impacts of waste on the environment and its management in cities

Impacts of waste on the environment and its management in cities

Seminar

Guide: Prof. Prabhakar B. Bhagwat Prof. Deepa Maheshwari

By: Parin Shah LA 8808

Contents

Introduction to the study Aims and objectives of the study 1. Introduction 1

1.1 Definition and constitutes of an environment 1.2 Earth as a sustainable ecosystem 1.3 Study of natural cycles of the environment

1.3.1 Hydrological cycle 1.3.2 Carbon cycle 1.3.3 Nitrogen cycle 1.3.4 Sulphur cycle 1.3.5 Phosphorus cycle

1.4 Stable ecosystem 1.5 Need to study impacts of waste on the environment 4

2. Sources and types of waste generated in cities 15

2.1 What is considered as waste 2.2 Sources and types of waste generated in cities 2.3 Solid waste

2.3.1 Residential solid waste 2.3.2 Commercial solid waste 2.3.3 Institutional solid waste 2.3.4 Construction and demolition debris 2.3.5 Municipal services 2.3.6 Industrial solid waste

a. Manufacturing industries b. Entertainment industry c. Hotel industry d. Agriculture industry e. Pharmaceutical industries f. Milk industries g. Fruit and vegetable industries

2.4 Electronic waste 2.5 Liquid waste

2.5.1 Sewage waste 2.5.2 Contaminated groundwater 2.5.3 Industrial liquid discharges

2.6 Sludge waste 2.7 Gaseous waste 2.8 Hazardous waste

2.8.1 Household hazardous waste 2.8.2 Industrial hazardous waste 2.8.3 Other sources

2.9 Hospital waste or bio medical waste, toxic waste 2.10 Nuclear (radioactive) waste

3. Impacts of waste on the environment 11

3.1 Factors affecting the environment 3.2 Impact on soil, water and air

3.2.1 Soil contamination 3.2.2 Water contamination

a. Surface water contamination b. Ground water contamination

3.2.3 Air contamination a. Greenhouse effect b. Increase in Methane concentration

3.3 Depletion of ozone layer 3.4 Global Warming 3.5 Sea Level Rise

3.6 Impact of wrong method of waste disposal 22 3.6.1 Impacts of landfill 3.6.2 Impacts of incinerators

3.7 Impact on human health 15

4. Case studies - Impacts of improper waste disposal 17 4.1. Love Canal tragedy, New York 4.2 A Rainforest Chernobyl 4.3 Ganga Pollution 4.4 Threat because of landfill sites in Delhi 4.5 Conclusions

5. Case Studies - Successful ways to deal with 24 waste at different scales

5.1 The Industrial Symbiosis at Kalundborg, Denmark 5.2 Louisville Elementary School - Management of food waste 5.3 Towards a zero waste approach in Kovalam 5.4 Zero waste colony, Delhi 5.5 Conclusions

6. Methods to control adverse impacts generated by waste 30 6.1 What is waste management

6.1.1 Management of solid waste 6.1.2 Management of liquid waste 6.1.3 Management of gaseous waste

6.2 The waste disposal system 6.2.1 Control of waste at source – waste minimization, re-use and recycle 6.2.2 Segregation of waste at source 6.2.3 Collection and transportation system 6.2.4 Final disposal

Bio chemical process Chemical process Incineration - Thermal process

6.3 Wastewater treatment 35

7. Illustration credits Bibliography

Impacts of waste on the environment and its management in cities Parin Shah LA 8808 1

2 Parin Shah LA 8808 Impacts of waste on the environment and its management in cities

1. Introduction 1.1 Definition and constituents of an environment A system comprising of all living and non-living matter which occur naturally on Earth are referred as environment. An ecosystem is a biotic assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes, taken together with their physico-chemical environment. In an ecosystem the biological cycling of materials is maintained by three groups: producers, consumers, and decomposers. The producers are plants and some bacteria capable of producing their own food photo synthetically or by chemical synthesis. The consumers are animals that obtain their energy and protein directly by grazing, feeding on other animals, or both. The decomposers are fungi and bacteria that decompose the organic matter of producers and consumers into inorganic substances that can be reused as food by the producers; they are the "recyclers of the biosphere". 1.2 Earth as a sustainable ecosystem Nature is capable of sustaining the producer-consumer-decomposer cycle indefinitely with the sun as the energy source. All the other elements which are required for life are contained within the nature and are limited resources. Hence, life on Earth depends on the reclaiming of materials for use over and over again. Ecosystem of earth works in two ways: 1. Cycling of the materials 2. A continual input and continual outflow of energy A natural ecosystem maintains its overall stability and balance by three main mechanisms: 1. Controlling the rate of energy flow through the ecosystem. 2. Controlling the rate of chemical cycling within the system. 3. Maintaining a diversity of species and food webs so that the stability of the system is not seriously affected by the loss of some species and food links. Essential nutrient elements are recycled between living and abiotic components of ecosystems in biogeochemical cycles. When living things die, they return their chemical elements to the non-living components of ecosystems as they decompose. However, even while alive, organisms contribute to nutrient cycling as they consume matter and excrete waste products into the environment.

It has taken thousands of years to perfectly adapt environmental cycles for a specific environment. These cycles are already balanced and the slightest change can leave the environment unstable and possibly endanger ever biotic creature in it. 1.3 Study of natural cycles of the environment The most important cycles of ecosystems are the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, and the water cycle. These interacting biogeochemical cycles involve travel of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water through living things, air, water, soil, and rock.

Biotic components Abiotic components

Primary producers Energy (sunlight)

Herbivores Water or moisture

Carnivores Temperature

Omnivores Air

Detrivores Precipitation

Soil, land, minerals

Table 1

Fig. 1.1 Energy pyramid for an ecosystem where biotic and abiotic components interact with each other.

Fig. 1.2 Sustainable ecosystem


Fig. 1.3 Hydrological cycle

1.3.1 Hydrological cycle Water plays versatile role in the functioning of the biosphere. It is essential for plants, animals and human beings. Biosphere draws its most abundant element hydrogen from water in the form of carbohydrates, which is very important source of energy for all living matter. Water that enters the ground water system may not re-enter into the water cycle for few years. Water that is taken by plants and animals will cycle through in days and will return to the atmosphere through transpiration (plants) and evaporation (elimination from animals). Solar energy continues evaporation of oceans; winds disperse the water vapour across. Water condenses over the land and precipitates as snow, rain or fog. Precipitation accumulates on land in streams, rivers, lakes and evaporates back into the atmosphere, runs off back to the ocean or saturates the soil. From the soil, water can percolate into the groundwater system or be taken up by biotic organisms. 1.3.2 Carbon cycle Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere when plants and animals die and decompose. The decomposers release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere where it will be absorbed again by other plants during photosynthesis. In this way the cycle of carbon dioxide being absorbed from the atmosphere and being released again is repeated over and over. In nature the amount of carbon in the environment remains always the same. Plants take in carbon which is fundamental element for life as carbon dioxide through the process of photosynthesis and convert it into sugars, starches and other materials necessary for the plant's survival. From the plants, carbon is passed up the food chain to all the other organisms. This occurs when animals eat plants and when animals eat other animals. Both animals and plants release waste carbon dioxide. This is due to a process called cell respiration where the cells of an organism break down sugars to produce energy for the functions they are required to perform. The equation for cell respiration is as follows: Glucose + Oxygen --> Energy + Water + Carbon Dioxide C6H12O6 + 602 --> Energy + 6H2O + 6CO2 1.3.3 Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen is the major component of earth’s atmosphere and an essential part of amino acids and DNA. It enters the food chain by means of nitrogen fixing bacteria and algae in the soil. This nitrogen which has been 'fixed' is now available for plants to absorb. They form a symbiotic relationship with legumes and enrich the soil by acting as a natural fertilizer. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria form nitrates out of the atmospheric nitrogen which can be taken up and dissolved in soil water by the roots of plants. Then, the nitrates are incorporated by the plants to form proteins,

Fig. 1.4 Carbon cycle

Fig. 1.5 Nitrogen cycle


which can then be spread through the food chain. When organisms excrete wastes, nitrogen is released into the environment. Also, whenever an organism dies, decomposers break down the corpse into nitrogen in the form of ammonia. This nitrogen can then be used again by nitrifying bacteria to fix nitrogen for the plants. 1.3.4 Sulphur cycle Sulphur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruptions and through emissions from hot springs. It enters the atmosphere primarily in the form of sulphur dioxide and remains in the atmosphere in the same form, after reacting with water it forms sulphuric acid. Plants are depended upon chemoautotrophic bacteria, which oxidize elemental sulphur to sulphates. Once in the form of sulphate (2H2SO4), plants can then incorporate the sulphur into proteins. Sulphur is carried back to Earth's surface as acid deposition when it rains or snows. 2S + H2O + 3O2 ---> 2H2SO4 1.3.5 Phosphorus cycle Phosphorus normally occurs in nature as part of a phosphate ion, consisting of a phosphorus atom and some number of oxygen atoms. Most phosphates are found as salts in ocean sediments or in rocks. Over time, geologic processes can bring ocean sediments to land, and weathering will carry terrestrial phosphates back to the ocean. Plants absorb phosphates from the soil. The plants may then be consumed by herbivores that in turn may be consumed by carnivores. After death, the animal or plant decays, and the phosphates are returned to the soil. Runoff may carry them back to the ocean or they may be reincorporated into rock.

1.4 Stable ecosystem The process of one way flow of energy from the sun, through materials and living organism on the earth’s surface, then into atmosphere, and eventually into space as low quality heat and recycling of chemicals through parts of ecosphere play important role in sustaining life on earth.

Materials are transferred between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and the biosphere. These various "spheres" act as "reservoirs" that keep materials for different amounts of time. Each cycle forms a complicated system and the systems then interact with each other to produce weather and climate as well as the periodic fluctuations that maintain the dynamic balance on Earth, including all life. These cycles have evolved to the present rate over billions of years. Various aspects such as the water cycle, state of the oceans and the climate are all interrelated. The rate of human activities disturbs the natural flows of materials and energy. When the rates of the disruptions are larger than the capacity of the entire system to bounce back, the system begins to shift, affecting all levels of the ecosystems through local and global changes.

Fig. 1.6 Sulphur cycle

Fig. 1.7 Phosphorus cycle

Fig. 1.8 Interactions between material cycles, energy input & transfers.


1.5 Need to study impacts of waste on the environment and its management The amount of waste generated earlier in the history, by human population was insignificant mainly due to the low population densities, along with the fact that there was very little exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during the early ages was mainly ashes and biodegradable waste. This was released back into the ground locally, with minimal environmental impact. Wood, stone and metal were widely used for various applications which were reused and recovered. Throughout the twentieth century, waste was treated as the terminus of industrial production. The principle of disposing waste was to keep it out of sight.

The waste by-products disposed by atmosphere and hydrosphere are delivered to the biological and geochemical receptors. In this sense, the anthroposystem - human made system is an open system. For example, the disposal of human and animal digestive and excretory wastes are commonly not recycled within the ecosystem where they are produced but are usually transported from one ecosystem to another and generally from a terrestrial ecosystem to an aquatic ecosystem. All our sewage wastes are disposed into the water, on the basis that a flowing stream takes these wastes out of our immediate environment, or, if we put a little bit of sewage into a big body of water, it is diluted to the point that it is non-harmful. This displacement of materials from the terrestrial

Fig. 1.9 Closed nutrient cycle Fig. 1.10 Open nutrient cycle

Fig. 1.11 Natural ecosystem Fig. 1.12 Anthroposystem


ecosystem into the aquatic system disrupts the chemical cycling in each with resultant damage to both. A rising quality of life, and high rates of resource consumption patterns have had a unintended and negative impact on the urban environment - generation of wastes far beyond the handling capacities of urban governments and agencies. Cities are now grappling with the problems of high volumes of waste, the costs involved, the disposal technologies and methodologies, and the impact of wastes on the local and global environment. In 1947 cities and towns in India generated an estimated 6 million tonnes of solid waste; in 1997 it was about 48 million tones. India produce 300 to 400 gms. of solid waste per person per day in town of normal size. The figure is 500 to 800 gms. per capita per day in cities like Delhi and Bombay. The problem in these cities is how to dispose such large mass of solid waste daily and this poses a massive and expensive problem to the authorities. In India, 94 percent of waste is disposed of unsafely, either burned in an uncontrolled manner, or dumped in untreated landfills, where contaminants can leach into groundwater. Given the size of India’s population and the size of the country itself, finding enough land that meets the state pollution board criteria and can hold 20 to 30 years worth of waste is extremely difficult. More than 25% of the municipal solid waste is not collected at all; 70% of the Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no sanitary landfills to dispose of the waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped nor well managed and are not lined properly to protect against contamination of soil and groundwater. India will have more than 40 per cent, over 400 million people, clustered in cities over the next thirty years (UN, 1995). Modern urban living brings the problem of waste, which increases in quantity and changes in composition with the change of time, posing threat to human health and environment. Factors which are responsible to spread the awareness about the waste management are:

Awareness of the pollution caused by the disposal of waste

Climate change

Resource depletion Problems created by waste have also provided an opportunity for cities to find solutions - involving the community and the private sector; involving innovative technologies and disposal methods; and involving behaviour changes and awareness raising.


