in Florida, Hodges said. Many golf coursesuperintendents are aware of the increasing politicalpressures to reduce consumption or switch to alternativewater sources such as reclaimed water. At the same time,heightened environmental awareness by the public is fo-cusing attention on heavy users of water, fertilizers andpesticides.

“Golf courses, which are generally located close to orwithin urban areas, are particularly prone to publicscrutiny of resource use practices,” Hodges said. “Withmore golf courses than any other state, coupled with arapidly expanding urban population, the Florida golfcourse industry is often in the spotlight with regard towater consumption practices, particularly during periodsof drought.”

He said water used for irrigation amounted to 173 bil-lion gallons, with recycled water as the dominant source(49 percent) and lesser amounts from surface waters (29percent) and wells (21 percent). Nine percent of the re-spondents said their water use per acre increased overthe past five years, 42 percent said their water use de-clined and 42 percent said it remained the same.Fertilizer use per acre was increased by 29 percent of therespondents, decreased by 18 percent of the respondentsand remained the same for 47 percent.

John Haydu, left, and Alan Hodges saytheir research indicates golf-playingvisitors in Florida spent about $5.4billion annually. The total economicimpact of their spending on golf was$9.2 billion in personal and businessincome, which created 226,000 jobs.(Photo by Thomas Wright)

SUMMER 2003 15

More than a half dozen turfgrass varieties are used onFlorida golf courses. Bermudagrass (92 percent) is themost prevalent turfgrass because it is tolerant of heavytraffic. Far down the list in second place was bahiagrass(3.5 percent), which is typically limited to the golfcourse rough. Saint Augustine (2.7 percent) and others(l percent) such as Zoysia are generally limited to thespecial tee areas.

Survey questionnaires were mailed to a list of 1,334golf courses developed from several sources, and com-pleted questionnaires were received from 223 firms,representing a 17 percent response rate.

Funds for the study were provided by the Florida Turf-grass Association; WCI Communities Inc.; Florida Golf

Research and Education for Florida’s Golf Industry

How safe is it for golfers to play on a course treatedwith pesticides? How can golf courses reduce their use ofprecious water resources? How can they prevent fertilizerand other chemicals from leaching into groundwatersupplies? And who is going to train the professionalsneeded to manage Florida golf courses and protectthe environment?

The answers to these and other questions are comingfrom the statewide research and education programs atUF’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, whichincludes the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences.

The statewide teaching programs in the UF college areunique. No other state university in Florida offers bache-lor of science degree programs in turfgrass science,environmental horticulture and other related fields suchas agribusiness management for professionals who man-age golf courses, said Terril Nell, a professor and chair ofthe environmental horticulture department.

More than 3,800 graduate and undergraduate stu-dents, including women and minorities, are currentlyenrolled in the UF college. More than 40 students aremajoring in turfgrass science.

Nell also said research by UF and others indicates thatthe golf industry uses only 3.2 percent of the water con-sumed in the state on a daily basis, and that the properuse of pesticides and fertilizers by the industry has noappreciable impact on the environment.

Grady Miller, an associate professor in the environ-mental horticulture department, said UF researchershave developed best management practices for golfcourses to control pests, prevent fertilizer leaching intogroundwater and improve irrigation efficiency. New turf-grasses that are more resistant to drought, pests andother conditions also are being developed.

At UF’s West Florida Research and Education Centerin Milton, Bryan Unruh is developing best management

Alliance; Florida Golf Course Superintendents Associa-tion; Everglades Golf Course SuperintendentsAssociation; Taylor Woodrow; and Bonita Bay Group.– Chuck Woods

Complete study details are available in a technicalreport at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu orhttp://economicimpact.ifas.ufl.edu.

John Haydu (407) 884-2034, Ext.156jjh@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Alan Hodges (352) 392-1845, Ext. 312awhodges@ufl.edu

John Cisar checksbermudagrass test plots atUF’s Fort LauderdaleResearch and EducationCenter. He saidbermudagrass is the mostwidely used turfgrass ongolf courses, and three new“ultra-dwarf” varieties beingtested have the lowermowing heights golfersprefer. Cisar also ismeasuring proper fertilizerrates and othermanagement practices forthe new turfgrasses. (IFASfile photo)

SUMMER 2003 15

16 IMPACT

Society-Ready GraduatesSociety-Ready Graduatespractices for seashore paspalum, a new species of turf-grass that is highly salt tolerant and well-suited toFlorida’s coastal environment.

Unruh, an associate professor, also is the only turf-grass scientist in the world searching for alternativesto methyl bromide, a widely used fumigant that’s es-sential for sod production. The chemical is beingphased out by the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency because it contributes to the destruction ofthe Earth’s protective ozone layer.

Research by George Snyder and John Cisar indi-cates that golfers face little or no risk of pesticideresidues on golf courses.

