implementation of advanced solar-cell analysis at cell test€¦ · ronald a. sinton, adrienne l....
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Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test
Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum
Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury
Sinton Instruments, Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
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A vision for end-to-end metrology for electronic quality (1999 NREL Silicon Workshop)
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A vision for end-to-end metrology for electronic quality (2016 NREL Silicon Workshop)
Step Metric Fundamental Analysis Impact Analysis
Feedstock τ vs. Δn τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Crystal τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Wafer τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Sorting
Dopant diffusion τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Passivation τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Cell I, V, Rs, Rsh, τ vs. Δn, NA τ vs. Δn Real/pseudo-IV curve
Module I, V, Rs, Rsh, τ vs. Δn, NA τ vs. Δn Real/pseudo-IV curve
System I, V, Rs, Rsh, τ vs. Δn, NA τ vs. Δn Real/pseudo-IV curve
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Feedstock Qualification (Lifetime Test)
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Feedstock Qualification (Lifetime Test)
7.38 ms
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Suns-Voc Curves at the Array Level (3.6 KW)
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A vision for end-to-end metrology for electronic quality
Step Metric Fundamental Analysis Impact Analysis
Feedstock τ vs. Δn τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Crystal τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Wafer τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Sorting
Dopant diffusion τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Passivation τ vs. Δn, Ω-cm, trapping τ vs. Δn Implied IV curve
Cell I, V, Rs, Rsh, τ vs. Δn, NA τ vs. Δn Real/pseudo-IV curve
Module I, V, Rs, Rsh, τ vs. Δn, NA τ vs. Δn Real/pseudo-IV curve
System I, V, Rs, Rsh, τ vs. Δn, NA τ vs. Δn Real/pseudo-IV curve
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Cell Test is Unique: 100% Testing of Wafers
We need to take maximum advantage of this opportunity!
Device physics at cell test:
• Lifetime vs. injection level• bulk lifetime and emitter saturation current densities
• Relevant measurement of series resistance (Suns-Voccurve)
• Time response of high-efficiency cells (Capacitance)
• Examples:• n-type high-efficiency solar cell• A study of p-type solar cells spanning low to high efficiency• Power loss analysis for record-efficiency cell
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R&D and Production Cell Testing
• Laboratory cell tester• MultiFlash technology• Measures full IV curve with conventional parameters (Eff, Jsc,
Voc, Vmp, Jmp, FF)• Measures Suns-Voc (pseudo parameters, lifetime vs. injection
level, J0, BRR, lifetime at Vmp, dark Rsh, SUBSTRATE DOPING)
• Production cell tester• Production cell tester (250 MW installed in production to
date)• All the same parameters • New SingleFlash technology enables high-speed testing• Potential for 4800 tests per hour
• ~ 200ms cell test time of stationary cell
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Methodology: Outline
Parameter Method
IV parameters MultiFlash or SingleFlash technology; filtered Xenon light
Substrate doping Time-dependent continuity equation
Lifetime vs. excess carrier density Time-dependent Suns-Voc data using doping result
Rs Evaluation of IV and Suns-Voc curves at Jmp
Rsh Ohm-meter in dark at 0 Volts
Voltage (Strategic, 6 points) 8 Channel simultaneous data acquisition
Current same
Intensity same (using silicon reference cell)
Temperature RTD
Capacitance effects Constant charge method ( EUPVSEC Dresden, 2006)
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Lifetime data: Everyone does this with test wafers and a lifetime tester
Vmp
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IV curves: BSF, PERC, n-type, Auger limit
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But it is the same thing! Lifetime data and IV data
∆𝑛𝑘 , ∆𝑛𝑘+1, ∆𝑛𝑘+2…
Calculate Voltage:
𝑉 + 𝐽𝑅𝑠 =𝑘𝑇
𝑞ln
𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑝 ∆𝑛
𝑛𝑖2
Calculate Recombination:
𝐽 = 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
−𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 −𝑉
𝑅𝑠ℎ
(𝐽𝑘 , 𝑉𝑘), (𝐽𝑘+1, 𝑉𝑘+1), …
Including series resistance and shunt
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IV in Terms of Emitters and Bulk Lifetime
𝑉 =𝑘𝑇
𝑞ln
(𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑝)(∆𝑛)
𝑛𝑖2 − 𝐽𝑅𝑠
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 −∆𝑛𝑞𝑊
𝜏𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘+ 𝐽0𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + 𝐽0𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑝 ∆𝑛
𝑛𝑖2 −
𝑉
𝑅𝑠ℎ
[Recombination]
“Thin-base limit”
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IV in Terms of Emitters and Bulk Lifetime
𝑉 =𝑘𝑇
𝑞ln
(𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑝)(∆𝑛)
𝑛𝑖2 − 𝐽𝑅𝑠
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 −∆𝑛𝑞𝑊
𝜏𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘+ 𝐽0𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + 𝐽0𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑝 ∆𝑛
𝑛𝑖2 −
𝑉
𝑅𝑠ℎ
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Rs Measurement Using Suns-Voc Curve
Rs from Suns-Voc does NOT depend on quality of fit to a model(no 1- or 2-diode equations or such nonsense)
Rsh=ΔV/ΔJRs=ΔV/Jmp
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Biggest Challenge with High-Efficiency n-type
Time response of high-efficiency cells (capacitance)
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Ramp-rate Artifacts (PC1D simulations)
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.045
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Cu
rre
nt
De
nsi
ty (
A/c
m2)
Voltage (V)
Modeled Si cell (Voc = 720 mV, thickness = 200 µm) IV curves at different ramp rates
Steady State
100 ms
50 ms
20 ms
10 ms (industry std)
5 ms
2 ms0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 20 40 60 80 100
Vo
ltag
e/C
ell
Time (ms)
Voltage Ramp Rates
2 ms 100 ms
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High-Efficiency n-type Cells: 200X Higher Capacitance!
