implementing inclusive early childhood education: a call

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Implementing Inclusive Early Childhood Education A Call for Professional

Empowerment

Article in Topics in Early Childhood Special Education middot June 2002

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Leslie Soodak

PACE Institute of Technology and Science

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Elizabeth Joy Erwin

Montclair State University


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University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill


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TECSE 222 91plusmn 102 (2002) 91

Implementing Inclusive Early Childhood Education A Call for Professional Empowerment

W e present two scenarios involving a familyrsquos experience in accessing a qual-ity inclusive education for their young child to illustrate what it might looklike if all stakeholders assumed responsibility for implementing the available

research-based information to facilitate inclusive early childhood education The in-fluence and role of each stakeholder group (ie families administrators practitionerscollege and university faculty researchers) are discussed We suggest that to move frommediocrity to excellence in providing inclusive early childhood education professionalempowerment must occur at the individual and program levels

Leslie C SoodakPace UniversityElizabeth J ErwinQueens College of theCity University of New YorkPam WintonUniversity of NorthCarolinandashChapel HillMary Jane BrothersonIowa State UniversityAnn P TurnbullUniversity of KansasMarci J HansonSan Francisco StateUniversityandLinda M J BraultSonoma State University

Address Leslie C Soodak Pace University School of Education 861 Bedford Rd Pleasantville NY 10570

Inclusion of young children with disabilities into programswith their typically developing peers continues to be anongoing complex challenge in many ways (Guralnick2001) There is no simple solution to making inclusionsuccessful yet the gap between recommended practicesand reality for many children and families is astonishing(Erwin Soodak Winton amp Turnbull 2001) The pur-pose of this article is to contrast how children and fami-lies presently experience inclusive early childhoodeducation with what it might look like if all stakeholdersassumed responsibility for using effective practices Inaddition we discuss ideas for enhancing professional em-powerment at both the individual and program levels

The following story reveals the complex nature ofinclusion for one family Monica and Mark Pricersquos expe-riences with inclusion are based on a composite of truestories Although individual professionals helped makeinclusion successful for them they experienced littlesense of collaboration and significant breakdowns in im-plementation

MONICA AND MARK PRICE ETHTYPICAL SCENARIO

Monica and Mark had dreamed of becoming parents fora long time when Lindsey joined their family Like mostfamilies they were learning how to juggle their jobs andfamily time but both Monica and Mark taught at thehigh school so their jobs gave them some flexibility Lind-sey was about 3 years old when Monica and Mark rec-ognized her slow development Monica had noticed thatLindsey was slower than other children but her pedia-trician comforted her fears by telling her that childrendevelop at many different rates At the neighborhoodplayground she would notice children who looked aboutthe same age as but more developed than Lindsey andask the parents ldquoHow old is your childrdquo Monicarsquos con-cerns grew

Monica and Mark enrolled Lindsey in a neighbor-hood childcare center when she was 4 so she could havemore opportunities to learn to talk and play with friends

92 Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 222

They had heard about early intervention and asked thechildcare center director what could be done to helpLindseyrsquos development

Getting someone to recognize Lindseyrsquos needs wasemotionally difficult and stressful for Monica and MarkThe director at the childcare center was very supportivebut she wasnrsquot quite sure who should be contacted to startan evaluation Monica and Mark finally found someoneat the school system to ask for an evaluation but theywaited and waited before the evaluation took placeWhen it finally did happen they were dismayed that af-ter 40 minutes of observing Lindsey in her classroom andon the playground the evaluation team said she wouldbe fine They were advised to just give her more time toadjust The team felt that Lindsey still had a year beforekindergarten so there was no need to worry

But Monica and Mark did worry Lindsey couldnrsquotanswer simple questions she spoke only a few words andcouldnrsquot follow simple directions Lindseyrsquos preschoolteacher really liked Lindsey but felt that a speech andlanguage therapist should be the one responsible for in-creasing Lindseyrsquos language Monica and Mark felt theirpleas for help were ignored they felt alone and fearful ofthe future Monica asked ldquoIf we can be so disregardedwhat about other parents who do not know how tospeak up or ask for servicesrdquo It seemed to Monica thatearly intervention was doled out like a scarce commodity

After insisting (several times before Monica andMark felt heard) for a more in-depth evaluation planswere made to give Lindsey a full evaluation that also in-cluded parental input By April Monica and Mark werefinally able to write an Individualized Education Pro-gram (IEP) with the team Lindsey was almost 5 yearsold she didnrsquot qualify for summer services so the teamdiscussed where Lindsey could go in the fall The teamsuggested that Lindsey should go to an early childhoodspecial education (ECSE) classroom with some reverseintegration The team suggested there would be a para-professional in the ECSE classroom to help out with allthe children They also indicated that Lindsey would re-ceive speech and language intervention twice a week

Mark and Monica wanted Lindsey to continue atthe childcare center so that she could build on the friend-ships she had started and have continuity in her life Thepreschool teacher wanted to work with Lindsey butworking with children with special needs like Lindseywasnrsquot even a part of her teacher education program Mon-ica sensed that asking for Lindsey to stay at the childcarecenter was like asking for the moon She felt that the ad-ministrators who attended the IEP meeting were there toprevent her and Mark from making unreasonable de-mands The district did not have a history of placingchildren with special needs in community childcare pro-grams An administrator said the district couldnrsquot be ex-pected to pay for Lindseyrsquos preschool program in the

community when there already was a preschool programin the school district for children with special needs