“We measured the residues of organophosphate pes-ticides – some of the most toxic chemicals used ongolf courses – and found that golfers could play safelythe day after these pesticides were applied,” saidSnyder, a distinguished professor of soil and water sci-ence at UF’s Everglades Research and EducationCenter in Belle Glade.

“Even if once- or twice-a-week golfers played thesame day these pesticides were applied, which is amore reasonable scenario, the risk would be insignifi-cant,” he said. “In fact, our research shows a golferwould have to enter a newly-treated course every dayfor 70 years before the risk became serious.”

Snyder and Cisar, a professor of environmentalhorticulture at UF’s Fort Lauderdale Research andEducation Center, conducted their research over asix-year period with a grant from the U.S. GolfAssociation.

Snyder also helps golf courses use reclaimed waterfor irrigation, which is essential in a rapidly urban-izing state such as Florida. At the Water Conserv IIfacility west of Orlando, more than 30 million gallonsof highly treated wastewater are recycled daily on cit-rus and golf courses. Snyder is measuring nutrientleaching at the Orange County National Golf Course.He said research indicates that nitrogen levels in per-colate water meet drinking-water standards 80percent of the time, and efforts are underway to im-prove this figure in the future. – Chuck Woods

John Cisar (954) 577-6336lci@ufl.edu

Grady Miller (352) 392-1831, Ext. 375gmiller@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Terril Nell (352) 392-1831, Ext. 337tnell@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

George Snyder (561) 993-1574ghs@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Brian Unruh (850) 484-4482jbu@ufl.edu

Almost everyproduct – whethergrown ormanufactured –must be packagedfor the consumer. Tohelp fill the growingneed for trainedprofessionals in thepackaging industry,the UniversityFlorida’s College ofAgricultural and LifeSciences is one ofthe first colleges inthe nation to offerstudents a degreeprogram inpackaging science.

While the average consumer may not be awareof the technology that goes into packaging,its impact is as familiar as the grocery store

catchphrase, “Paper or plastic?”

Packaging science includes all aspects of a product’slife cycle – from the factory to consumer to curbsiderecycling box or landfill. In North America alone, corpo-rations spend $50 billion to $100 billion annually onpackaging. More people are employed in packaging oper-ations and related support industries than any otherindustry in the U.S.

“On the basis of gross domestic product, packaging isthe third-largest industry in the United States, and it’sexpanding,” said Bruce Welt, an assistant professor ofagricultural and biological engineering in UF’s Instituteof Food and Agricultural Sciences.

“With thousands of products competing in today’s glo-bal marketplace, it’s easy to see why the packagingindustry needs well-educated professionals,” Welt said.“In fact, demand for professionals exceeds the number ofgraduates, and starting salaries are usually in the$45,000 range.

16 IMPACT

SUMMER 2003 17

Photo by Eric Zamora

A Real Package Deal!A Real Package Deal!

A Real Package Deal!“Just today, we received a job posting for an entry-level

packaging engineer with a salary range of $44,975 to$67,463,” he said.

To help meet the demand, UF’s College of Agriculturaland Life Sciences initiated an undergraduate degreeprogram in packaging science. Since the program wasstarted in August 2001, student enrollment has increasedat the rate of 100 percent per year, making it one ofthe fastest-growing degree programs in the UF college,Welt said.

“Based on our latest student enrollment numbers, weare in the third year of at least 100 percent growth,” saidWelt, who coordinates the undergraduate program forthe college. “We started with five students in 2001 andhad 10 in 2002, and we expect to exceed 20 undergradu-ate packaging science majors by August 2003.”

He said packaging science offers a path to many careeropportunities, including package design, graphic design,package and materials performance analysis, quality as-surance, quality control, manufacturing, raw materialproduction and distribution, conversion of raw materialsinto usable forms, printing, marketing, warehousing,

distribution and logistics, post-use recycling, reuse, con-version to energy and/or disposal.

“Packaging professionals are always pushing the enve-lope to improve the lives of people, the efficiency ofindustry and our environmental stewardship,” Welt said.“Recent evidence of this trend is the application of com-puterized 3-D package design to accelerate the designcycle, reduce development costs, and increase develop-ment and production efficiencies.”

He said the UF packaging science program offers stu-dents a foundation in the pure sciences such as biology,chemistry, physics and math. They can apply these fun-damental principles to real-world issues facing thepackaging industry. The program also incorporates usefultools for commerce such as accounting and economics.Electives allow students to tailor education toward theirspecial interests. Industry internships provide experienceand opportunities to network with potential employers.

The program also offers undergraduate students inother majors an opportunity to obtain a minor in pack-aging science through the agricultural and biologicalengineering department. Welt said the minor is designed

Photo by Eric Zamora

18 IMPACT

to complement other studies and help prepare studentsfor careers in industries that depend on the many aspectsof packaging.

“Packaging involves sophisticated science and engineer-ing,” Welt said. “For example, think about what youwant from almost any food container – it should look ap-pealing, keep food fresh, seal out contaminants, protectagainst breakage, be easy to use, and cost just pennies tomanufacture and recycle.