SunPower,Sanyo 2016
PERC Cell (3 Ω-cm)
Standard Screen Print (1 Ω-cm)
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Eliminating errors due to slow time response during flash testing
Solution: Test under constant charge conditions:
Measure V and J, while holding (V + J×Rs) constant using a feedback circuit. 10 years of industrial production and R&D experience with this
technique.
R. A. Sinton, 21st EU PVSEC, (2006); pp. 634-638;
US patents 7696461 B2 2010, 7309850B2 2007
∆𝑛𝑘 , ∆𝑛𝑘+1, ∆𝑛𝑘+2…
Calculate Voltage:
𝑉 + 𝐽𝑅𝑠 =𝑘𝑇
𝑞ln
𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑝 ∆𝑛
𝑛𝑖2
Calculate Recombination:
𝐽 = 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
−𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 −𝑉
𝑅𝑠ℎ
(𝐽𝑘 , 𝑉𝑘), (𝐽𝑘+1, 𝑉𝑘+1), …
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Eliminating errors due to slow time response during flash testing
• SintonDresden2006.pdf
Solution: Test under constant charge conditions:
Measure V and J, while holding (V + J×Rs) constant using a feedback circuit. 10 years of industrial production and R&D experience with this
technique.
R. A. Sinton, 21st EU PVSEC, (2006); pp. 634-638;
US patents 7696461 B2 2010, 7309850B2 2007
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Example: IV test of a high-efficiency n-type cell
High-Efficiency n-type
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IV-test example: N-type high efficiency
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IV-test example: N-type high efficiency
Bulk lifetime @ -ND
Jof+ Job = slope*qni2W
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IV-test Example: n-type High Efficiency
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Example: IV test of a PERC cell
PERC cell
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Example: IV test of a PERC cell
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IV-test example: PERC cells
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Lifetime and Substrate Doping Measurements of Solar Cells and
Application to In-Line Process Control
Adrienne L. Blum
Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger,
Ronald A. Sinton
Sinton Instruments, Boulder, CO, 80301, USA
IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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Measurement Samples: P-type Study
• P-type cells processed with varying techniques:• Multi-crystalline Al BSF cells
• High Performance Multi-crystalline Al BSF cells
• Multi crystalline PERC cells
• Monocrystalline PERC cells
• Monocrystalline PERC cells
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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Doping Measurement: An Opportunity
• Substrate doping and t vs. Dn at the cell level• Substrate doping
• Wafer position in ingot or brick prediction of [O]/other impurities potential prediction of LID behavior
• Information relevant to lateral series resistance in PERC cells
• Gives final substrate doping, including changes from high temp steps
• Effective lifetime• Surface passivation quality
• Substrate quality
• Contamination during high-temperature processing
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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Measurement Parameters
• Analyze pVmp and efficiency dependence on substrate doping (NA) and effective lifetime (τeff)• pVmp is used because the five groups of cells come from
different processing techniques, allows for a comparison independent of Rs
• pVmp: 515-584mV
• Efficiency: 15.8-21%
• τeff: 5-100μs
• NA: 5×1015-3×1016cm-3
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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pVmp and Efficiency Correlate to τ×NA
• Five different cell processing techniques all follow the same trend
𝑉 + 𝑅𝑠𝐽 =𝑘𝑇
𝑞𝑙𝑛
𝐽𝑠𝑐 − 𝐽 𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑛)𝜏𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑞𝑊𝑛𝑖2
mc-Si Al BSF mc-Si (high performance)Al BSFmc-Si PERC Mono PERC Mono PERC
1016 1017 10180.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
tx NA
(s/cm3)
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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pVmp and Efficiency Correlate to τ×NA
• Five different cell processing techniques all follow the same trend
𝑉 + 𝑅𝑠𝐽 =𝑘𝑇
𝑞𝑙𝑛
𝐽𝑠𝑐 − 𝐽 𝑁𝐴 + ∆𝑛)𝜏𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑞𝑊𝑛𝑖2
mc-Si Al BSF mc-Si (high performance)Al BSFmc-Si PERC Mono PERC Mono PERC
1016 1017 10180.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
tx NA
(s/cm3)
1016 1017 101814
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Effi
cien
cy (
%)
tx NA
(s/cm3)
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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Substrate Doping Doesn’t Tell the Whole Story
1016 1017 10180.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
tx NA
(s/cm3)
1015 1016 10170.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Doping (cm-3)
1 10 1000.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Lifetime at Vmp
(s)
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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1015 1016 10170.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Doping (cm-3)
1 10 1000.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Lifetime at Vmp
(s)
High Performance Multi Al BSF
• pVmp ranging from 518.5 to 542.3 mV
• Similar substrate doping ~7.5x1015 cm-3
• No pVmp trend due to doping
• Clear trend due to lifetime
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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1015 1016 10170.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Doping (cm-3)