2. Sources and types of waste generated in cities

2.1 What is considered as waste Unused, rejected, unwanted substances or objects in solid, semi solid or liquid form, which are disposed or are intended to be disposed or are required to be disposed of, are referred as waste. Waste is a material that no longer serves a purpose and so is thrown away. In some cases what one person discards may be re-used by somebody else. All wastes are hazardous; if not carefully disposed of, it will have an impact on the environment, whether it is unsightly litter in urban streets or contaminated air, soil or water. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities. For plants and nonhuman animals there is virtually no waste. The wastes or dead bodies of one form of life are food or nutrients for other forms of life. Sooner or later everything is recycled through natural processes. We need to recognize that most of what we call wastes are really wasted resources. They are potential resources that we are not recycling, reusing, or converting to useful raw materials or products. 2.2 Sources and types of waste generated in cities Waste is produced from the very beginning of the life cycle of a product and is generally regarded as an unavoidable by-product of economic activity. It is generated from inefficient production processes, low durability of goods or unsustainable consumption patterns. It reflects a loss of materials and energy, and imposes economic and environmental costs on society for its collection, treatment and disposal.

Fig. 2.1 Waste flow at different stages of product cycle

2.3 Solid waste A solid waste does not flow like water or gas. It can be hazardous or nonhazardous. Nonhazardous solid waste includes litter and odours, leachate from the infiltration of water through the waste and off-gases resulting from biodegradation.

Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes

2.3.1 Residential solid waste

Single and multifamily dwellings Kitchen waste, food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes, consumer electronics, batteries, oil, tires, household hazardous wastes

2.3.2 Commercial solid waste

Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, warehouses and other non-manufacturing activities

Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, electronic waste, hazardous wastes

2.3.3 Institutional solid waste

Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centres, theatres

paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, electronic waste, hazardous wastes

2.3.4 Construction and demolition

Construction, repair and demolition operations on pavements, houses, commercial buildings, and other structures

waste building materials, packaging and rubble, wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.

2.3.5 Municipal services

Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, beaches, other recreational areas, water and wastewater treatment plants

Street sweepings; landscape and tree trimmings; general wastes from parks, beaches, and other recreational areas; sludge

Table 3 Sources and types of solid waste

Table 2 Municipal solid waste generation of ten largest cities in India.


2.3.6 Industrial solid waste Industrial solid waste consists of both organic and inorganic substances. Organic waste includes pesticide residues, solvents – cleaning fluids, dissolved residues from fruits and vegetables, lignin from pulp and paper. Inorganic waste includes brine salts and metals. a. Manufacturing industries - Heavy and light manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power plants, mineral

extraction and processing; Industrial process wastes, scrap materials, off-specification products, slay, tailings.

Food and beverages industry - meat, fats, oils, bones offal, vegetables, fruits, nuts and shells, cereals, chemical preservations, cleaning waste, CFCs (refrigerants).

Chemical industry - strong acids and bases, radioactive waste, ignitable waste, discarded commercial chemical products.

Metal industry - metal scrap, sand, slag, cores, coatings, solvents, paint wastes containing heavy metals, strong acids and bases, cyanide wastes, sludge containing heavy metals.

Paper and printing industry - paper and fibre residues, paper coatings, ink wastes, fasteners, solvents and metals, photography waste with heavy metals, ignitable and corrosive wastes, heavy metal solutions.

Construction industry - ignitable wastes, paint wastes, spent solvents, strong acids and bases.

Furniture and wood industry - scrap wood, shavings, saw dust, plastic, fibre, glue, sealer, adhesives, ignitable wastes, spent solvents, paints wastes, resins, glass, cloth and padding residues.

Transportation equipments - metal scrap, glass, fibre, wood, rubber, paint wastes, ignitable wastes, spend solvents, acids and bases

Cleaning and cosmetic - heavy metal dusts and sludge, ignitable wastes, solvents, strong acids and bases.

Textile industry - cloth and fibre residues, tanning liquor and effluent treatment containing chromium, dye stuffs and pigments containing dangerous substances

Leather industry - scrap leather, thread, dyes, oil, processing and curing chemicals

Electrical industry - metal scrap, carbon black, glass, plastic, resin, rubber

Rubber and plastic industries - resin, waste of petrochemical products, waste from dye

Stone, clay and glass industries - glass, cement, clay, ceramics, asbestos, stone, paper b. Entertainment industries - Paper, wood, food waste, plastic waste c. Hotel industries - Old furniture, plastic, food waste, paper waste, aluminium cans, glass bottles d. Agriculture industry - Crops, orchards, vineyards, dairies, feedlots, farms; Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes e. Milk industries - dissolved sugars and proteins, fats, residues of additives, pathogens from contaminated materials or production processes f. Fruit and vegetable industries - Organic waste

2.4 Electronic waste Electronic equipments / products which connects with power plug, batteries which have become obsolete due to advancement in technology, changes in fashion, style and status, end of their useful life are referred as electronic waste known as ‘e-waste’.

E-waste includes range of obsolete electronic devices such as computers, servers, monitors, TVs & display devices, telecommunication devices such as cellular phones & pagers, calculators, audio and video devices, printers, scanners, copiers and fax machines besides refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines, and microwave ovens.

Fig. 2.2 Car scrap yard, Fig. 2.3 Waste paint cans

Fig. 2.6, 2.7 Food waste

Fig. 2.4 Construction waste, Fig. 2.5 Packaging waste


It also covers recording devices such as DVDs, CDs, floppies, tapes, printing cartridges, electronic components such as chips, processors, mother boards, printed circuit boards, industrial electronics such as sensors, alarms, sirens, security devices, automobile electronic devices.

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the rapidly growing environmental problems of the world. With extensively using computers and electronic equipments and people dumping old electronic goods for new ones, the amount of E-Waste generated has been steadily increasing. 2.5 Liquid waste 2.5.1 Sewage waste - water from washing clothes,

vessels and bath water, water used in the kitchen, spilled water, rainwater, stagnant water, acids, pesticides

2.5.2 Contaminated groundwater 2.5.3 Industrial liquid discharges

Fruit and vegetable processing - waste water contains high concentrations of dissolved organic matter and may be highly alkaline from the use of lye.

Agriculture industries - run off from crops contain pesticides, fertilizer and sediment

Petroleum refining - oil is mixed with water in the refining process to remove salts and other impurities

Pulp and paper industry – release of dioxins into waterways Liquid waste streams are generated by such activities as washing meat, fruit and vegetables; blanching fruit and vegetables; pre-cooking meats, poultry and fish; wool scouring; dairy whey; grease traps; other cleaning and processing operations; spent brewery wastes and wine making. These effluents contain sugars, starches and other dissolved organic matter, but in a relatively dilute form. 2.6 Sludge waste

Sludge contains various ratios of liquid and solid material. They generally result from industrial processes and waste-treatment operations. 2.7 Gaseous waste

Kitchen smokes, dust, smoke of vehicles

Industrial processes associated with the fossil fuel industry frequently produce by-product gases as waste products 2.8 Hazardous waste

Hazardous wastes are by-products of human activities that could cause substantial harm to human health or the environment if improperly managed.

The hazardous waste has been classified in liquid, solid and gaseous discarded materials and emissions if they are poisonous (toxic), flammable, oxidizing, corrosive, explosive, radioactive or chemically reactive at levels above specified safety thresholds.

It represents a major concern as it entails serious environmental risks if poorly managed: the impact on the environment relates mainly to toxic contamination of soil, water and air.

2.8.1 Household hazardous waste Household hazardous wastes are discarded products used in the home, which contain dangerous substances such as; old batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, medicine bottles, motor oil, drain cleaner, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers 2.8.2 Industrial hazardous waste Four types of industry account for about 90% of industrial hazardous wastes generated in the world: chemical manufacturing, primary metal production, metal fabrication and petroleum processing. Large chemical plants and

Fig. 2.8, 2.9 Electronic waste

Fig. 2.10, 2.11


petroleum refineries and other large quantity generators produce more than 1,000 kg of hazardous wastes per month. Other small scale industries produce 10% of the potentially harmful substances produced each year. Pesticides are designed to kill pest insects, plants and other organisms that threaten agricultural crops, destroy municipal –residential landscaping and carry human diseases. Most pesticides are dangerous chemicals themselves, and their manufacture produces additional hazardous waste. 2.8.3 Other sources of hazardous wastes are associated with military bases, mines and small businesses.

The chemicals used by auto garages, dry cleaners, construction companies, scientific labs, photo developers, printers, large offices, and farmers are often toxic.

Military bases have some of the most serious hazardous waste problems; facing problems of soil and ground water pollution.

Mining waste, a type of industrial waste, often includes hazardous substances. Mining operations commonly use hazardous chemicals, and sometimes naturally toxic substances are released into the environment during mining and the disposal of its waste materials. Chemical separation of ore minerals like lead, iron, and zinc from their host rocks creates acid-mine drainage that contains both the toxic chemicals used in the separation process like arsenic and sulphuric acid and poisonous heavy metals like lead and mercury. 2.9 Hospital waste or bio medical waste, toxic waste Hospital waste is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biological elements in hospitals, clinics, nursing homes. It include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, etc. in the form of disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta, etc. This waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed in a scientific and discriminate manner. It has been roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in a hospital at least 1 kg would be infected. 2.10 Nuclear (radioactive) waste Nuclear waste is generated at various stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, uranium mining, fuel enrichment, reactor operation, spent fuel reprocessing. It also arises from decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities, and from other activities using isotopes, such as scientific research and medical activities. Radioactive wastes emit particles or electromagnetic

radiation (e.g., alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and x rays). Radioactive wastes can be high level, transuranic or low level. High-level radioactive wastes are from spent or reprocessed nuclear reactor fuel. Transuranic wastes are from isotopes above uranium in the periodic table. They are generally low in radioactivity, but have long half-lives. Low-level wastes have little radioactivity and can often be handled with little or no shielding.

Table 4

Fig. 2.12 Hospital waste, Fig. 2.13 Bio medical waste

Table 5 Estimates of medical waste generation in some countries


3.0 Impacts of the waste on the environment

Waste pollution is considered a serious threat. Some of the factors affecting air, waster and soil from the generation and management of waste are as follow: 3.1 Factors affecting the environment

Industrialization and economic growth has produced more amounts of waste, including hazardous and toxic

wastes. Pollution emitted in industrial areas represents a threat to human health and the surrounding natural

resources.

Agricultural pesticides contaminate the groundwater that many of us drink and some of the food we eat.

Production processes are not the only source of environmental damage; harmful production practices also have

long term effects.

Closed units of industrial areas create threat of the remaining, abandoned and poorly stored waste. It represents a

bigger danger because it stands neglected as it degrades and leaks into the earth without any surveillance.

Irradiated fuel and nuclear waste can take hundreds of thousands of years to decay into a harmless substance.

Until then, it is extremely dangerous to human health.

3.2 Impact on soil, water and air

3.2.1 Soil Contamination

Contaminants in the soil can harm plants when they

take up the contamination through their roots.

Ingesting, inhaling, or touching contaminated soil, as

well as eating plants or animals that have

accumulated soil contaminants can adversely impact

the health of humans and animals.

3.2.2 Water Contamination

a). Surface Water Contamination

Most of the wastes we dump into the water and land

eventually end up in the oceans. Oil slicks, floating

plastic debris, polluted estuaries and beaches,

contaminated fish and shellfish are visible signs of

water contamination due to waste pollution.

It can damage the health of wetlands and impair their

ability to support healthy ecosystems, control

flooding, and filter pollutants from storm water

runoff.

Aquatic organisms, like fish and shellfish, can

accumulate and concentrate contaminants in their

bodies. When other animals or humans ingest these

Fig. 3.1 Waste sources and their impact on the environment

Fig. 3.2 Terrestrial exposure pathways of soil contamination

Fig. 3.3 Aquatic exposure pathways of water contamination


organisms, they receive a much higher dose of contaminant than they would have if they had been directly

exposed to the original contamination.

Changes in the water chemistry due to surface water contamination can affect all levels of an ecosystem. It can

impact the health of lower food chain organisms and, consequently, the availability of food up through the food

chain. The health of animals and humans are affected when they drink or bathe in contaminated water.

b). Groundwater Contamination

Groundwater is the major source of drinking water. Besides, it is an important source of water for the agricultural and

the industrial sector. Water utilization projections put the groundwater usage at about 50%. In many parts of the

world, groundwater is pumped out of the ground for drinking, bathing, other household, agricultural, and industrial

usage. Depending on the geology of the area, groundwater may rise to the surface through springs or seeps, flow

laterally into nearby rivers, streams, or ponds, or sink deeper into the earth.