“Add other conveniences such as the ability to go fromthe freezer to the microwave without cracking, delami-nating or melting, and you’ve got even more interestingpackaging problems to solve,” he said. “These aren’ttheoretical problems, they’re real-world businessconsiderations.”

Welt said the paper-versus-plastic dilemma illustratesone of the most important environmental trends in pack-aging, something called life-cycle assessment.

“It teaches you to look at the big picture and focus ondelivering what a client needs while minimizing waste,”he said. “Many people assume paper bags are a betterenvironmental choice because trees are renewable. Butpaper bags are thicker, larger and heavier than plasticbags, so we need more trucks burning more fuel and pro-ducing more pollution to transport the same number ofbags. Sometimes there is no obvious best choice, and it isimportant to have people who understand the depth ofcomplexities involved.”

Welt said corporations such as McDonald’s have ap-plied these methods to redesign their packaging, reduceenvironmental impacts and save costs.

“You’ve probably forgotten about those stiff yellow-foam clamshell boxes that held your cheeseburger for

about five minutes,” Welt said. “Although those packageskept the burgers warm with very little material, peopledidn’t appreciate seeing the boxes blowing around intheir neighborhoods. McDonald’s fixed it by moving topolymer-coated paper wrappers.”

Welt said UF looks for research and development pro-ject ideas from companies with specific packaging needs.

“It’s a win-win situation because the companies getsolutions to their problems while our students get realis-tic work experience,” he said. “Packaging technology isbecoming so advanced that employers prefer people withspecialized degrees.”

Welt said UF’s packaging science program is receivingstrong support from industry, including equipment dona-tions from major companies such as Colgate-PalmoliveInc., Frito-Lay Inc., Hershey Foods Corp., SyngentaCrop Protection Inc. and Tropicana Products Inc.

He said the packaging science program is working ondeveloping an industrial academic advisory board. “Sofar, representatives from Pfizer Inc., Procter & GambleCo., Nestle U.S.A. and Syngenta have expressed interestin participating,” he said.

Welt also said the program is seeking financial supportfrom industry in the form of endowments.

“We have shared endowment proposals with a coupleof companies, but recent economic weakness seems tohave slowed the process a bit,” he said. “We have aunique, one-time opportunity to name the packaging sci-ence laboratory, and we hope to have the honor ofhanging that plaque very soon.” – Chuck Woods

Bruce Welt (352) 392-1864, Ext. 111bwelt@ufl.edu

Bryan Baker, left, andBruce Welt use computertools for 3-D modeling ofnew packaging concepts.Baker, who completed hisbachelor of science degreein packaging in May, saidUF’s packaging scienceprogram offers an excellentcombination of science andcreativity. During a six-month internship in thepackaging department ofSyngenta Crop ProtectionInc. in Greensboro, N.C.,Baker worked with sixdifferent packagingengineers on variousprojects, including packageunitization, supplierinteraction, and testing andcertification. He plans topursue a master’s degreein agricultural operationsmanagement at UF. (Photoby Thomas Wright)

SUMMER 2003 19

Public PolicyPublic Policy

To help protect agriculture from terrorism, the University ofFlorida is one of five land-grant universities in the nationcoordinating a new National Plant Diagnostic Network thatwill provide an early warning about plant pests and diseases.

Because agriculture is an inviting target for terror-ists, the University of Florida is working withother land-grant institutions to coordinate the

National Plant Diagnostic Network, a Web-based report-ing system designed to speed the detection of dangerousplant diseases and pests.

“Agriculture also is a ‘soft’ target because it covers anenormous amount of land under decentralized manage-ment and would have a significant economic impact,”said Gail Wisler, a professor and chair of the plant pa-thology department in UF’s Institute of Food andAgricultural Sciences.

“Few sights would be more demoralizing to peoplethan crop fields ruined by disease or pestilence, or live-stock herds led to mass slaughter,” Wisler said. “It’scritical to have the ability to quickly detect, diagnose

and respond to intentional and accidental introductionsof plant pests and pathogens.”

Wisler, who is coordinator of a regional network thatserves 12 southern states and one U.S. territory, said a$900,000 homeland security grant from the U.S. De-partment of Agriculture provided initial funding for theprogram. The Southern Plant Diagnostic Network,which is part of the national network, includes Alabama,Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missis-sippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas,Virginia and Puerto Rico.

The national network comprises four regional net-works in addition to the southern network. Universitiescoordinating other regional networks include CornellUniversity for the northeast, Michigan State Universityfor the north central, Kansas State University for the

New PlantDiagnostic

Network forBiosecurity

New PlantDiagnostic

Network forBiosecurity

20 IMPACT

Great Plains and University of California at Davis forthe west.

“UF has a long and trusted relationship with those in-volved in food production, and our statewide researchand extension programs interact closely and rapidly withgrowers,” Wisler said. “It makes good sense to capitalizeon our well-equipped plant pest and diagnostic labs andstaff of plant scientists with vast experience in integratedpest management.”

