Imperialism 1800-1914: Africa, Ottomans

Slave Trade, Rise of New Imperialism

and the ‘Scramble for

Africa’

Imperialism 1800-1914: Ottomans

c. 1800

Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire

16th C.: integral part European trade networks

- Europeans represented at Ottoman court: ‘Suleiman the Magnificent’ widely respected

- developed slave-army ‘Janissaries’: feared throughout Europe

- end of century: Ottomans controlled most North Africa, Balkans, Eastern Europe, parts southern Russia, Iraq, ‘Holy Lands’, Persian Gulf, Black Sea, Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea

Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

C. 1800:considerableterritorylost in Europe,Russia

Ottoman Empire: Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798

-Characterized by military defeats, territorial withdrawals

-political structure transformed: ‘ central rule’ more negotiated authority taking into account regional changes

- Important shifts in the Ottoman economy: world economy played ever-larger role in everyday lives of Ottoman people (as distinct from ‘elite’)

Ottoman Empire

Beginning of “Eastern Question” :

-Following two decades of war with Russia: Treaty of Karlowitz 1799, lost most European territories of Empire; Crimea ‘supposedly’ autonomous

- Treaty fundamentally changed political relations between Europe and Ottomans in favour of Europe

Ottoman Empire

1699-1774: wars with Russia

- Russia seeking direct access to Mediterranean through Black Sea, Bosphorus Straits and Dardanelles

Ottoman Empire

Beginning of “Eastern Question” :

-what would large regions of disputed control mean for Europe?

- what would clearly ‘weakened’ Ottoman empire mean for geo-political strategies – especially for containment of Russia?

Ottoman Empire: Moment of ‘crisis’ for Ottomans:

- generated debates about government

- political transformations: decentralization, building up strength of provincial administrations -created new bureaucracy with civil servants and military loyal to Sultan

- Attempted to reduce powers of invested elites: clergy and janissaries

Ottoman Empire:

1774:Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca - final “humiliating blow”

- Russia won monopoly of north shore Black Sea access it had long sought

- Plus: passage through Dardanelles(therefore Allowed through Straits of Bosphorous)

- full independence Crimea Khanate left it unprotected: allowed for Russian annexation 1784

Ottoman Empire:

Independent 1774; Annexed by Russia 1784 for reasons of ‘defense’

Ottoman Empire:

1798: Napoleon invaded Ottoman Egypt

- ‘conquest’ short-lived: Sultan sent (Albanian commander) Mohammed Ali with soldiers

- Napoleon returned to France to seize power

- provided Mohammed Ali with opportunity to create semi-autonomous province

[see Textbook, pp. 771-3 especially ‘Muhammad Ali’, 772]

Napoleon ‘pardoning’ those whorose up against him, Cairo (1798)

Napoleon in Cairo (1798 – painting)

Mohammed Ali Pasha (c.1840 – portrait)

‘Launching’ modern navy (below)

Ottoman Empire:

Sultan Selim III (1789-1807):

- Had little choice but to recognize superiority of European military

- ‘New World’ European wealth had been invested in standing armies, new technology, extended training

Ottoman Empire:

Sultan Selim III (1789-1807):

- supported program to re-organize military and administration

- European officers brought to Istanbul to train modern army in rapid-fire artillery units

- Grand Admiral also charged with modernizing navy

[reminder: wealth in trade ocean based –defense was with ships not land-forces]

Ottoman Empire:

Restructured Administration:

- recognized importance of language: learning French new priority for young Ottomans

- established permanent diplomatic representatives in European capitals: ‘windows’ for importation of European ideas

– all ideas philosophical, political….

Ottoman Empire:

Economic Problems:

- some criticized investment in modernizing army: especially ‘traditional’ military, social elite

- some blamed ‘Europe’: Ottomans behind in economic (as well as) military development therefore, needed better relations with West

Ottoman Empire:

External view (1785):

“…. the commerce of the Turks with Europe and India, is more detrimental than advantageous. For the articles exported being raw unwrought materials, the empire deprives itself of all the advantages to be derived from the labour of its own subjects. . . .

Ottoman Empire:

. . . On the other hand, the commodities being imported from Europe and India, being articles of pure luxury, only serve to increase the dissipation of the rich and the servants of government, whilst, perhaps they aggravate the wretched condition of the people , and the class of cultivators.”

[from Comte de Volney, French, first-hand observer 1782-85, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine]

Ottoman Empire:

French ambassador in Constantinople expressed the same conclusion in 1788:

- referred to Ottoman Empire as "one of the richest colonies of France".