The demand for water has increased over the years

which has led to water scarcity in many parts of the

world. The situation is aggravated by the problem of

water pollution or contamination. Contaminated

groundwater can adversely affect animals, plants and

humans if it is removed from the ground by manmade

or natural processes.

The pollution of air, water, and land has an affect on

the pollution and contamination of groundwater. The

solid, liquid, and the gaseous waste that is

generated, if not treated properly, results in pollution

of the environment; this affects groundwater too due

to the hydraulic connectivity in the hydrological cycle.

Discharge of untreated waste water through bores

and leachate from unscientific disposal of solid wastes

also contaminates groundwater, thereby reducing the

quality of fresh water resources.

Pesticides, industrial and municipal landfills and

settling ponds, several million underground storage

tanks for gasoline and other chemicals, abandoned

toxic waste dumps threaten groundwater.

3.2.3 Air Contamination

Emission of carbon dioxide and other gases into the

atmosphere from fossil fuel burning and other human

activities may raise the average temperature, which

would disrupt food production and flood low lying

coastal cities and croplands.

Air pollution can cause respiratory problems and

other adverse health effects as contaminants are

absorbed from the lungs into other parts of the body.

Certain air contaminants can harm animals and humans when they contact the skin.

Plants rely on respiration for their growth and can also be affected by exposure to contaminants transported in the

air.

a). Greenhouse Effect

The earth's surface is surrounded by a blanket of gases in the atmosphere. The naturally-occurring greenhouse effect is due to the fact that a number of gases in the atmosphere absorb infra-red radiation (heat) emitted from the Earth's surface: instead of being radiated into space, this heat warms the atmosphere. These gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3) .

Fig. 3.5, 3.6 Ground water contamination due to landfill and storage tank

Fig. 3.4 Impact of solid waste on different resources


It allows most of the light to pass through which then reaches the earth's surface and is absorbed and converted into

heat energy. This heat energy is re-emitted by the earth, but is trapped by gases in the atmosphere known as

greenhouse gases.

A number of human activities, processes and

consumptions produce waste gases that are harmful to

the environment such as fuel combustion, energy

industries, manufacturing industries and construction,

transport, fugitive emissions from fuels, solid fuels, oil

and natural gas, mineral products, chemical industry,

metal production, solvent and other product use, enteric

fermentation, manure management, rice cultivation,

agricultural soils, prescribed burning of savannas, field

burning of agricultural residues, solid waste disposal on

land, wastewater handling, waste incineration.

Global warming, climate change, ozone depletion, sea level rise, biodiversity are all affected, directly or indirectly, by

harmful 'greenhouse' gases.

Unregulated dumping of old PCs and batteries is contaminating our soil, air and groundwater with highly toxic, carcinogenic chemicals. With over 2 million old PCs ready for disposal in India, that means 14,427,000 kg of plastics, 3,962,700 kg of lead and 1,386 kg of mercury. Large metros generate thousands of tones of solid waste every day, much of it not biodegradable. Delhi generates about 4,000 tones of solid waste each day. Industrialized countries generate more than 90 per cent of the world's annual total of 325-375 million tons of toxic and hazardous waste, mostly from the chemical and petrochemical industries. (UNDP) b). Increase in Methane concentration Methane makes up just 0.00017% of the Earth's atmosphere. However, it is an important greenhouse gas, with a much greater warming potential than CO2. Methane is generated through anaerobic decay of organic material. The amount of methane in the atmosphere is the result of a balance between production on the surface and destruction in the atmosphere. CH4 remains in the atmosphere for between 8 and 12 years.

Man has contributed through domestication of animals, increased production of rice, and leaks from gas pipelines and petrol.

Agriculture has played a significant role in this - up to 35% of anthropogenic CH4 comes from animals and their wastes.

Dairy cows produce between 84 and 123kg of CH4 per year, per animal, as a result of rumen fermentation. More methane is released from animal manure, either collected under animal housing or stored in heaps. These conditions encourage the growth of methane-producing bacteria. Around 70% of the CH4 generated on pig and poultry farms comes from manure. 3.3 Depletion of ozone layer

Chemicals we have been adding to the atmosphere are drifting into the upper atmosphere and depleting ozone gas,

which protects us and most other forms of life by filtering the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Fig. 3.7 The enhanced greenhouse effect

Fig. 3.8 Emission of Methane from landfills in India


3.4 Global Warming Average global temperatures vary with time as a result of many processes interacting with each other. These interactions and the resulting variation in temperature can occur on a variety of time scales ranging from yearly cycles to cycles with times measured in millions of years. Records for the past 100 years indicate that average global temperatures have increased by about 0.5oC. Because of the increase in greenhouse gases into the atmosphere the temperature will continue to increase at a rate of about 0.3oC per decade. This will lead to average temperatures about 1 degree warmer by the year 2025 and about 3o C warmer by the year 2100.

Effects of Global warming

A warmer atmosphere will lead to increased evaporation from surface waters and result in higher amounts of precipitation.

Changes in vegetation patterns

Changes in Ice patterns.

Reduction of sea ice

Thawing of frozen ground

Rise of sea level - Warming the oceans results in expansion of water and thus increases the volume of water in the oceans. Along with melting of mountain glaciers and reduction in sea ice, this will cause sea level to rise and flood coastal zones, where much of the world's population currently resides.

Changes in the hydrologic cycle

Decomposition of organic matter in soil - With increasing temperatures of the atmosphere the rate of decay of organic material in soils will be greatly accelerated. This will result in release of CO2 and methane into the atmosphere and enhance the greenhouse effect

3.5 Sea Level Rise Sea level is rising along most of the coast zones around the world. In the last century, sea level rose 5 to 6 inches more than the global average. Higher temperatures are expected to further raise sea level by expanding ocean water, melting mountain glaciers and small ice caps, and causing portions of Greenland and the Antarctic ice sheets to melt. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that the global average sea level will rise between 0.6 and 2 feet (0.18 to 0.59 meters) in the next century (IPCC, 2007).

Rising sea levels will cause problems such as:

Land Loss in coastal wetland ecosystems such as salt marshes and mangroves are vulnerable to rising sea level because they are generally within a few feet of sea level. As the sea rises, the outer boundary of the wetlands will erode, and new wetlands will form inland as previously dry areas are flooded by the higher water levels. The amount of newly created wetlands, however, could be much smaller than the lost area of wetlands - especially in developed areas protected with bulkheads, dikes, and other structures that keep new wetlands from forming inland.

Increases the vulnerability of coastal areas to flooding during storms for several reasons.

Increases coastal flooding from rainstorms, because low areas drain more slowly as sea level rises.

Increases the salinity of both surface water and ground water through salt water intrusion. Salinity increases in estuaries also can harm aquatic plants and animals that do not tolerate high salinity.

Fig. 3.9 Factors responsible for global warming

Fig. 3.10 Impacts of green house gases and global warming on sea level rise


3.6 A wrong method of waste disposal, improper dumping of municipal solid waste mixed with other hazardous waste without treatment raises serious environmental issues such as:

Loss of renewable resources such as metals, plastic,

glass

Loss of potential resources such as compost from

organic waste

Loss of energy from burnable waste

A need for the replacement of lost materials in the

terrestrial system

A pollution of the aquatic ecosystem with a burden of

added nutrients, which is accompanied by the spread

of disease, O2 depletion resulting in death of the

aquatic organisms

Overproduction of undesirable organisms affecting

the quality of life.

Contamination of land and water bodies due to

discharge of leachate and other hazardous materials

Air pollution due to emissions from burning and

release of methane from anaerobic decomposition

also remain as concerns

Risks to human health (respiratory problems, skin and

other diseases, and longer term impacts due to

dioxins etc.) and spreading of disease by vectors in

areas near landfill sites are other critical issues.

The flooding of Mumbai during the 2005 monsoons, plastic bags were reported to have exacerbated the floods by choking drains and gutters.

3.6.1 Impacts of landfill

Landfill being major source of methane – one of the principle green house gasses, contributing 20% to the global warming.

Solid waste enters soil and often ground water systems by leaching process and contaminates them.

It becomes a significant source of the highly toxic carcinogen, dioxins, principally through air dispersion

There is increase in health problems such as - elevated rates of cancer, birth defects, low birth weights in households living close to landfills.

Landfill of mercury waste covered with a tarpaulin sheet will trap hazardous mercury vapours which are undetectable by instruments.

3.6.2 Impacts of incinerators

Emission of toxic gasses

Sources of the release of volatile metals such as mercury, cadmium and lead

A large incinerator produces the equivalent of 300 wheelie bins of exhaust gases from its chimneys every second. As

this happens, chemical reactions lead to the formation of hundreds of new compounds, some of which are extremely

toxic. The number of substances released from a waste incinerator may run into thousands. So far, scientists have

identified a few hundred substances as hazardous.

Fig. 3.12 Cumulative land requirement for municipal solid waste (km2)

Fig. 3.11 Impact of a waste dump on the environment

Fig. 3.13 Impacts of landfill

Fig. 3.14 Impacts of incinerators


3.7 Impact on human health

The number of children with cancer is increasing, as are the incidences of breast and prostate cancer in adults.

Children suffer more today than ever before from birth defects, learning disabilities, attention- deficit disorders, and asthma because of the contaminated soil, water and air.

The waste effluents of industries contain heavy metals like mercury, lead and cadmium, which cause poisoning. Mercury causes poisoning, which attacks the nervous system of patients. Lead causes mental retardation of children.

Oil spills from oil tankers on land surface (e.g. beaches) and from ships on surface of water reservoirs destroys the habitats of aquatic animals and fish; create health problems for local residents and causes long term damage to the environment.

The UN Development Programme (UNDP) estimates that more than five million people die each year from diseases related to inadequate waste disposal systems.


4.1 Case study - 1 Love Canal Tragedy, New York

Site description:

60 feet wide and 3,000 feet long Love Canal was built in the 1800s in an attempt to connect the upper and lower Niagara River; situated in a residential neighbourhood in Niagara Falls, New York

The project remained incomplete because of financial issues, the abandoned canal was sold at public auction, after which it was used as a municipal and chemical dump site from 1920 until 1953.

Canal used as a dumping ground, landfill

Between 1942 and 1953 Hooker Chemicals and Plastics Corporation dumped almost 20,000 metric tons of highly toxic and cancer – causing chemical wastes including pesticides such as lindane and DDT, multiple solvents, PCBs, dioxin, and heavy metals in steel drums, into an old Love Canal excavation.

Unhygienic covering of landfill

In 1953 Hooker Chemical covered the dump site with clay and top soil; and sold the site to Niagara Falls School Board for one dollar. The deed specified that the company would have no future liability for any injury or property damage caused by dump’s contents.

Institutional and residential construction around the

landfill site

The board of education built an elementary school

Fig. 4.1 Love Canal emergency declaration area

Fig. 4.2 Love Canal, hazardous waste disposal site, Buffalo, NY, showing 99th Street elementary school in center, two rings of homes bordering the landfill and housing development.

Fig. 4.3 Aerial photo showing canal in the center.

Fig. 4.4 Toxic barrels piled up in Love Canal

Fig. 4.5 Love Canal after the cleanup plan


near the perimeter of the canal in 1954.

Residential development came up around the canal in the 1950s, and by 1978, there were approximately 800 single-family homes and 240 low-income apartments, with about 400 children attending the 99th Street School next to the dump.

Indication of problems because of unhygienic landfill

In 1977, residents of a suburb of Niagara Falls discovered that hazardous industrial waste buried decades earlier bubbled to the surface, found its way on the ground water, and ended up in back yards and basements.

Men, women, and children suffered from many conditions--cancer, miscarriages, stillbirths, birth defects and urinary tract diseases.

The media attention and subsequent inquiries by residents prompted the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) to undertake environmental testing in homes closest to the canal.

A health study reveled that 56 percent of children born between 1974 and 1978 suffered birth defects. The miscarriage rate increased 300 percent among women who had moved to Love Canal; urinary-tract disease had increased 300 percent, with a great number of children being affected. Evacuation for cleanup plan

In 1978, the NYSDOH declared a state of emergency at Love Canal, ordering closure of the 99th Street School, recommending evacuating the Love Canal for a cleanup plan to be undertaken immediately. Clean up plan

A drainage trench was installed around the perimeter of the canal to catch waste that was permeating into the surrounding neighbourhood.

A clay cap was placed on top of the site to reduce water infiltration from rain or melting snow.

Sewer lines and the creek to the north of the canal were cleaned up.

However, the waste that had migrated throughout the neighbourhood and into the homes remained.