Other UF/IFAS faculty coordinating the southern re-gional network include Bob McGovern, a professor ofplant pathology and director of UF’s plant medicine pro-gram; Howard Beck, a professor of agricultural andbiological engineering in Gainesville; Tim Momol, an as-sistant professor of plant pathology at the North FloridaResearch and Education Center in Quincy; and PamRoberts, an assistant professor of plant pathology at theSouthwest Florida Research and Education Center inImmokalee. Faculty in UF’s agronomy and entomologyand nematology departments also are participating.

Wisler said the USDA-sponsored national network isdeveloping a Web-based plant pest diagnostic and re-porting system, which will help faculty and staff at UFand other land-grant institutions submit plant samples,digital images and detailed crop information forpest diagnosis.

She said the state and national networks also willestablish a “first detector” system to help monitor the in-troduction of new plant pests or unusual pest outbreaks.

“First detectors are an integral part of the system andinclude growers, county extension faculty, state agricul-ture department personnel, crop consultants, pesticideapplicators, and commercial chemical and seed represen-tatives,” Wisler said.

“The Southern Plant Diagnostic Network will providetraining to first detectors on techniques for identifyingagro-terrorist threats and procedures for reporting pestproblems,” Wisler said. “First detectors will have accessto the Web-based diagnostic system and can report un-usual pest problems, existing crop conditions and otherinformation not normally submitted through the dis-tance diagnostic network.

“Federal and state agencies routinely monitor U.S. bor-ders for plant pest introductions and watch for pestoutbreaks throughout the nation. Still, new pests oftenare first detected by those involved in crop productionand are identified by professionals at land-grant universi-ties and state labs.”

Pam Roberts checks pepper plants for bacterial leafspot at UF’s Southwest Florida Research and Education Center in Immokalee.(Photo by Eric Zamora)

SUMMER 2003 21

She said strengths of the systeminclude:

• rapid evaluation and reporting ofpotential bioterrorist threats

• quick response time for diagnosis,real-time consultation with experts

• Web-based secure communicationlinks among regional and nationaldiagnostic labs

• established links to regulatoryagencies, including USDA’sAPHIS (Animal, Plant HealthInspection Service) andagriculture departments in eachstate

• high quality and uniformity ofinformation associated withsamples

• high-quality record keeping andreporting of pest outbreaks

• trained network of “firstdetectors”

– Chuck Woods

Howard Beck (352) 392-3196hwbeck@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Bob McGovern (352) 392-3631rjm@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Tim Momol (850) 875-7154tmomol@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Pam Roberts (239) 658-3400pdr@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Gail Wisler (352) 392-3631gcwisler@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Gail Wisler, left, and Robert McGovern are co-directors of UF’s new Southern PlantDiagnostic Network, which includes faculty in plant pathology, entomology and nematology,and agronomy. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

Howard Beck, displaying the image of a diseased tomato leaf on a laptop computer, iscoordinating UF information technology for the regional diagnostic network. (Photo byEric Zamora)

Tim Momol examines the fungal growth of apathogen at UF’s North Florida Research andEducation Center in Quincy. (Photo by EricZamora)

22 IMPACT

Cover StoryCover Story

Counting on aCrocodileComebackFlorida is home to an abundance ofintriguing wildlife, including the rare andendangered American crocodile. NewUniversity of Florida surveys indicate thescaly, toothy reptiles are making a comebackin South Florida, and their continuedrecovery may reflect an improvement in thehealth of the Everglades.

The American crocodile, which lives in the extremesouthern tip of Florida and nowhere else in thecontinental United States, is an endangered

species success story in progress.

“If you see an American crocodile, the first thing youshould do is marvel at what you’re looking at,” saidFrank Mazzotti, an associate professor of wildlife andecology with UF’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sci-ences. “The reptile, which has been around since the ageof the dinosaurs, was placed on the endangered specieslist 25 years ago, and now it appears to be on the re-bound in South Florida.”

As part of the federal South Florida Restoration Initia-tive, Mazzotti recently led state and federal experts inthe first comprehensive survey of American crocodilesliving in South Florida. During the two-month-long sur-vey, which ended in April, scientists captured, markedand recaptured the animals to measure their growthand survival.

“It’s the first time we’ve gone systematically fromone end of the crocodile’s range in Florida to the other,searching out every possible area to find out howmany there are and what condition they are in,” hesaid. “The survey is a good way to estimate the statusof the crocodile population and evaluate the successof restoration.”

The survey shows thenumber of Americancrocodiles in SouthFlorida has grown fromabout 300 in the 1970sto almost l,000 today.

He said crocodiles, especially juveniles, are like barom-eters warning of good conditions or bad – the healthierthey are, the healthier the ecosystem. Crocodiles thrivein estuaries, or areas with a mix of salt and fresh water.Small crocodiles grow faster and survive better in areaswith more freshwater. The reptiles reflect the delivery offreshwater to the estuaries, which are the most produc-tive ecosystems on Earth.