1 10 1000.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Lifetime at Vmp
(s)
Multi-crystalline Al BSF
• pVmp correlation to both doping and lifetime
• Indicating independent effects of these parameters• Expected for variations in wafers from multi-crystalline bricks
A. Blum et al. IEEE PVSC, Portland, Oregon, 2016
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1016 1017 10180.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
tx NA
(s/cm3)
1015 1016 10170.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Doping (cm-3)
1 10 1000.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
pV
mp
(V
)
Lifetime at Vmp
(s)
Mono-crystalline PERC
• Strong dependence on lifetime-doping product
• No distinct correlation to lifetime or doping independently
• Cause of high quality substrate• Bulk lifetime is very good• Lifetime-doping product is determined by the front and back J0e
𝑁𝐴 + Δ𝑛 𝜏𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1
1𝜏𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑁𝐴 + Δ𝑛
+𝐽𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + 𝐽𝑜 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑞𝑛𝑖2𝑊
![Page 39: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Big Data: Simple Example
• Measure 200,000 multi-crystalline cells (2 days of data)• Resistivity varies from 1-3 Ω-cm
• If you want to isolate the dependence on doping, then:• Compare a histogram of cells with 10,000 1 Ω-cm
resistivity with a histogram of 10,000, 2 Ω-cm cells• The resulting distributions (for each) are independent
of the effects of doping, effectively isolating the experiment to look at other variables
• Differences between the histograms indicate doping dependence
![Page 40: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Last Example: Energy-loss analysis at IV-test
Based on results published by SunPower at PVSC
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
![Page 41: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Example of use of lifetime data at cell test: 25.2% n-type cell (SunPower)
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
Cells used to demonstrate 24.1% module efficiency
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Loss analysis presented by SunPower at PVSC
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
![Page 43: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Loss analysis: Bulk Lifetime
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
Bulk lifetime (2.3%)
![Page 44: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Loss analysis: J0 (front and back)
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
J0f + J0b (2.3%)
![Page 45: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Loss analysis: Sum of Rs components
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
Rs (1.9%)
(Internal and grid Rs can be separated in R&D)
![Page 46: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Loss analysis: Fundamentatal recombination
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
Doping, Rs, and Vmp
(0.2%)
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Loss analysis: Inactive area/edge effects
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
R&D, apertured IV + interpretation (0.9%)
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Loss analysis: Bulk Lifetime
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
Bulk lifetime (2.3%)
![Page 49: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
SunPower analysis from PVSC paperTest wafers prior to IV test (statistically significant)
But the bulk lifetime extracted at cell test was 6.7 ms, not 20 ms!
(use of lifetime vs. injection level data at cell test to determine bulk lifetime)
=20 ms
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
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SunPower analysis from PVSC paperTest wafers including “patterning”
Going back and including “patterning” steps in the lifetime tests for the regions of interest on test wafers matches the bulk lifetime of the cell at cell test.
=7 ms
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
![Page 51: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Loss analysis: Requires ext. spectral response + model
David D. Smith et al. “Silicon Solar Cells with Total Area Efficiency over 25%” IEEE PVSC June 2016.
Bulk lifetime = 6.7ms (2.3% power loss)
![Page 52: Implementation of Advanced Solar-Cell Analysis at Cell Test€¦ · Ronald A. Sinton, Adrienne L. Blum Wes Dobson, Harrison Wilterdink, Justin H. Dinger, Cassidy Sainsbury Sinton](https://reader034.vdocuments.net/reader034/viewer/2022050400/5f7e14e521e08927c97f5417/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Conclusions
• Advanced device physics can be performed at cell test• Normal IV parameters + Suns-Voc, t vs. Dn, Rs, Rsh,
substrate doping• Enables sophisticated loss analysis, wafer by wafer, at
cell test• Fully implemented in line-speed production tools
• Max speed 4800/hr (measurement time = 200ms). Limited by wafer transport to 2400/hr at present
• Big data enables resolution for discriminating efficiency dependence on process control, substrate doping, surface passivation
• Extends well-known device-physics tools to cells and modules• Reliability studies (tvs. Dn) on cells as well as test wafers
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Acknowledgements
• The authors would like to acknowledge Trina Solar and the Photovoltaics Manufacturing Consortium (PVMC) from providing solar cells for this work
• The information, data, or work presented herein was funded in part by the United States Department of Energy Phase II SBIR, under award number DE-SC0010156