Eventually, the 239 homes closest to the canal were demolished and the southern sections of the neighbourhood declared unsuitable for residential use. Problem which still exists today

In September 1988, the 200 homes in the northern section of Love Canal were declared "habitable". These homes are still contaminated, as are the yards around the adjacent evacuated homes. The only separation between them and those still considered uninhabitable is a suburban street.

Anyone can freely cross the street and walk through the abandoned sections of the neighborhood.

Children ride their bikes and play frequently among the abandoned homes. 20,000 tons of waste still remains in the dump.

Fig. 4.7, 4.8,4.9,4.10 Residents of the Love Canal area in Niagara Falls were forced to evacuate when hazardous wastes leaking from a former disposal site threatened their health and homes.

Fig. 4.6 Animal death due to contamination in Love Canal

Fig. 4.11, 4.12, 4.13 Clean up process in Love Canal


4.2 Case study - 2 A Rainforest Chernobyl Site description

Texaco, now ChevronTexaco, began its search for oil in the pristine tropical rainforest in 1964.

The indigenous inhabitants of this pristine rainforest, including the Cofán, Siona, Secoya, Kichwa and Huaorani, lived traditional lifestyles largely untouched by modern civilization.

The forests and rivers provided the physical and cultural subsistence base for their daily survival.

Discovery of oil

In 1967, Texaco made the first discovery of commercial quantities of oil in the Oriente, or northern Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, drilling operations began. Between 1972 and 1992, Texaco extracted more than 1.5 billion barrels of oil from the Ecuadorian Amazon.

No environmental standard followed

Texaco's oil extraction system in Ecuador was designed, built and operated on the cheap substandard technology from the outset; which led to extreme, systematic pollution and exposure to toxins from multiple sources on a daily basis for almost three decades.

At the height of Texaco's operations, the company was dumping an estimated 4 million gallons of formation waters per day, a practice outlawed in major US oil producing states like Louisiana, Texas, and California decades before the company began operations in Ecuador in 1967.

Dumping of toxic waste into open pits

In order to save millions of dollars - an estimated $3 per barrel - Texaco simply dumped the toxic wastes from its operations into the pristine rivers, forest streams and wetlands, ignoring industry standards.

In a rainforest area roughly three times the size of Manhattan, Texaco carved out 350 oil wells, and upon leaving the country in 1992, left behind some 1,000 open toxic waste pits.

Texaco also dumped more than 18 billion gallons of toxic and highly saline "formation waters," a byproduct of the drilling process, into the rivers of the Oriente.

Leaving the dumping site open

In 1990, Texaco left a site with a shocking mess. The company left behind more than 600 open waste pits contaminated with heavy metals and some of the most carcinogenic chemicals known to man, including: Benzene, Toluene, Arsenic, Lead, Mercury and Cadmium.

Many of these pits leak into the water table or overflow in heavy rains, polluting rivers and streams that 30,000 people depend on for drinking, cooking, bathing and fishing.

Fig. 4.14, 4.15 Texaco's former concession area in Ecuador, spanning the watersheds of the Aguarico and Napo rivers, and the locations of oil fields within the concession area.

Fig. 4.16 An open waste pit and flares in the Guanta oil field Fig. 4.17 Broken pipeline

Fig. 4.18 An unlined waste pit filled with crude oil left by Texaco drilling operations years earlier lies in a forest clearing near the town of Sacha Fig. 4.19 Old Texaco oil barrels left on the side of the Aguarico River, near Lago Agrio


Fig. 4.25, 4.26, 4.27 Impact of health due to contamination in land and water

The result is one of the most infamous environmental and social disasters in the Amazon.

Sources of contamination

18 billion gallons of wastewater, called "produced water," dumped into surface streams.

The construction of 916 open-air, unlined toxic waste pits in the forest floor

Release of contaminants through gas flaring, burning, and spreading oil on roads

Environmental and health impacts because of the

unhygienic dumping of toxic waste

Environmental degradation from Texaco's operations has devastated a unique tropical forest ecosystem. As a result of the company's operations, nearly 2.5 million acres of rainforest were lost.

Oil spills have contaminated the land and water

The company dumped 20 billion gallons of highly toxic wastewater into the waterways

It has ruined a way of life, rendering it nearly impossible for indigenous peoples to practice their traditional modes of subsistence.

As a result of the company's operations, 5 indigenous nationalities are suffering an exploding health crisis. Studies have attributed at least 1401 excess cancer deaths in the region to oil contamination, as well as an elevated rate of pregnancies ending in miscarriage.

Clean up plan

Texaco conducted a sham "clean-up" of less than 1% of its former sites beginning in 1995, in most cases merely by covering open pits with dirt or burning off the crude by-products.

TEXPET, the Texaco and Petroecuador consortium, completed a limited cleanup of less than 1/3 of the unlined waste pits through an agreement with the Ecuadorian government in 1999.

The "clean up" was very poorly done; waste pits were so badly managed that they continue to contaminate the soil and local water sources.

In addition, Texaco did not clean up the streams, rivers, and/or wetlands. Texaco, now ChevronTexaco, claims that it met its legal obligations and no longer is responsible for social and ecological damage in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Fig. 4.22, 4.23, 4.24 A family washes clothes and bathes in a polluted river, children playing in contaminated areas

Fig. 4.20, 4.21 Oil spill in the surface waterbodies


4.3 Case study - 3 Ganga Pollution About the River Ganga

The Ganges is a major river in the Indian subcontinent flowing east through the plains of northern India into Bangladesh. The 2,510 km (1,557 mi) river begins at the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, in the central Himalayas, and drains into the Bay of Bengal through its vast delta in the Sunderbans.

Critical stretches of the river Ganga In different stretches the holy river Ganga is posed

with different challenges.

In the upper region numerous hydel projects threaten the river ecosystem by depriving it off the environmental flows

In the stretch beyond this till Patna the growing cities and industrial clusters have increased the pollution load discharged into the river. Loss of assimilative capacity has worsened the pollution woes of the river.

In the stretch beyond Patna, growing cities and lack of assimilation is making the river dirtier

Factors causing pollution

Chemical waste disposal caused by industrial areas

Sewage waste disposal from the surrounding areas

Remains of human and animal corpses on the river edge

Waste generated by pilgrims According to environmentalists, 90 per cent of pollution into the river is caused by sewage generation while about 5 to 6 percent pollution is caused by bathing and other activities. Impacts of waste pollution

It poses major health risks to around 400 million people living by its side and all others who benefit from it.

An estimated 2,000,000 persons ritually bathe daily in the river, which is considered holy by Hindus. Polluted water of Ganga carry major health risks by either direct bathing in the dirty water and by drinking.

Residents from nearby area suffer from various skin ailments, among other health problems.

In the nearby villages, farm harvests have plunged and livestock like buffaloes produce half their normal yield of milk.

On the stretch of the river, families which were used to make a living by fishing the Ganges barely get by now.

According to The Economist, 10,000 children die everyday in India because of pollution from the Ganges, meaning that 3,650,000 children in India die every year from the Ganges' alleged "pollution".

Fig. 4.28 Critical stretches of River Ganga

Numerous hydel projects Decreased environmental flow

Growing pollution

Decreased flow, increased pilgrimage

Growing cities Polluting industries

Fig. 4.29, 4.30 Pilgrim prays in the Ganges

Fig. 4.31 Boats on the polluted Ganges river Fig. 4.32 Pilgrims dropping a religious ornament into the river

Fig. 4.34, 4.35 Pollution in the river and solid waste around

Fig. 4.33 Quality of water in Ganga at different places


Clean up plan

In 1986, Government of India announced a massive Ganga Action Plan to clean up the river. The basic idea was to intercept and treat pollution before it is discharged into the Ganges. After spending about 50 crores rupees also pollution levels were as high as ever because of the technical issues like erratic power supply, faulty engineering and maintenance problems.

There is a need to use an alternative cleaning system which can work without power supply and to spread awareness among citizens not to pollute the Ghats and riverbeds.

Many NGO’s clean the different stretches of river regularly of dead bodies, animal carcasses, solid waste and visible trash such as clay idols, polybags, worship materials and ensures their safe disposal.

Fig. 4.36 Graph of BOD levels along critical stretches recorded during 2003-2006


4.4 Case study - 4 Threat because of landfill sites in Delhi Introduction Unfortunately in India, most landfills are located along the banks of rivers flowing through the cities. Delhi is at present producing 6,500 tones of garbage daily. In the next five years, garbage collection will increase by 1,000 tones. The Regional Plan-2021 of the National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB) states that the daily generation of solid waste will shoot up to 15,000 metric tones by 2021. The total wastewater from Delhi and nearby areas flowing into the 19 drains that connect to the Yamuna is around 3,296 million litres a day, of which 630 MLD is untreated. Landfill sites in Delhi

There are about 12 large landfills which have been packed with all sorts of non-biodegradable and toxic wastes of Delhi since 1950.

The area covered by landfills is at least 1 percent of Delhi's total area.

All the landfill sites except Tilak Nagar, Hastal and Chattarpur are located close to the river Yamuna.

These landfills are not engineered sanitary landfills and the waste is dumped at open sites without proper compaction.

Impacts of landfill in Delhi

The existing Bhalswa - Jehangirpuri dumping ground of waste has overflowed its capacity, posing a threat to groundwater resources.

The groundwater of landfill sites has been critically contaminated with leachate generated from the site.

Analysis of leachate from Bhalswa landfill site revealed that TDS was higher by 2000 percent and the hardness content was 533 percent in excess of the limit.

The presence of high chlorides 4100 mg per litres and 10995 mg per litres against the desirable limit of 250 mg per litres also indicates the critical condition of the landfill site located in North Delhi.

TDS at Okhla landfill site was 244 percent more than the desirable limit.

A large portion of landfill leachate and runoff produced by these landfill sites finally reaches the Yamuna through ground water flow or surface water flow through the drains, contributing to the river pollution.

According to the Central Pollution Control Board 70% of the pollution in the river is from untreated sewage while the remaining 30% is from Industrial waste, Agricultural waste and Domestic rubbish.

Fig. 4.37 Landfill project sites in Delhi

Fig. 4.38 Existing and proposed landfill sites along the river

Fig. 4.39, 4.40, 4.41, 4.42 Status of solid waste landfill sites in Delhi

Fig. 4.43


4.5 Conclusions The river will soon become the carrier of only city sewage, toxic industrial effluent and dumping ground for dead bodies and all kinds of dirt, filth and trash, if urgent preventive and remedial measures are not taken. Special campaigns are launched during various bathing festivals when people float worship materials and other polluting materials in the river. Eco Friends has also adopted Massacre ghat in Kanpur to develop it as a model ghat. The incident is a vivid reminder that we can never really throw anything away and wastes don’t stay put up; preventing pollution is much safer and cheaper than cleaning it up. Problems because of unhygienic landfill Ground water contamination, Soil contamination, Severe impact on health, Learnings,

Most of the landfills in developing countries do not have any liner at the base, or a drainage layer or a proper top cover, which results in the potential problem of groundwater/surface water contamination due to the leachate.

It is essential to have an estimate of the amount of leachate and, more importantly, the composition and strength of the leachate and variation of leachate contaminants with time as the landfill site develops to decide how it needs to be treated.

Since leachate contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic constituents, including heavy metals, liners must be used at the landfills.

The presence of bore wells at landfill sites to draw groundwater threatens to contaminate the groundwater, and immediate remediation steps should be taken at all landfill sites that have groundwater bore wells.


5.1 Case study - 1 The Industrial Symbiosis at Kalundborg, Denmark Case of spontaneous but slow evolution of the "industrial symbiosis" without initial planning of the overall network.

The area of Kalundborg was first settled in 1170 as a natural harbour along the bay. The city began to get more urbanized during the nineteenth century and became a major industrial centre in the mid-twentieth century. Kalundborg Municipality has approximately 20,000 inhabitants with the example of Industrial Symbiosis. Initiative towards waste recycling and reusing Industrial Symbiosis activities began in 1961 when a project was developed and implemented to use surface water from Lake Tisso for a new oil refinery in order to save the limited supplies of ground water. The City took the responsibility for building the pipeline while the refinery financed it. Starting from this initial collaboration, a number of other collaborative projects were subsequently introduced. Originally, the motivation was to reduce costs by seeking income-producing uses for "waste" products. By the end of the 1980s, the partners realised that they had effectively "self-organised" into what is probably the best-known example of Industrial Symbiosis. The Asnaes Power Station became the hub of the network of materials and energy by-product exchanges at Kalundborg. The material exchanges in the Kalundborg region

include

Conservation of natural and financial resources

Reduction in production, material, energy, insurance and treatment costs and liabilities

Improved operating efficiency

Quality control

Improved health of the local population and public image

Realisation of potential income through the sale of by-products and waste materials

The self-organized symbiosis co-operation today

comprises some 20 projects comprising of five core partners:

Asnæs Power Station - Denmark's largest power station, coal-fired, 1,500 megawatts capacity

Statoil Refinery - Denmark's largest, with a capacity of 4.8 million tons/yr

Gyproc - a plasterboard factory, making 14 million square meters of gypsum wallboard annually (enough to build all the houses in 6 towns the size of Kalundborg)

Novo Nordisk - an international biotechnological company, with annual sales over $2 billion producing pharmaceuticals including 40% of the world's supply of insulin and industrial enzymes.