Restoring estuaries is critically important to the futureof the Everglades, he said. State and federal governmentshave emphasized the importance of Everglades restora-tion by supporting the $7.8 billion ComprehensiveEverglades Restoration Plan.

Approved in the Water Resources Development Act of2000, the 30-year plan is a guide for restoring and pre-serving water resources in Central and South Florida,including the Everglades. In addition to correcting de-cades of decline, the restoration plan is expected torecover habitat for endangered species that live in thesediverse ecosystems.

SUMMER 2003 23

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Mazzotti, who is based at UF’s Fort LauderdaleResearch and Education Center, said the survey will pro-vide useful information as the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService considers reclassifying American crocodiles,moving them downward from an endangered to athreatened species.

He said the survey revealed that American crocodilesare nesting in three South Florida locations, includingthe Everglades National Park, North Key Largo and theFlorida Power and Light Company’s nuclear generatingstation in Homestead.

During the survey, Mazzotti and UF wildlife biologistMike Cherkiss observed 131 crocodiles and attempted tocapture 83 of them. Forty-nine crocodiles were caughtand 17 of these were previously marked animals.

“The survey was very successful, and we observedmore than 10 percent of the estimated crocodile popula-tion in South Florida,” Mazzotti said. “The biggestsurprise was the recent dramatic increase in crocodiles inthe Cape Sable area of Everglades National Park.”

When Mazzotti and Cherkiss search for crocodiles inFlorida Bay, they go at night when the animals are moreactive. A powerful beam pierces the darkness, aimed atthe mangrove shoreline, looking for the tiny, orange re-flections from crocodile eyes.

“When we capture one, we measure the reptile and re-move some of the animal’s tail ‘scutes,’ leaving apermanent and harmless identifying mark on each ani-mal,” Mazzotti said. “Then the crocodiles are allowed toswim away.”

During the survey, they also observed 93 alligators,which have dark black skin compared to the crocodile’sgrayish-green skin. Crocodile snouts are sharp andpointed while alligators have round, shovel-shaped snouts.

Mazzotti said crocodiles live in mangroves where fresh-water and saltwater mix. Alligators live mostly infreshwater but also in brackish water, so the paths ofthese often-mistaken animals do overlap. Both reptilesbehave the same between species as within species.

The survey was very successful, and weobserved more than 10 percent of theestimated crocodile population in SouthFlorida.

— Frank Mazzotti

“Photo by Eric Zamora

”

24 IMPACT

Alligators and crocodiles do not mate with each other,but they will occasionally fight.

According to Mazzotti, the American crocodile is theleast aggressive of all large crocodiles, and is much shyerthan the common Florida alligator.

Laura Brandt, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biolo-gist who graduated from UF’s College of Agricultural andLife Sciences in 1997, said people commonly think theAmerican crocodile is as fierce as its man-eating Austra-lian or African cousins, which is not the case.

“One of the biggest issues of restoration and the returnof crocodiles is educating people about the animals,” shesaid. “As crocodiles return, there is going to be more in-teraction with them, and people are afraid of them. Butthe American crocodile is less aggressive than the alliga-tor, whose presence is often taken for granted.”

Brandt, who worked with Mazzotti and Cherkiss onthe survey, said it was a cooperative effort involvingUF, the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Fish and Wild-life Service and the Florida Fish and WildlifeConservation Commission.

Mazzotti said their research, based mainly on countingand catching crocodiles, is decidedly low-tech. The mostcomplex technologies they use are a Geographic Position-ing System for locating animals and a computer fordata entry.

“Otherwise, what we do is remarkably similar to turn-of-the-century gladesmen,” he said. “We have betterboats and bigger motors, which makes the work easier,but we catch the crocodiles alive and release them un-harmed, which makes the work harder.”

Mazzotti said, “This survey took us from the lightsand shadows of the Miami skyline to the remotest areasof the Everglades wilderness – truly a modern-day Ever-glades adventure.” – Chuck Woods

Laura Brandt (561) 732-3684laura_brandt@fws.gov

Mike Cherkiss (954) 577-6382mcherkiss@aol.com

Frank Mazzotti (954) 577-6304fjma@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

SUMMER 2003 25

(Left photo) FrankMazzotti, left, andMike Cherkiss lookfor crocodile nestsin Everglades Na-tional Park duringthe survey in March2003. Mazzotti saidthe survey revealedAmerican croco-diles are nesting inthe park, on NorthKey Largo and nearthe Florida Powerand Light Compa-ny’s nucleargenerating stationin Homestead.(Photo by ThomasWright)

(Right photo) MikeCherkiss weighs asmall crocodilefound during anevening search inEverglades NationalPark. The reptiles,especially juveniles,are like barometerswarning of goodconditions or bad –the healthier theyare, the healthierthe ecosystem.(Photo by EricZamora)

The snouts of American crocodiles are sharp and pointed whilealligators have round, shovel-shaped snouts. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

Brian Jeffery, left, a UF wildlifeecologist, and Mike Cherkissmeasure the length of acrocodile captured atEverglades National Park.(Photo by Eric Zamora)

26 IMPACT

Pest ProtectionPest Protection

Vanquishinga VirusWhen it comes to controlling one of theworld’s most troublesome insect pests – andthe deadly plant virus it spreads – Universityof Florida researchers say pesticides are outand new environmentally friendlymanagement programs are in.