Ottoman Empire:

Mahmud II (1808-39) built on earlier reforms:

- ministries with set duties, salaries

- “Translation Bureau” 1821: European languages (especially French) taught

- attention to translating foreign materials, documents: ‘starting point’ for ambitious young civil servants

Ottoman Empire:

- build up special army, artillery corpsamong janissaries loyal and owing him for their positions

-1826 New Army formed from ‘best of Janissaries’

-the rest of the Janissaries revolted

Ottoman Empire:

- loyal troops carefully distributed around country: all those associated with Janissaries killed or banished

Fall of the Janissaries beginning of radical reform of Empire

Ottoman Empire:

Sultan Abdul Mejid (1839-61): Tanzimat Reforms

-responding BOTH to internal, external pressures

- "palace revolution“: strengthening bureaucrats

-incorporating ideas about individual liberty , equality

-contained ‘germ’ of constitutional monarchy

Ottoman Empire:

Reforms were controversial:

- they went too far: “un-Islamic”, undercutting traditional social relations

- they did not go far enough: western-educated elite, new civil service wanted greater popular participation in government [at least for their class]

Ottoman Empire:

Reforms were controversial:

- some saw them as attempt to gain European support against Mohammed Ali Pasha [Egypt]

-Support was given: arguable that it was related to Tanzimat Reforms – more likely self interest

[see ‘Tanzimat Decree, Add’l Rdgs.]

Ottoman Empire:

Difficult to implement Reforms:

- too few trained men

- ‘older’ administrators protecting own vested interests

-result : where reforms were successfully implemented usually led by young men with European education

Ottoman Empire:

‘Young Ottomans’ 1865:

- secret ‘Patriotic Alliance’ (Young Ottoman Society): influenced by European ideals of liberalism and democracy

- wanted ‘Ottoman Nation’: constitution, democracy BUT also, Islamic

Ottoman Empire:

“The Young Ottomans were perhaps the first ideologists of Islam in modern times who tried to take the ‘best of the West’ and graft it onto Islam.”

Ottoman Empire:

‘Young Ottomans’: brought Abdul Hamid II to power 1876

- critical moment : ‘Eyes of Europe’ in Istanbul to discuss future of Balkans

- used opportunity to push through first Ottoman Constitution

- Sultan gave appearance as western, modern: first opportunity (1878) -- rescinded all reforms

Ottoman Empire:

Young Ottomans divided:

- “stay or go”-- into exile

- exile was Europe and Egypt

- writings influenced next generation of resistors: ‘Young Turks’ [see Textbook, p.773]

Real change awaited their Revolution in 1908.

Ottoman Empire:

External Pressures: interacting with internal reforms

- nationalist influences: ‘Greek Rebellion’ (1820s)

- more complicated than generally represented but reflective of nature of politics

Ottoman Empire:

The Crimean War: 1853-6

- Russia arguing that Ottoman Empire no longer capable of fulfilling its role in ‘Europe’ as member of ‘balance of power’: launched War in Crimean assuming European support

- wrong: Britain, France not willing to let Russia gain control over route to India, and Middle East more generally

Ottoman Empire:

Ottoman Empire:

Treaty of Paris, 1856:

- European powers assumed responsibility for protecting Ottoman Empire

- declared anything endangering integrity as “a question of European interest”

Ottoman Empire:

Ottoman Empire:

Ottomans borrowed heavily from Britain, France for weapons, war supplies:

- deeply in debt: loans with attractive discount, interest : profitable for Europeans

- borrowing continued as modernization continued

Abdulhamid II took power (1877-1909): empire virtually bankrupt.

Ottoman Empire:

1877 Ottomans again at war with Russia: defeatedTreaty of Berlin 1878 [see in Resources]

- Russia imposed indemnity of 437,500 Ottoman Lira ( approximately 5.5 million French Francs or 397,700 English pounds at the time)

Ottoman Empire:

1881: empire in “receivership”

- British, French, Dutch, German, Austrian, Italian creditors set up Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt

- took control of specific revenues to insure repayment

- Ottomans fell into arrears on indemnity payments: gave more ‘leverage’ to Russians

Ottoman Empire: Ottoman Economy: key points

- empire deeply in debt as consequence of Crimean War and ‘borrowing’ to cover military costs

- by 1880s: government budget controlled in all key sectors by Europe (only ‘domestic’ expenses handled by Ottomans)

- situation similar to Egypt: Arabi uprising 1882 [see Textbook pp. 775,6]

But: modernization of economy must continue

Ottoman Empire:

Europe continued to lend money:

- to construct roads, railroads

- to deepen, enlarge ports (to deal with steamships)

- to install city lights, water, public works

- in short, to build infrastructure and to modernize urban centres

Ottoman Empire:

1890s: Germany interested

-Germany in process of industrializing, acquiring overseas interests

- Wilhelm II sold armaments to Ottomans

- built railroads into Turkey

- 1898: "expansion to the east" inaugurated

- ‘Berlin to Baghdad railway’ (“Oriental Express”) financed by Deutsche Bank

Ottoman Empire:

Post Berlin Treaty (1878) : main change

- German Imperialism introduced into Middle East, alongside Britain, France, Russia

- ensured potential future co-operation between Germany and Ottoman Empire

- while ‘West’/Russia seen as long-time ‘imperialists’, Germany regarded as ‘new friend’

Critical to Ottoman Role in World War I