The City of Kalundborg supplies district heating which uses steam from the Asnaes power station replacing the highly polluting oil burning heaters to the 20,000 residents, and water to the homes and industries.

Fig. 5.1 Kalundborg (map center) is west of Copenhagen and Holbæk, northwest of Slagelse on Zealand in Denmark.

Fig. 5.2

Fig. 5.3


Benefits and savings from the waste recycling and reusing Water

The companies have reduced the overall consumption by 25% by recycling the water and by letting it circulate between the individual partners.

A total of 1.9 million m3 of groundwater and 1 million m3 of surface water are saved on a yearly basis. Oil

The partners have reduced their oil consumption by 20,000 tons per year, corresponding to a 380 - tonne reduction of sulphur dioxide emission on a yearly basis.

The major reductions have been achieved by Novozymes A/S, Novo Nordisk A/S and Statoil that have used process steam from the production at Asnæs Power Station.

Ash

The combustion of coal and orimulsion (bitumen- based fuel) at Asnæs Power Station results in approximately 80,000 tons of ash, which are used in the construction and cement industries for the manufacturing of cement or the extraction of nickel and vanadium. Gypsum

Every year BPB Gyproc A/S receives up to 200,000 tons of gypsum from Asnæs Power Station. The gypsum substitutes the natural gypsum used in the production of plasterboards. Use of lime and commercial fertilizer by NovoGro

NovoGro from Novozymes A/S substitutes the use of lime and part of the commercial fertilizer on approximately 20,000 hectares of farmland.

Fig. 5.4 Kalundborg industrial symbiosis - 1995 drawn by D.B. Holmes based on information from various sources

Fig. 5.5 Overview of Kalundborg with Novozymes in the fore-ground


Wastewater

The collaboration of Novozymes A/S, Asnæs Power Station and Kalundborg Municipality, in the area of wastewater treatment, reduces the environmental impact on Jammerland Bugt considerably.

The power plant uses salt water, from the fjord, for some of its cooling needs. By doing so, it reduces the withdrawals of fresh water from Lake Tissø. The resulting by-product is hot salt water, a small portion of which is supplied to the fish farm's 57 ponds.

Sludge

The recycling of sludge stemming from the treatment plant brings about a reduction in production time at A/S Bio-teknisk Jordrens Soilrem, synonymous with expenditure cuts and improved economy.

Other Waste

On a yearly basis, Noveren I/S receives: 13,000 tons of newspaper / cardboard which after a quality check are sold to cardboard and paper consuming industries in Denmark, Sweden and Germany producing new paper, new cardboard, egg boxes and trays for e.g. the health sector.

7,000 tons of rubble and concrete that are used for different surfaces after crushing and sorting.

15,000 tons of garden / park refuse delivered as soil amelioration in the area.

4,000 tons of bio waste from households and company canteens is used in the compost and biogas production.

4,000 tons of iron and metal, which is resold after cleaning for recycling.

1,800 tons of glass and bottles are sold to producers of new glass.

Excess heat is used for fish farming, heating of nearby homes and greenhouse agriculture. This web of recycling and reuse has generated new revenues and cost savings for the companies involved and reduced pollution to air, water, and land in the region. In ecological terms, Kalundborg exhibits the characteristics of a simple food web: organisms consume each other's waste materials and energy, thereby becoming interdependent with each other. This pattern of inter-company reuse and recycling has conserved water and other resources, by generating new revenue streams from the by - products exchanged.

Economic and environmental savings: Economic

Total investment of about US$60 million

Annual revenues of about US$12 million

Average payback time of 5 years

Accumulated revenues as of 1993: over US$120 million

Environmental savings

Oil - 45,000 tons/year

Coal - 15,000 tons/year

Water - 600,000 m3/year Reduced emissions

Carbon dioxide (CO2) - 175,000 tons/year

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - 10,200 tons/year Reuse of waste products

130,000 tons of fly ash/year

4500 tons of sulphur/year

90,000 tons of gypsum/year

800,000 tons of nitrogen in sludge/year

Fig. 5.6 Treatment plants at Novozymes

Fig. 5.7 City using district supply heating from the streams of Asnaes power station replacing the highly polluting oil burning heaters.


5.2 Case Study - 2 Louisville Elementary School - Management of food waste Project description Project was an initiative process, developed by a teacher and students to compost food waste generated in school and dealing with the food waste which was attracting flies, foul odour and other nuisances.

Method

School developed a comprehensive program for keeping food waste separate from recyclables and vegetable waste from the meat and dairy.

Feeding the - Vegetable waste to red worms - Meat and dairy waste to pigs - Waste shredded paper collected from the classrooms to use as bedding.

The worms turned the bedding and vegetable waste into dark, earthy, nutrient-rich material which they could use to fertilize their gardens. Reduce, reuse and recycle are major economic corollaries of Vermicomposting. The organism central to the biological technology of vermicomposting is the earthworm. Earthworms are exceptionally valuable to the environment, without their constant burrowing, the soil would lack good drainage and aeration, and their nutrient-rich castings would not be mixed into its upper layer. Results Economical

During the first year of mid-scale vermicomposting, the school district saved $6,000 in dumpster fees by reducing the amount of paper and food waste collected in commercial dumpsters that eventually went to the landfill. Environmental savings

Earthworms did help to reduce the use of both pesticides and natural resources.

Reduced use of commercial fertilizer

Because the schools relied on worms on-site instead of using gasoline-powered trucks for transportation to a recycling plant miles away to process paper wastes, they actually reduced fossil fuel use.

Reducing the use of local landfills, water and fossil fuels

Mechanical garbage disposal in a kitchen sink requires eight gallons (30 liters) of water to dilute one pound of food waste. Because Laytonville schools no longer wash food waste down the drain and, in addition, reuse rinse dishwater to swish out empty milk cartons before transporting them to the recycling center, they used 103,680 fewer gallons (394,000 liters) of water a year after beginning the program than they consumed the previous year. Enriching soil

Avoiding the use of pesticides gave possibility of nutrient-rich of maintaining the quality of soil

Using vermicompost as a soil amendment helps improve the tilth, nitrogen and pH of the soil.

The improved tilth causes less leaching of

Fig. 5.8 The large wooden worm bin next to the shed used pa-per for bedding and added much of the vegetative waste from the garden.

Fig. 5.9 A mass of red worms sorted out

Fig. 5.10 Organic garden from vermicompost soil provides vege-tables for the school kids


nutrients out of the soil and contributes to a healthier soil full of microorganisms, including earthworms, that help increase the yield of crops grown in our school garden.

Soil and crops that are healthy are less likely to be attacked by insects and disease. Overall

Vermicomposting reduces solid waste at its source

Some of the vegetables grown are used for the cafeteria to feed the kids and staff

Long term effects of the pesticides on kids could be avoided, there was a decrease in number of students having headaches and experiencing nosebleeds.

Besides helping reduce the flow of food waste to landfills, mid - scale vermicomposting provides schools with unique study opportunities. A vermicomposting bin is an alive and extremely complicated system. Interdependence, flexibility, diversity, cooperation and sustainability are all represented in a vermicomposting bin. The inhabitants are so interrelated that to study the system in separate parts is impossible.

Provided an opportunity of small scale business practise from worm workshops and selling of worms and vermicompost to the community.

During the first ten month’s period of these process, Laytonville:

Vermi-composted 3,600 pounds of cafeteria food waste

Fed 9,360 pounds of protein food waste to chickens and pigs

Recycled 567 pounds of milk cartons and 654 pounds of tin cans

More than seven tons of solid waste were effectively diverted from one local landfill.


5.3 Case Study - 3 Towards a zero waste approach in Kovalam Kovalam is a small fishing village on the coast of the Arabian Sea. It is located 12 kms to the south of Kerala’s capital city, Thiruvananthapuram. A series of four crescent shaped beaches, calm - safe waters and a pleasant climate attract people to this place from all over the country and the world. Causes of waste pollution

Tourism in Kovalam gave rise to heaps of garbage, stinking corners and smoke filled skyline.

Dangerous practice of burning this waste, the draining of untreated liquid waste directly into the open drains and the beach caused serious threat to the land and health of its people - grave enough to affect the business of tourism in Kovalam.

The inefficient control or guidance over the activities along the coast of Kovalam tourist destination in its earlier phase of development left no space, time or resources for handling the waste generated in the region.

The normal practice of waste disposal in the region was collection of waste from the shops and dumping them in neighbouring village during the nights.

Because of the uncontrolled growth of tourist infrastructure for water and sanitation wetlands and ponds were filled up and built upon.

Selling of bottled drinking water increased the amount of plastic waste.

Restaurants and hotels installed septic tanks for their sewage which led to extensive groundwater contamination particularly in the foothills and low- lying areas. Problems because of waste generation

By the late 1990s more than 30 tons of trash was being generated each day - an impossible 7.5 kgs of trash for every man, woman, child, tourist and migrant worker - in Kovalam.

Kuthira Kulam, a freshwater pond, had to be abandoned because of contamination. Around the same time, open wells were being abandoned or restricted for purposes other than drinking.

Within years, the smaller ponds and the numerous streams were converted into cesspools of plastic trash, particularly PET bottles.

The Tourism Department was paying the Vizhinjam Panchayat Rs. 25 lakhs ($58,000) annually for waste related expenses with nothing to show for it.

Collection and removal of garbage was ad hoc, and the collected garbage ended up on the roadsides en route Kovalam, or in the field of some unsuspecting farmer.

Foreign tourist visitations began to decline.

A survey done in 2001 found that more than 6.7 tonnes of biodegradable discards were generated daily during peak season, of which 4 tonnes were from 100 hotels and restaurants. About 54 percent of the establishments were found to have land to manage their own waste.

Table 6 Other discards like Cardboard boxes, cotton waste, cloth waste, cut hair waste, used oil etc were also in relatively significant quantities. The survey process was completed in the month of October 2001.

Fig.. 5.11 Location of Kovalam

Table 7


When people’s opposition became strong, the people compelled the local Panchayath and Department of Tourism to provide facilities for waste disposal in the region. Initiative towards waste management and zero waste program works on following concepts: a). Resource Recovery - backbone of discards management in the Kovalam tourism area.

Decentralized resource recovery facilities have been designed for making discards handling easy and effective. Two approaches are followed for implementing

resource recovery Resource Recovery Facility at Individual or

Institutional level:

Targeted for homes/institutions who have some space to spare and their own in-house discards to be handled.

As a model the Institute of Hotel Management and Catering Technology (IHMCT), the premier institute of hotel management in India located at Kovalam was the first to set up such a facility. A Resource Recovery Facility consisting of a 15 cu.m. biogas plant, a Resource Recovery Room, Compost pit and Drying yard. The Biogas plant converts 250 kg of biodegradable discards from their kitchens and canteens into biogas every day. The institute is saving nearly Rs. 5000 on cooking gas every month. In addition the facility during 2003-2004 (one year) diverted 5 tonnes of non-biodegradable discards and earned about Rs.12,000 in this account. It is estimated that on an average the hotel will save nearly Rs.1.5 lakhs annually. Inspired by these model initiatives, many households and hotels are building their own biogas plants.

Cluster Level Resource Recovery:

Designed as a decentralised but common facility for a cluster of individuals/ institutions.

The first of such a cluster facility was set up by the Kovalam Unit of the Kerala Hotel and Restaurant Association (KHRA) jointly with Kerala Tourism. This 25 cu. m. biogas plant can take 500 kg biodegradable discards per day. Waste from 15 restaurants on the Light House Beach area is used to feed this biogas plant. The biogas is used to run a 2.5KVA diesel generator to produce electricity for street lighting in the beach. A Non-Biodegradable discards collection is also being done, by collecting the segregated discards. A local secondary materials dealer gains about Rs. 600 every month.

Periodical Cleanups:

Periodical Cleanups organised by Panchayath, the Indian Coast Guards, students of IHMCT, Greenpeace gradually remove the dumped waste in the area.

A major clean up drive was organised again in January - February and in March 2004 to remove pet bottles dumped in and around. A total of about 72,000 PET bottles were collected and sent for recycling.

Fig. 5.17, 5.18 Cleaning up of streets with people’s participation under guidance.