During the past two decades, tomato spotted-wilt virus has been spread around the world bytiny insects called thrips, causing millions in

“losses to a variety of vegetable, ornamental and agro-nomic crops.

“Epidemics of tomato spotted-wilt have been trouble-some throughout the southern United States, cuttingyields by 20 percent to 30 percent on tomatoes,” saidSteve Olson, a professor of horticulture at UF’s NorthFlorida Research and Education Center in Quincy. “InFlorida and Georgia, where tomatoes and peppers arevalued at about $1 billion annually, farmers have beenhit hard. The virus also affects peanuts, tobacco andother crops.”

It can turn leaves brown, purple or bronze and fre-quently kills the stem tips on plants. The virus also cancause brown or yellow spots and rings on tomatoes andother produce, making them unappealing to consumersand therefore unmarketable.

The virus is transmitted from plant to plant almost ex-clusively by several species of thrips. Western flowerthrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) and tobacco thrips(F. fusca) are the major species of concern in Florida.

Until now, growers responded by spraying toxic, broad-spectrum insecticides in an attempt to control thrips, butthe chemicals do not prevent transmission of the virus.

The solution, accordingto researchers at Quincycenter, is to use a varietyof new environmentallyfriendly strategies knownas integrated pest man-agement, or IPM.

IPM includes the useof new cultural practices,natural insecticides, bio-control agents or naturalpredators and a newtreatment that boosts theplant’s immune system against viruses andbacterial diseases.

“In North Florida and South Georgia, the incidence oftomato spotted-wilt virus on tomato plants has been re-duced by as much as 75 percent with a new plastic bedcover that reflects ultraviolet (UV) light and repelsthrips,” said Tim Momol, an assistant professor of plantpathology at the Quincy center.

“Instead of covering tomato plant beds with the stan-dard black plastic mulch, many growers have switched tothe UV-reflective mulch, boosting tomato yields by asmuch as 600 25-pound boxes per acre and increasingprofits by as much as $4,000 per acre,” Momol said.

SUMMER 2003 27

Epidemics of tomato spotted-wilthave been troublesome throughout thesouthern United States, cutting yields by20 percent to 30 percent on tomatoes.

– Steve Olson

Epidemics of tomato spotted-wilthave been troublesome throughout thesouthern United States, cutting yields by20 percent to 30 percent on tomatoes.

– Steve Olson

“While the reflective mulch costs an extra $200 peracre, yield increases and higher returns justify its use,”Momol said.

Dale and Greg Murray, owners of Murray Farms inBainbridge, Ga., started using the UV-reflective mulchon a 32-acre tomato field in 2000. Dale Murray said theincidence of tomato spotted-wilt virus was reduced fromas much as 45 percent to 11 percent, boosting farm in-come by about $1,000 per acre.

Joe Funderburk, a professor of entomology at theQuincy center, said a recent survey showed that about30 percent of the growers in North Florida and Georgia

are using the UV-reflective mulch. Its use is expanding toother production areas in the Southeast in 2003.

He said a natural insecticide called spinosad, whichposes little threat to field workers or the environment, isalso helping growers control thrips on tomatoes. And, anew immune-boosting treatment, which is marketed un-der the Actigard® trademark, is now being used by about45 percent of all tomato growers in the region.

“To control the virus on peppers, we’re recommendingthe use of a naturally occurring predator called theminute pirate bug that attacks thrips,” Funderburk said.

Joe Funderburk, left, Steve Olson and Tim Momol check young tomato seedlings at UF’s North Florida Research and Education Center inQuincy. They said reflective mulch in combination with Actigard® and insecticides can significantly reduce the incidence of tomato spotted-wilton tomatoes. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

”“

”“

28 IMPACT

“Nearly 100 percent of all pepper growers in North Flor-ida and South Georgia are using the beneficial bug,cutting pesticide costs by $100 per acre and boostingcrop yields by as much as 40 percent.”

Unfortunately, the minute pirate bug is not effectiveagainst thrips on tomatoes because the plants are toxicto the natural predator, he said.

Tommy Smith, owner of Thomas Smith Farms inQuincy, was the first pepper grower in the state to usethe minute pirate bug in 1997. Before he began usingthe natural predator, Smith lost two consecutive crops tothrips and tomato spotted-wilt virus. Use of the biologi-cal control has reduced thrip populations by “at least 75percent” in his pepper fields and eliminated the need forinsecticides, he said.