Fig. 5.14 Biogas Plant at the Light House Beach - A Biodegradable Discards recovery system for hotels

Fig. 5.12, 5.13 Resource Recovery Facility at IHMCT - Sale of Discards, Resource Recovery Facility at IHMCT - Sold Discards being transported by Discards Resellers

Fig. 5.15, 5.16 Kovalam Cleanup - periodically done to improve current conditions


b). Material Substitution:

Envisaging people from the locality producing materials that are eco-friendly like coconut shell, used paper, cloth etc to manufacture various utility and craft items that are to phase out the toxics like plastics.

Aiming at total elimination of plastic discards and other toxic materials and coming up with locally available and environment friendly materials to replace these toxic substances.

c) Poison free farming:

Focuses on regaining the environment stewardship in agriculture which will help in building a toxic free world.

Promoting poison free farming by giving technical assistance to local farmers and applying community wisdom and traditional knowledge for a toxic free agriculture.

Restoring the homestead farming culture of the land, to sustain diversity and provide food, fuel and other needs.

Training to farmers on organic farming, vermicomposting, marketing of farm products for poison free farming.

Introducing the concept of Organic Bazaar to support the small, marginal and landless organic farmers of the area. d) Water Conservation:

Involving local communities in reclaiming the water resources through water conservation projects.

Water is the prime life support resource and is a community property. The villages around Kovalam have severe water shortage. Private business lobbies started exploiting the opportunity by setting up private water supply services and exploiting common resources. Lack of safe drinking water resulted in accumulation of PET bottles at Kovalam.

The Vellayani Kayal, a fresh water lake bordering the Venganoor Panchayath is a major source of water for the villages as well as the hotels in the destination, both directly and as a source replenishing the ground water. This is a highly polluted source of water especially due to the intensity of pesticide and chemical fertilizer use in the area.

The streams and ponds in the destination area are also in an extremely bad condition and an integral part of the programme is to revive these sources of water.

e) Training, Education and Environmental Awareness:

Regular awareness programmes for the local community for a toxic free town

Orientation programmes for policy makers and private institutions regarding proper discard handling methods and zero waste.

Benefits and results

The biogas plant diverts nearly 300 kg of biodegradables daily. For IHMCT, that has meant savings of Rs. 5000 ($120) per month. Separately, the non-biodegradables sorted and stored at the Resource Recovery Park yielded more than Rs. 12,000 in the first year of its operations.

Biogas generated from the plant of IHMCT is supplied to the main kitchen in the institute and also to the students hostel. This measure alone has helped the institute reduce its weekly consumption of natural gas by around six cylinders while also enabling it to manage its waste in a responsible manner. The savings in natural gas will be around Rs 90,000 a year. The sale of non-biodegradable material will generate about Rs 12,000. The IHMCT will be able to generate additional funds of around Rs 1 lakh every year.

Considering the fact that the total investment in this project has so far been around Rs 3 lakh, the IHMCT will be able to look at generating a profit in three-four years.

Fig. 5.19, 5.20 Before and after restoration of community drink-ing water pond by community of Kovalam


5.4 Case Study - 4 Zero waste colony, Delhi A middle-income residential settlement in South Delhi. The stench from garbage heaps lying on the streets was getting unbearable. Toxics Links ran a training programme for 230 households in D-block of Sarita Vihar for over six months. Waste collectors, domestic servants, housewives, municipal staff and residents were trained in source segregation and composting techniques. Initiatives

Representatives of various interest groups like resident members of Mahila Mandal, Kitchen Garden Association and Senior Citizens' Council, general residents; local councillor; site and zonal level municipal staff of both sanitation and horticulture departments, waste contractors; private waste collectors and domestic helpers were encouraged to participate in the programme.

Regular capacity-building workshops were organised in this regard to make all the stakeholders aware of their role and responsibilities in contributing towards the city's cleanliness programme.

Wastewater Recycling Plant created on banks of urban-drain which carries domestic sewage from nearby areas.

Average wastewater flow in drain is >150 Kl per day. If all water taken up for process and reuse, it could irrigate 100,000 Sq mt area (@ 1sqm/day needs 1.5 - 2.0 litres)

At present the waste water recycling plant daily sources 40 kl & reuses 35 kl water which also has nutrients. It operates with adequate BOD reduction, removal of pathogen & irrigates total area of 20,000 Sq mt of garden.

Plant designed on concept- DEWATS Concept (Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems) which provides: Primary treatment in sedimentation ponds, septic tanks - Secondary anaerobic treatment in fixed bed filters or baffled septic tanks (baffled filter reactors) - Tertiary aerobic treatment in constructed wetlands, biophyto- remediation and ponds

Approach to the problem

Economic and environmental consequences of each alternative were discussed and then source segregation and on-site composting was considered as the best alternative towards addressing the growing problem of land filling of municipal waste.

Steps towards waste management and minimization on a trial base

Door-to-door mobilisation amongst 230 households, by explaining importance of source segregation a month before the actual implementation.

Continuous assistance to the residents to overcome difficulties involved in source segregation.

Selection of land for on-site composting with common consensus of the residents and equal participation from site level municipal staff.

Permission horticulture department to dig up two natural pits of size 12x5x2.5 ft for neighbourhood park to undertake aerobic composting. Barrels of 250 lt. have been also placed to promote barrel composting as well. The site was fenced in order to avoid stray animal nuisance.

On a trial basis, the programme started with collecting segregated waste from each household by the private waste collector in two separate bins.

After covering the total households, the private waste collector brings the collected waste to the composting site.

After the secondary segregation, he weighs the total amount of organic waste generated for the day, records the amount and spreads it in the pit; sprinkles cow dung slurry along with EM (effective micro-organisms) and covers it with jute sheets.

The municipal sanitary staff, after finishing daily chores, turn the pit every alternate day for better aeration.

Fig. 5.21, 5.22 Cyclic flow chamber with gunny sacks used as filter. Charcoal in gunny sacks providing remediation, wood coal from neem and eucalyptus. Cascade flow and last stage tank

Fig. 5.23 View of Filtration Bed (7 path), 1m x 15m, 7 lanes with gravel, stones, boulders, plants


Continuing the same practise after trial period

After one month's trial period and managing approximately 2,000 kg of organic waste in the neighbourhood pits, the residents wished to continue with the project and set an example for other residential complexes for replicat-ing the same.

Seeing the success MCD placed a few bins around the colony to facilitate passersby to dispose off their recyclable waste, thus discouraging littering.

5.5 Conclusions 1. Schools top the list of sources for discarded paper and food waste. Mid-scale vermicomposting provides a simple,

effective, and inexpensive method for processing paper and food wastes that requires no transportation to a cen-tral location for further processing.

2. It is not a difficult process to initiate waste management at a smaller scale, one can then build up the programme in a large context and quantity.

3. Schools and institutions can involve parents, community members and group of students in the process teaching them about the importance of the management of waste

4. It saves the cost of waste disposal and reduces generation of waste. 5. Purchase the materials and have students assemble bins with staff or volunteers. 6. It helps in creating awareness about impacts on the eco system and health because of the improper disposal of

waste. 7. Compost created by method can be used for growing vegetables in the campus garden and nourishing plants to

beautify the school grounds. Learnings - several conditions that are desirable for a similar web of exchanges to develop:

Industries must be different and yet must fit each other

Arrangements must be commercially sound and profitable

Development should be voluntary, in close collaboration with regulatory agencies

A short physical distance between the partners is necessary for economy of transportation (with heat and some materials)

A clean city is not an accident but is a concerted effort of the citizens, the state, the city managers and the civil soci-ety. The mode of the decision-making process -- how to manage solid waste in urban areas -- has seen a paradigm shift from the "decide-announce-defend' premise of local authorities to a more involved public participation in the solid waste management strategy. To economically and efficiently operate a waste management program requires significant cooperation from generators, regardless of the strategies chosen. Public involvement is expected not only in policy formulation but also in being actively involved in waste management and disposal.


6. Methods to control adverse impacts generated by waste 6.1 Waste management Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal and monitoring of waste materials to reduce their negative effects on environment and society. Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential, industrial, and commercial producers. Waste management for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator. Efficient waste management involves, consideration

of

Amount of waste being disposed of

Type of waste being disposed of

Different methods and fields of expertise According to a 2008 report by The World Bank, if an efficient system were in place, roughly 15 percent of India’s waste materials such as paper, plastic, metal and glass could be recovered and recycled. If the 35 to 55 percent that is organic waste could also be recovered, that would leave only 30 to 50 percent to be sent to landfills. 6.1.1 Management of Solid Wastes

The dominant methods of Solid Waste disposal are to place it into landfills or on open rubbish tips. These disposal methods have low initial costs but contribute to serious local air and water pollution; produce obnoxious odors; look unsightly and release methane, which is an explosive gas with a high global warming potential. Waste to energy projects can alleviate such disposal problems and utilize an otherwise neglected resource to partly offset the costs of disposal.

Recycling process should be done for paper, aluminium, steel cans, glass, plastics and some hazardous materials, such as batteries (lead acid) and hydrocarbon products which will gradually reduced the amount of solid waste going to landfill sites.

Commercial and industrial waste is bulk rubbish collected through local government or private contractors, usually in large bins, which can be loaded onto trucks. It also includes manure from farms, crop residues and other ‘green’ wastes from agricultural and forestry processes.

Food and fiber processing industries produce many types of residues and by-products that can be used as biomass energy sources.

Building and demolition waste is bulk rubbish collected in large bins from construction / demolition sites and usually disposed of in landfills or burnt in the open air.

6.1.2 Management of Liquid Wastes

Liquid by-products of effluents of industrial processes and sewage treatment usually have high water content, hence it is known as waste water.

The potential use for the industrial wastes is anaerobic digestion to produce biogas, or fermentation to produce ethanol. There are alternative methods also of land treatment by irrigating the effluent onto growing crops.

Liquid waste in the form of recycled frying oils collected from restaurants and other oleophilic wastes, such as low-grade beef tallow, can be used to produce diesel fuel, called biodiesel. Biodiesel is largely produced from crops such as rapeseed and canola, which can be supplemented with triglyceride wastes.

6.1.3 Management of Gaseous Wastes

Methane is often released to the environment during the extraction of coal. This coal seam methane which presents a serious safety threat to the environment can be used for local power generation as a resource for coal and petroleum industry.

Fig - 6.1 Disposal, recycling, processing and minimization of waste for better management in future


6.2 The waste disposal system has four aspects 6.2.1 Control of waste at source – waste minimization, Re-use and recycle 6.2.2 Segregation of waste at source 6.2.3 Collection and transportation system 6.2.4 Final disposal 6.2.1 Control of Waste at Source - Waste minimization, re-use and recycle

Waste minimisation is a methodology used to achieve waste reduction, primarily through reduction at source, but also including recycling and re-use of materials.

Controlling waste means eliminating or reducing the quantity of waste which is produced in the first place and hence reducing the quantity of waste which must be managed.

Prevention can take the form of reducing the quantities of materials used in a process or reducing the quantity of harmful materials which may be contained in a product. It is the most desirable waste management option as it eliminates the need for handling, transporting, recycling or disposal of waste.

Minimization includes any process or activity that avoids, reduces or eliminates waste at its source or results in re-use or recycling.

The avoidance for waste production includes using the second-hand product and repairing the products which have broken instead of buying new products and cutting down use of disposable things.

Solid waste containing organic waste can be compost and converted in to soil manure.

The inorganic waste once fully segregated at the final disposal site can be recycled for different purpose using proper technologies.

Paper, wood, cardboards should be recycled and reused for raw material to produce other products. a). At Industrial Level

At industrial level if they use effective processes for manufacturing products with enhanced materials it is likely to reduce waste production.

Using again the scrap material – reuse of waste material as soon as it is produced.

Exchanging Waste in which the waste product, which comes out of a process, becomes a raw material for another process.

b). At household level

To reduce the household waste home composting should be done by using organic waste in garden. 6.2.2 Segregation of Waste at Source

Waste should be segregated properly in organic and inorganic waste while disposing.

At source Municipalities should create a bank or a dumping point where inorganic waste can be sent by a simple and effective collection system.

Municipal waste collectors should visit each street after every fortnight to collect such wastes from each house. 6.2.3 Collection and Transportation of waste involves following activities:

The primary collection of the waste from each street by municipality

Dumping of waste at transit dump site

Collection of waste from transit dump sites

Transport to the final disposal site

Ceremonial systems for collection of waste for less populated and less developed area

Segregation of waste into recyclable, organic waste, inorganic waste, plastic waste, hazardous waste

Fig. 6.3 Waste hierarchy

Most preferred

option

Least preferred

option

Fig. 6.2 Priorities for reducing the risks from harmful wastes and

contaminants (Environment Protection Agency)


6.2.4 The Final Disposal of waste is done in three ways a. Biochemical process – Composting, landfills b. Chemical process c. Incineration – Thermal process a. Bio-chemical conversion process

Digestion is a bio-chemical process by which organic waste is broken down by the action of bacteria into simple molecules, either aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen).

Aerobic digestion takes place where the waste is aerated, such as in the early stages of decomposition of municipal solid waste (MSW) and during composting.

Anaerobic digestion takes place where the waste has restricted aeration, such as in the later stages of the decomposition of MSW or in the digestion of sludge or wastewater in enclosed digestion vessels.

Aerobic digestion produces carbon dioxide and water whereas anaerobic digestion produces methane and water, and also some carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. The gas produced by anaerobic digestion can therefore be combusted and used, either to produce electricity or heat, thereby converting the methane gas to carbon dioxide.

Liquid and solid wastes or green crops can be digested to produce biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, which are both greenhouse gases.

The process can be encouraged by placing the organic material in large airtight tanks known as digesters, and the biogas produced is captured for use. As a result, odours are removed and the pollution potential of the waste is reduced.

Biogas can be burnt directly in thermal applications displacing natural gas in cooking and space heating, or used as fuel in internal combustion engines to generate electricity.

Composting

Organic waste such as plants, kitchen waste, vegetables, fruits, leaves, paper products can be treated through biological reprocessing.

The composting period is 6 to 8 months. Therefore, the size of the composting pits has to be sufficient to contain solid waste volume accumulated over a period of six months. The disposal site should be surrounded by a row of trees to prevent air pollution from fugitive emissions.

The decomposition of organic waste is carried out by anaerobic micro-organisms; gases like methane and carbon-dioxide may be produced during the process of decomposition.

The composted waste is sent to agriculture fields for manure.

Additionally, the waste gas, which is collected from the process, can be used for the production of electricity. Sanitary Land Fills

It is the most common and oldest method of discarding waste around the world.

The method involves burying off the waste in deserted and vacant locations around the cities.

Once the waste is deposited the compactors compact the waste.

The loader before going out of the boundaries of the landfill has to go through a location where their wheels are washed. Sometimes they are taken back to weighbridge to have the weight noted for the truck without the weight of waste. This weighing procedure helps in noting and calculating the incoming tonnage of waste per day.

The compacted waste at the landfill is covered with soil every day. Some other materials, which need processing, are covered temporarily with cover-in foams and blankets. These covers are removable and can be removed for further processing of the waste material.

Poorly designed landfills or borrow pits can cause damage to the environmental and health. Along with this, wind-blown debris and generation of liquid causes

Fig. 6.4 Final disposal of waste by different ways, by which

waste can be converted to energy or energy related products

Fig. 6.5


production of hazardous gas, which also causes foul odour, killing of surface vegetation and greenhouse effects. Power generation from Landfill Gas

Landfill gas is an adventitious fuel that is a by-product of current land filling practices which occurs after MSW has been disposed of in a totally non- sustainable way.

The anaerobic digestion of the buried solid organic waste produces the landfill gas naturally, as the bacterial decomposition of the organic matter continues over time.

The methane produced in landfill sites normally escapes into the atmosphere, unless the landfill gas is captured and extracted by inserting perforated pipes into the landfill.

Development of hybrid technologies such as Solid Waste to Energy Recycling processes, has given a way of producing energy rich-gas at a higher efficiency. This energy-rich gas can then be combined with the landfill gas prior to the generation of electricity. Fermentation

Organic wastes can be converted to ethanol, the alcohol found in beverages, through bacterial fermentation, which converts carbohydrates in the feedstock to ethanol. b. Chemical conversation process – esterification

Biodiesel can be produced from vegetable oil, animal oil/fats and tallow wastes. Enersludge

An alternative to incineration or anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge (or dumping it out at sea, which is still often used as the disposal method, is the Enersludge process, which converts the sludge into useful bio-oil.

The Enersludge process produces gas, char and oil in addition to the Pyrolysis process. The gas and char are used to heat the plant, leaving the bio-oil for revenue earning activities – either for direct sale or for use on site in an internal combustion engine to produce electricity and offset purchases.

Dry pallets are produced from the raw sludge. The pellets have a fertilizer and soil conditioning value and are free of pathogens.

After being macerated, the raw primary sludge is mixed with active sludge that is in excess when being

circulated through the treatment plant so is taken off and thickened by air diffusion.

The blend then leaves the mixer tanks and enters the dewatering centrifuges. Polymers are added to help settle out the solids and results in a “sticky cake” material.

The dilute concentrated fraction is separated off and returned to the treatment plant and then eventually discharged out to sea.

The pellets are graded by size using a shaker table - returning the too large and too fine portions for reprocessing through the dryer.

The Enersludge process converts these pellets into fuel, some of which is used for drying heat. From 1 ton of pellets, around 300 litres of bio-oil is produced. In the longer term, it is hoped to produce this bio-oil to a sufficient

Fig. 6.7 Power generation from landfill gas and solid waste to energy recycling

Fig. 6.8 Enersludge process flow diagram, (Source: Environ-mental Solutions Ltd)

Fig. 6.6 Gases produced by a typical landfill site


standard in order to run the plant diesel engine/genset and provide a portion of the site’s power demand.

The ash generated from the process contains heavy metals which can be either landfilled or used in a concrete mix to make terracotta bricks. The bio-oil is stored in tanks ready for collection and the ash in a hopper.

c. Thermo-chemical Conversion

A dumping off method, which involves combustion for waste materials; it is also known as thermal treatment. This method is utilized to convert waste materials in to gas, heat, ash and steam.

Incineration is conducted on both individual and industrial scale. This generally is the most recognized practical method for disposing off perilous material.

It causes lot of air pollution and release poisonous chemicals into the atmosphere.

Reduces the weight of the waste by two thirds and its volume by 90%

A controlled burning of waste at high temperatures can reduce its volume and energy can be gained from combustion. Two widely used terms, which are facilitating burning of waste material in furnace and boiler for generation of heat, electricity and steam, are (Waste-to-energy) WtW and (energy-from-waste) EfW.

Three options for recovering energy from solid refuse: 1) Direct Combustion and incineration 2) Refused derived fuel (RDF) 3) By the development of new approaches involving the

recovery of chemicals such as plastic monomers combined with gasification or Pyrolysis.

1). Direct Combustion and Incineration

Direct combustion is the burning of waste to produce heat for cooking, space heating, industrial processes or for electricity generation.

Ash from the incineration process can also be sold to the construction and road building industry to further reduce the amount of material to be ultimately disposed.

Dry wastes and dried sludge from wastewater are required for direct combustion.

2). Refuse derived fuel (RDF)

Refuse derived fuel is separation of combustible materials from solid waste to be used for fuel purposes.

The MSW, after removal of non-combustibles, is commuted by a flail mill. A magnetic separator then removes ferrous materials before screening out the larger particles. The remainder is shredded into small particles to make the RDF.

Waste with high organic (carbon) content is suitable for briquetting and palletizing after non-combustible and recyclable materials have been separated.

These processes involve the compaction of the waste at high temperatures and very high pressures. The organic matter is compressed in a die to produce briquettes or pellets.

These products have significantly smaller volume than the original waste having a higher Volumetric Energy Density (VED) and hence making them a more compact source of energy. They are also easier to transport and store than other forms of waste derived energy.

The briquettes and pellets can be used directly on a large scale as direct combustion feed, or on a small scale in domestic stoves or wood heaters. They can also be used in charcoal production. RDF pellets have a heat value of around 60% of coal. Fig. 6.12 RDF manufacturing process outline. The product is

then compacted or briquetted for use

Fig. 6.11 http://www.arc21.org.uk/opencontent/?itemid=27&section=Residual+Waste+Project

Fig. 6.9 Options for recovering energy

Fig. 6.10 Energy recovery potential of different wastes

MSW

Food and Fruit

Press mud MLW

Pulp and paper, dairy, tannery

Distilleries


Roughly 25-30% of household waste is suitable for conversion into RDF. 3). Gasification

This process of partial incineration with restricted air supply to create an air-deficient environment, can be used to convert biomass and plastic wastes into synthesis gas with a heating value 10-15% that of natural gas. The synthesis gas (CO + H) in turn can be converted to methanol, synthetic gasoline, or used directly as a natural gas substitute and even blended with it in a gas supply line.

In principle, gasification is the thermal decomposition of organic matter in an oxygen deficient atmosphere producing a gas composition containing combustible gases, liquids and tars, charcoal, and air, or inert fluidising gases.

Small scale gasifier can be used to dispose of special wastes such as clinical waste by mixing it with other biomass sources such as cotton waste using an entrained flow, down draft gasifier.

The product is synthesis gas for which the potential use could be power generation, say in a combined cycle power plant, large scale cogeneration, or chemical synthesis of a new polymer.

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is defined as incineration under anaerobic conditions and is another option for waste-to-energy. Potentially Pyrolysis methods for plastic wastes and for mixed municipal solid waste have very high-energy efficiencies.

The solid is converted in to liquid state and liquid is converted in to gas. These products of treatment can then be used for the production of energy. The residue that is left behind is generally known as “char”, which is further treated for the production of more usable products.

6.3 Wastewater treatment The general principle in wastewater treatment is to remove pollutants from the water by getting them either to settle or to float, and then removing this material. Some pollutants are easily removable. Others must be converted to a settled form before they can be removed. Treatment facilities are designed in stages. Each stage either removes articles from the wastewater or changes dissolved and suspended material to a form that can be removed. 6.3.1 A wastewater treatment plant include following stages: a. Influent b. Primary treatment c. Secondary treatment d. Tertiary treatment e. Disinfection and effluent discharge

a. Influent Influent is the raw material that has been collected and conveyed to the plant for treatment. It includes all the water and debris that entered the collection system. b. Primary Treatment

To prevent damage to pumps and clogging of pipes, raw wastewater passes through mechanically raked bar screens to remove large debris, such as rags, plastics, sticks, and cans.

Smaller inorganic material, such as sand and gravel, is removed by a grit removal system.

The lighter organic solids remain suspended in the water and flow into large tanks, called primary clarifiers.

The heavier organic solids settle by gravity. These settled solids, called primary sludge, are removed along with floating scum and grease and pumped to anaerobic digesters for further treatment.

By primary treatment, BOD can be brought down to 5,000-10,000 ppm, which is still too high for disposal compared to the standard of 100 ppm for land and 30 ppm for water.

Fig. 6.13 Pyrolysis Outline

Fig. 6.14


c. Secondary Treatment

The primary effluent is transferred to the biological or secondary stage. Here, the wastewater is mixed with a controlled population of bacteria and an ample supply of oxygen. The microorganisms digest the fine suspended and soluble organic materials, thereby removing them from the wastewater.

The effluent is then transferred to secondary clarifiers, where the biological solids or sludge are settled by gravity.

As with the primary clarifier, this sludge is pumped to anaerobic digesters, and the clear secondary effluent may flow directly to the receiving environment or to a disinfection facility prior to release.

Several variations of secondary treatment are:

Activated sludge

Trickling filtration

Rotating biological contactors (RBC)

Lagoons and ponds d. Tertiary Treatment

Tertiary wastewater treatment is the term applied to additional treatment that is needed to remove suspended and dissolved substances remaining after conventional secondary treatment.

It is accomplished by using a variety of physical, chemical, or biological treatment processes to remove the targeted pollutants.

Advanced treatment may be used to remove such things as color, metals, organic chemicals, and nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen.

e. Disinfection

Before the final effluent is released into the receiving waters, it may be disinfected to reduce the disease-causing microorganisms that remain in it.

The most common processes use chlorine gas or a chlorine-based disinfectant such as sodium hypochlorite. To avoid excess chlorine escaping to the environment, the effluent may be dechlorinated prior to discharge.

Other disinfection options include ultraviolet light and ozone. 6.3.2 Land application of wastewater Land application of waste water is done by spray irrigation, ridge and furrow, absorption pond or hauling and application by truck methods 1. Aerated Lagoons

Aerated lagoons are a commonly used method of wastewater treatment for dairies that directly discharge to surface water.

These systems are several large ponds connected in series with floating surface aerators or submerged air diffusers.

2. Activated Sludge

Activated sludge plants encompass a variety of mechanisms and processes that use dissolved oxygen to promote the growth of biological flock that substantially removes organic material.

The process traps particulate material and under ideal conditions it can convert ammonia to nitrite and ultimately to nitrogen gas.

3. Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR)

Essentially an activated sludge batch process which operates in cycles. One cycle involves shutting off aeration to the wastewater treatment vessel long enough for the sludge to settle. The clean treated effluent is then decanted off and if necessary, sludge is wasted before the aeration system is restarted.

4. Biological Tower

Wastewater is trickled down over a wood or plastic

Fig. 6.15

Fig. 6.16


media covered with biological growth. The biological growth uses the organic waste of the wastewater as food and eventually sloughs off for collection in a clarifier.

A biological tower is generally used as an initial treatment unit in a full treatment process and it may be used for pre-treatment.

5. Spray Irrigation

The wastewater should be pre-treated to approximately 100 mg/l BOD prior to storage in a lagoon to use for spray irrigation, to control odours that would develop from storing an un-aerated, untreated waste. It is applied to fields by irrigation methods.