Glades Crop Care Inc. in Jupiter, Fla., the largest con-sulting company in the Southeast, also uses the pestcontrol program on all of their acreage in Georgia andFlorida. Adoption of the program is expanding rapidlythroughout much of the southern United States andmany other regions of the world, said Madeline Mel-linger, president of the firm.

Olson, Momol and Funderburk developed and pro-moted the new IPM control measures, and theresearchers are collaborating internationally so that theprogram is adopted in other countries.

The research is supported with funds provided by theGadsden County Tomato Growers Association and theFlorida Tomato Committee. The U.S. Department of Ag-riculture’s Cooperative State Research, Education andExtension Service (CSREES) funded a grant to imple-ment the program on tomatoes, peppers and other crops.Research and implementation of the program in the Car-ibbean Basin is supported by a USDA Special Grant.– Chuck Woods

Joe Funderburk (850) 875-7146jefunderburk@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Tim Momol (850) 875-7154tmomol@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Steve Olson (850) 875-7144smolson@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Hank Dankers, left, Paula Bernsen and Tim Momol measure the soil temperature under UV-reflective plastic mulch at the Quincy center, which ispart of UF’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Dankers is a senior biological scientist at the center, and Bernsen is a former biologicalscientist. (Photo by Eric Zamora)

SUMMER 2003 29

Food TechnologyFood Technology

Hispanic women, especially those of Mexican descent, havealmost twice the risk of bearing children with neural tubedefects, and mothers of Hispanic origin account for almost 20percent of live births in Florida. The simple act of taking afolic acid supplement can help a mother protect her unbornchild from neural tube defects.

To help Hispanic women decrease their chance ofhaving babies with neural tube birth defects, theUniversity of Florida’s Institute of Food and

Agricultural Sciences has developed Spanish-languagenutrition materials about the benefits of taking folicacid. The materials explain the role of folic acid in reduc-ing the risk of neural tube birth defects.

Gail Kauwell, an associate professor in the food scienceand human nutrition department, said babies born withneural tube defects can have a variety of health prob-lems, including breathing difficulties, walking and

learning disabilities, and problems with bladder andbowel control. In some cases the brain does not develop,and the baby may be miscarried or die shortly afterbirth. Kauwell said taking folic acid daily can help re-duce the risk of having a baby with a neural tube defect.

“Research has shown that neural tube defect risk canbe reduced up to 70 percent by taking an inexpensive vi-tamin,” Kauwell said. “The fact that a woman canprotect her unborn child simply by taking a folic acidsupplement is remarkable, and that message needs to beconveyed to every female who can get pregnant.”

Gail Kauwell, left, and Lynn Bailey conduct folate research in the food science and human nutrition department. They used findings from theirwork and other sources to develop folic acid educational materials in Spanish. (Photo by Tara Piasio)

30 IMPACT

In 1992, the U.S. Public Health Service recommendedthat all women of childbearing age – including teenagegirls – take 400 micrograms (0.4 milligrams) of folic aciddaily. This was followed by similar recommendationsfrom the March of Dimes and the Institute of Medicineand is supported by professional organizations such asthe American Academy of Pediatrics and the AmericanCollege of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Followingthis recommendation is important for all women of re-productive age, but especially for those in higher-riskcategories, like Hispanic women.

The reasoning behind the daily intake recommenda-tion is that the fetus can develop a neural tube defectbefore a woman even realizes she is pregnant.

“The neural tube is formed within the first 28 days ofpregnancy, so by the time a woman finds out she’s preg-nant, it’s too late to use folic acid to prevent the defect,”Kauwell said. “Women must understand that they needto be taking folic acid at least one month before theyconceive a child. The best way to ensure that happens isto take it every day during childbearing years.”

The evidence for a link between folic acid intake and areduced risk of neural tube defects is so strong that it isone of only 12 health claims approved by the Food andDrug Administration for foods or dietary supplements.

However, scientists make a distinction between thetwo forms of the vitamin, known as folic acid and folate.Both are water-soluble B-vitamins, with folic acid beingthe synthetic form that is in vitamin supplements andfortified foods. The term for the natural form is folate,which is found in orange juice, strawberries, dark-greenleafy vegetables, and beans, including black, kidney andgarbanzo beans.

Kauwell said people should include both forms of theB-vitamin in their daily diet.

“Folic acid from a vitamin supplement is better ab-sorbed. However, foods that are rich in folate have othervitamins and minerals that people should consume,”Kauwell said. “It should be noted, though, that only syn-thetic folic acid has been shown in studies to reduceneural tube defects.”

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture,many women of childbearing age do not consume therecommended daily amount.

Although more research is needed to determinewhy Hispanic women are at higher risk, scientists thinkit is a combination of genetic, cultural and environmen-tal factors.

To ensure the folic acid message was accurately con-veyed to higher-risk Hispanic women, Kauwell and hercolleagues conducted focus groups before completing thefinal version of the educational materials. Kauwell’s col-leagues included Lynn Bailey, a professor, GailRampersaud, an associate-in, and Cindy Robles, a formergraduate student, all from UF’s food science and humannutrition department, and Linda Bobroff, a professor inthe family, youth and community sciences department.