7. Absorption Ponds

Absorption ponds need to meet environmental requirement before disposing the waste water into these ponds.

It needs pre-treatment to meet around water standards for nitrate and chlorides. 8. Hauling and Land Application

When other options are not available or the strength of the wastewater is very high, then hauling and land application is generally the only viable option.

In this type of operation a truck is used to transport the waste from the factory to a suitable land spreading site. All sites must meet specific criteria to provide groundwater and surface water protection.

6.3.3 Effluent Treatment Plant The Effluent Treatment Plant is designed to treat waste water generated in the industries to a standard acceptable by the EPA for discharge. The plant provides three basic treatment steps: 1. Flow Equalization 2. Biological Treatment 3. Polishing 1. Flow Equalization The waste water is collected in a Flow Equalization Tank which enables flow rate peaks and high pollutant peaks to

be smoothed out prior to the biological process. 2. Biological The waste water is treated biologically to remove the organic pollutants. In the biological process, special

organisms are grown which absorb and remove the organic pollutants from the waste water. The biological treatment process is in three tanks in series:

Biological treatment of effluents

Lignin degradation can be used for treatment of substances like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin.

Enzymatic detoxification can be used to breakdown substances such as cyanides and also the by-products from synthesis of S-triazine herbicides.

Microbial transformation of biarylethers, cyclic biarylketones, halogenated bibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans is used to avoid the problem of release of effluents with pollutants.

Microbial degradation of monochloro-dichloro and trichloromethanes and carbon tetrachloride is also used to deal with the problem.

Reducing Heavy Metal’s Pollution caused by Industrial Effluents by phytoremediation method

The property of some species of bacteria and algae, to extract metals from their surrounding, can be utilized to purify industrial effluents.

Metal extracting forms (mainly algae) can be grown in ponds, where factory effluents (rich in heavy metals) are discharged. The microbes will extract the heavy metals and sequester them inside their cell-membranes. The metal can be subsequently recovered from these microbes.

Removal of Spilled Oil and Grease Deposits

Microbiological method can be used for degradation of oil to remove oil spill and grease deposits from shallow waters

The method allows slow removal of oil from the environment; toxic sites can be reclaimed by this method.

Application of oleophilic (oil loving) fertilizers as food for oil utilizing microbes can also be considered, this would allow rapid growth and multiplication of indigenous microbes, and hence speeding up the biodegradation process


for removal of oil.

A mixture of bacterial strains has also been used to clean oil contaminated water reservoirs (due to oil spills from ships) and water supplies. The technique may also prove useful for cleaning deposits of grease in pipes and vessels of a variety of industries.

Suspended Carrier Tank

Organisms are grown on the inside of special plastic rings. This tank performs most of the treatment. The organisms appear as a thin brown film on the rings. Activated Sludge Tank

In the second tank organisms which are suspended in the tank perform the rest of the treatment. The organisms are very small and appear as a fine brown sludge (called Activated Sludge) in the tank. Secondary Clarifier

The third tank is a clarifier in which the suspended organisms are separated from the treated effluent by settling. The settled organisms are pumped back to the second tank to keep them in the system.

3. Polishing The treated effluent from the clarifier is further treated by flocculation with chemicals followed by Dissolved Air

Flotation. This step polishes the effluent before discharge to the river.

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Illustration credits Chapter 1 Fig. 1.1 http://vikings.shadowfix.com/4th/home_4th.html Fig. 1.2 http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/contexts/icy_ecosystems/sci_media/images/ simple_ecosystem_diagram Fig. 1.3 http://www.rpdp.net/sciencetips_v2/E12C3.htm Fig. 1.4 http://eo.ucar.edu/kids/green/cycles6.htm Fig. 1.5 http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/ES%20-%20%20understanding_the_environment.htm Fig. 1.6 http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v6/n6/fig_tab/nrmicro1892_F1.html Fig. 1.7 http://www.gsi.ir/Images/MedicalGeology/phosphorus.jpg Fig. 1.8 Fig. 1.9 http://www.concordma.com/magazine/autumn08/closedlg.jpg Fig. 1.10 http://www.concordma.com/magazine/autumn08/brokenlg.jpg Fig. 1.11 http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80841e/80841E04.GIF Fig. 1.12 http://capita.wustl.edu/CAPITA/CapitaReports/Metaphors/unb1b.gif Table 1 Chapter 2 Fig. 2.1 http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3545/3857098042_7b31c099e5.jpg Fig. 2.2 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/12/1493902/39108 Fig. 2.3 http://www.nysefc.org/home/index.asp?page=683 Fig. 2.4 http://www.tophazardouswaste.com/constructionwaste.php Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6 http://steverawson.wordpress.com/2009/07/30/waste-uncovering-the-global-food-scandal/ Fig. 2.7 http://www.greenprophet.com/2008/05/10/431/the-shook-doesnt-compost/ Fig. 2.8 http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_q4SweSfGKKM/SlPFUPXvlOI/AAAAAAAAA58/76yx-7VQc7E/s1600-h/e- waste1.jpg Fig. 2.9 http://www.treehugger.com/files/2008/01/mitigating_ewaste.php Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.11 Fig. 2.12 http://postconflict.unep.ch/sudanreport/sudan_website/doccatcher/data/Photographs%20Figures% 20and%20Captions%20by%20Chapter/Ch6/Chapter%20photos/CS6.4b%20Medical%20DSC_0052.JPG Fig. 2.13 http://postconflict.unep.ch/sudanreport/sudan_website/doccatcher/data/Photographs%20Figures% 20and%20Captions%20by%20Chapter/Ch6/Chapter%20photos/CS6.4c%20Abbatoir%20DSC_0044.JPG Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Chapter 3 Fig. 3.1 http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/waste/page/2856.aspx Fig. 3.2, 3.3 http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/techdocs/3795e01.htm Fig. 3.4 Solid waste management, characterization and its evaluation for potential methane generation: a case study, http://www.123eng.com/projects/Solid%20Waste%20Management.pdf Fig. 3.5, 3.6 Fig. 3.7 http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/Teaching_Packs/Key_Stage_4/Climate_Change/01p.html Fig. 3.8 Fig. 3.9 http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F3.html Fig. 3.10 http://www.epa.gov/climate/climatechange/effects/coastal/slrmaps_cost_of_holding.html Fig. 3.11 http://www.methanetomarketsindia.com/1/landfill-technology.htm Fig. 3.12 Fig. 3.13,3.14 http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/envision/techdocs/3795e01.htm Chapter 4 Fig. 4.1 http://www.ehponline.org/members/2009/0800153/fig1.jpg Fig. 4.2 http://www.driskogroup.com/files/drisko/LoveCanal-middle500px.jpg Fig. 4.3 http://www.buffalo.edu/ubreporter/archives/vol38/vol38n42/articles/UBTS-NilsOlsen.html

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Fig. 4.4 http://www.pacificspirit.org/news/uploaded_images/ave_of_barrels-732435.jpg Fig. 4.5 http://www.driskogroup.com/files/drisko/LoveCanal-after500px.jpg Fig. 4.6 http://www.flickr.com/photos/motionblur/449096854/ Fig. 4.7 http://www.nathantallman.org/images/lovecanal/lc7.jpg Fig. 4.8 http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105lovecanal.htm Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10 http://www.rapingmothernature.com/wp-content/gallery/lovecanal/LoveCanal004.jpg Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12 http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/11/dayintech_1121# Fig. 4.13 http://www.epa.gov/region2/cleanup/ Fig. 4.14,4.15 http://chevrontoxico.com/news-and-multimedia/2002/0202-map-texaco-concession.html Fig. 4.16 http://itsgettinghotinhere.org/2009/05/05/chevron-gets-reamed-on-60-minutes-over-it’s-toxic-legacy- in-ecuador/ Fig. 4.17 http://abdem.mforos.com/1413785/9025913-petroleo-para-nosotros-crudo-para-ellos/ Fig. 4.18,4.20 http://chevrontoxico.com/assets/galleries/86/ 4.22,4.25, 4.26,4.27 Fig. 4.19 http://www.texacotoxico.org/eng/node/271 Fig. 4.21 http://www.democraticunderground.com/discuss/duboard.php?az=view_all&address=102x2769176 Fig. 4.23 http://theneweraofresponsibility.com/dirty-oil-in-ecuador/ Fig. 4.24 http://www.organiclightsculptures.com/NNP/files/7698d86da52450d96763c9754c7901aa-118.php Fig. 4.28,4.33 http://www.cseindia.org/misc/ganga/state_pollution.pdf 4.36 Fig. 4.29,4.30 http://www.rapingmothernature.com/2008/07/29/ganges-river-pollution/ 4.31, 4.32 4.34, 4.35 Fig. 4.37 http://www.ilfswasteexchange.com/html/delhi.htm Fig. 4.38 http://uat.emeraldinsight.com/fig/0830150604002.png Fig. 4.39 http://advocacynet.org/blogs/media/users/paul/dog.jpg Fig. 4.40,4.41 http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237664 4.42 Fig. 4.43 http://www.visibleworld.co.uk/Sem_2_Source/sem2source_page5_htm.htm Chapter - 5 Fig. 5.1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Denmark_CIA_extended.gif Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4 http://greenjobs.itcilo.org/pilot-training-1/distance-learning-package-a901360/case-histories/ kalundborg Fig. 5.5 http://wwwnovonordisk.com/jobs/working_at_novo_nordisk/novo_nordisk_geographical_sites/ kalundborg_uk.asp Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7 http://www.asknature.org/product/b08979c20b2d379a8af64fa83826db34#changeTab Fig. 5.8 http://www.wormwoman.com/acatalog/2004-fall-tour/2004-fall-tour-08.html Fig. 5.9 http://www.wormwoman.com/acatalog/2004-fall-tour/2004-fall-tour-12.html Fig. 5.10 Fig. 5.11,5.12 http://thanaluser.web.aplus.net/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/zwk_employment.pdf 5.13, 5.14 5.15, 5.16 Fig. 5.17,5.18 http://www.neerexnora.com/images/ 5.19, 5.20 Fig. 5.21,5.22 http://www.worldwaterweek.org/documents/WWW_PDF/2009/wednesday/K23/Ai 5.23 jit_Seshadri_VVF_pres_www_Garima.pdf Table 6 Table 7 Chapter - 6 Fig. 6.1 http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/continuum/continuum.html Fig. 6.2

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Fig. 6.3 http://www.surreywaste.info/communities/action/minimisation Fig. 6.4, 6.6 http://www.rise.org.au/info/Tech/waste/index.html 6.7, 6.8, 6.12 6.13 Fig. 6.5 http://runcoenv.com/landfill.htm Fig. 6.9, 6.10 http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/paper/Tr_114/chapter2.htm Fig. 6.11 http://www.arc21.org.uk/opencontent/?itemid=27&section=Residual+Waste+Project Fig. 6.14 http://leeds2.emeraldinsight.com/fig/0240200504001.png Fig. 6.15 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Surface-Aerated_Basin.png Fig. 6.16 http://www.unitechwater.net/image/STP-Activated_Sludge_1(schematic).png

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References http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/waste-gases.html http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/swm-glossary.html http://www.indiahabitat.org/wastemanege.htm http://green.autoblog.com/2006/10/31/subaru-zero-waste-factory-wins-epa-award/ http://green.autoblog.com/2006/08/27/raw-materials-go-in-subarus-and-nothing-else-come-out-of-ze/ http://green.autoblog.com/2007/07/03/subaru-sells-100-000-pzevs-and-sends-nothing-to-the-dump-for-thr/ http://wasteage.com/Recycling_And_Processing/hard_zero_subaru/ http://www.edmunds.com/advice/buying/articles/124147/article.html http://www.caledoniawealthmanagement.com/blog/?p=394 http://www.caledoniawealthmanagement.com/blog/?c5EpYxkU http://www.answers.com/topic/sewage-treatment http://www.rowenvironmental.com/gallery-1.htm http://www.toxicslink.org/art-view.php?id=43 http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/04/04/stories/2004040407570400.htm Chapter 4 Case study - 2 http://www.texacotoxico.org/eng/node/271 http://chevrontoxico.com/ Case study - 4 http://www.ilfswasteexchange.com/html/delhimap.pdf Chapter - 5 Case study - 1 http://www.indigodev.com/Kal.html http://www.eoearth.org/article/Kalundborg,_Denmark Case study - 2 http://www.wormwoman.com/ Case study - 3 http://www.zerowastekovalam.org/ http://thanaluser.web.aplus.net/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/zwk_employment.pdf Case study - 4 http://www.toxicslink.org/art-view.php?id=43 http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/wealth-from-waste/265808/ http://www.worldwaterweek.org/documents/WWW_PDF/2009/wednesday/K23/Aijit_Seshadri_VVF_pres_www_Garima.pdf

impacts of waste on the environment and its management in cities

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