These educational materials are a supplement to the“Folic Acid Every Day” program initially developed byKauwell and her colleagues for Florida’s county publichealth units and county extension offices. The originalprogram includes an educator’s guide, lesson plans, vid-eos, interactive learning tools, slides and master copies ofslides, handouts and recipes on a CD-ROM. The FolicAcid Every Day program recently was recognized withthe Gold Award in the UF/IFAS Image Awards Program.– Chris Penko

Gail Kauwell,(352)392-1991, Ext. 227gpkauwell@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

Linda Bobroff, left, and GailKauwell, right, review Spanish-language educational materialswith registered dietitian GailRampersaud, center. Thematerials, which focus on therole of folic acid in preventingneural tube birth defects, weredeveloped for Hispanic womenwho have an increased risk ofhaving babies with the condition.(IFAS file photo)

SUMMER 2003 31

IFAS Extension BookstoreIFAS Extension Bookstore

Information, PleaseThe IFAS Extension Bookstore has hundreds of useful and interestingeducational books, videos and software CDs available at low prices. Whetheryou’re a farmer, a natural resource manager, a community educator, or simplya backyard gardener, wildlife watcher or landowner, the IFAS Extensionbookstore has something for you. The three products below are just asampling of the materials available through the bookstore on topics such asbutterfly gardening, nutrition for the elderly, pesticide use and regulations,invasive plant management, cattle ranching and growing citrus.

Pests thatWreckYour Grassand RuinYourWeekend

Are lawn pests driving you crazy? Do you drive pastgolf courses and sigh with envy? Find out how to getthat picture-perfect lawn and send those bugs packingwith Pests that Wreck Your Grass and Ruin Your Weekend.This colorful, informative booklet is filled with theinformation you need to defeat those troublesome pests.SP 327, $5.00

Best Practicesfor FloridaWines

Wine enthusiasts, beginnersand wine industry specialistswill all benefit from thisinformative, in-depth bookon winemaking and grapeproduction in Florida.Though the state has a longhistory of wine production,

there are special regional considerations for making wineand growing grapes in Florida – information you won’tfind anywhere else. The book includes information onthe entire wine-making process, from the grape-growingto bottling. Enjoy! SP 316, $14.00

Rhythm ofthe Seasons

This moving video tellsthe story of one farmfamily’s loss and theirrecovery after one memberdied in a tragic accident. In1986, Marilyn Adams’ sonKeith was killed when hewas submerged in flowingcorn in a gravity-flow grainwagon. She came back fromthe tragedy to start anorganization, Farm SafetyJust 4 Kids, to help educateparents and children about

dangers on the farm. This video puts a human face onthe importance of farm safety. SV 127, $20.00

Visit the IFAS Extension Bookstore inBuilding 440 on Mowry Road on theUF campus in Gainesville, or order

online at http://www.ifasbooks.com.E-mail the bookstore at

mlha@mail.ifas.ufl.edu.Call (800) 226-1764 or

Fax (352) 392-2628

32 IMPACT

Cool Research!

Vice President for Agriculture and Natural ResourcesThe University of FloridaInstitute of Food and Agricultural SciencesPO Box 110180Gainesville, FL 32611-0180

Cool Research!

Byron Adams, an assistant professor of nematology inUF’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, installssoil-warming chambers at Taylor Valley, Antarctica for re-search on global climate change and biodiversity. Adams,whose research is funded by the National Science Foun-dation, is measuring how small increases in soiltemperature affect nematodes (microscopic, worm-like an-imals that live in the soil). The warming chambers elevatesoil temperature a couple of degrees, extending by a fewdays thebrief austral summer when ambient temperatures riseabove freezing.“Because the ecosystem is so simple – a bacterial-feedingnematode occupies the top of the food chain – the re-

sponse of all the players to changes in the soil can be mea-sured directly,” he said. “Taylor Valley, one of the coldestand driest deserts on the planet, is a good place to look atthe evolutionary history of things that live here and addressquestions about ecosystem function and adaptation. Theresearch will help us develop predictive models of how oth-er ecosystems might respond and evolve, both in the shortterm and long term, to global climate change.”Adams, part of a team of scientists from Colorado StateUniversity and Dartmouth, recently concluded a six-weekresearch program in Antarctica. He will return to the south-ernmost continent in December 2003. Byron Adams(352) 392-1901, Ext. 132, bjadams@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

NON-PROFIT ORG.U.S. POSTAGE PAID

PERMIT NO. 94GAINESVILLE, FL

All programs and related activities sponsored for, or assisted by, the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences are open to all persons regardless of race, color, age, sex, disability or national origin. Information from this publication is available in alternate formats.

Contact IFAS Communication Services, University of Florida, PO Box 110810, Gainesville, FL 32611-0810.ISSN #0748-23530

Photo courtesy of Byron AdamsPhoto courtesy of Byron Adams