In an effort to explore options Monica and Markasked about Head Start Lindsey had a friend who at-tended and the program was close to home Monica re-members the director of special education telling her inamazement ldquoDonrsquot you know that is a totally differentprogramrdquo In the end the team reluctantly recom-mended that Lindsey continue in the preschool classroomat the childcare center with an ECSE consultant visitingwith the teacher once a week When needed the ECSEconsultant could pull Lindsey out of the classroom forsmall-group instruction Mark and Monica would payfor the tuition at the center Cost was an issue for thembut it was more important to help Lindsey maintain friend-ships The team did not agree on the need for a parapro-fessional at the childcare center Monica and Mark feltthis was less than the level of support Lindsey needed tobe successful at the center But the IEP ordeal was emo-tionally draining and they did not have the time nor theenergy to take on that battle The team gave them someworksheets of activities and ideas for language develop-ment during the summer The school administrator in-vited the preschool teacher to attend an in-servicetraining in the fall related to Lindseyrsquos needs if the cen-terrsquos director could find a substitute teacher

Monica and Mark will make the best of Lindseyrsquosnext school year but are apprehensive about the chal-lenges and barriers they see before them They had noidea the amount of time and energy it takes parents ofchildren with special needs to build partnerships withprofessionals and to be valued members of the team

MONICA AND MARKrsquoS EXPERIENCEREFLECTIONS ON THE ROLE OF PROFESSIONALS

The following discussion focuses on the supports and chal-lenges faced by the Price family in their journey to gainan understanding of inclusive education for LindseySeveral key areas of concern in the Pricesrsquo story are con-sidered including (a) knowledge of inclusive educationamong service providers (b) responsiveness of service pro-viders to the familyrsquos concerns and requests and (c) thedegree to which providers collaborated in service deliv-ery We also explore whether the Pricersquos experience istypical of other families who desire inclusive placementsfor their children

The assumption underlying the present discussion isthat professional responsibility for providing quality ser-vices and supports to young children with disabilities isnecessary and complex Bailey (2001) proposed threelevels of accountability for evaluating support for fami-lies in early intervention and preschool programs (ie le-gal compliance the use of recommended practices and

Professional Empowerment 93

outcome efficacy) This framework provides a poten-tially useful approach to program evaluation and per-haps equally important offers parameters for furtherdiscussion of indices of success Examples of account-ability at each of these levels are embedded within thefollowing discussion of professional roles

AdministratorsHighlights From Monica and Markrsquos Experience In

their journey to provide the highest quality education fortheir daughter Lindsey Monica and Mark encounteredsome administrators who were supportive and others whoposed challenges The administrator of the childcare cen-ter was supportive but was unaware of how to arrangefor Lindseyrsquos evaluation As Monica and Mark began re-questing continued support for inclusive childcare theirrelationships with those in positions of authority becamefar more difficult

A lack of support was evident in how the meetingswere arranged (filling the room with top administrators)and in the districtrsquos unwillingness to allow Lindsey tocontinue in the program she was attending because pro-grams for special children already existed The concernsMark and Monica had about Lindseyrsquos development andtheir desire for her to make friends and develop languageskills were not shared by the administrators In additionthe director of special education did not offer to assumeresponsibility for collaborating with another agency whenMonica suggested that Lindsey attend the local HeadStart program

Finally at times there seemed to be a lack of re-sponsiveness to Mark Monica and Lindsey Both par-ents felt that their requests were put off and that theirvoices were unheard They ultimately accepted less thanwhat they thought was appropriate (in terms of supportfor Lindsey) or fair (in terms of their assuming tuitioncosts) and they were emotionally drained by their inter-actions with the systemmdasha system ironically whose pur-pose is to support children and families

Typicality of Experience Monica and Markrsquos chal-lenges in seeking inclusion appear to mirror those thathave persisted for the past two decades (Turnbull ampWinton 1983 Winton amp Turnbull 1981) Although thequality of relationships varies widely it is not uncom-mon to find relationships among parents and adminis-trators characterized by a lack of trust respect andshared values (Dinnebeil Hale amp Rule 1996 Dinnebeilamp Rule 1994 Erwin amp Soodak 1995 Soodak ampErwin 2000)

PractitionersHighlights From Monica and Markrsquos Experience

Monica and Markrsquos experience highlights the importance

of individual practitioners in facilitating access to qualityinclusive schooling Monica and Mark appreciated thosewho were willing to assume their professional responsi-bilities for educating Lindsey in a way that was consistentwith the parentsrsquo values such as the preschool teacherwho was willing to expand her own professional devel-opment to teach Lindsey more effectively

Other professionals however were less responsiveMonica and Mark were disappointed by some practition-ers who did not take the time to understand their daugh-ter dismissed their concerns about her rigidly adhered toprofessional boundaries and overrode their requests forinclusive services and supports It was stressful in and ofitself to recognize that Lindsey was developing moreslowly than other children but the parentsrsquo emotionswere compounded by professionals who ignored theirldquopleas for helprdquo The teamrsquos recommendations were attimes contradictory and may have been less than legallyresponsible (eg the paraprofessional who was recom-mended to support placement in a segregated preschoolwas not provided when Lindsey was to attend a typicalearly education program)

Typicality of Experience As in the present storythe burden of gaining entry into inclusive programs hasoften fallen far too heavily on families (Erwin amp Soodak1995 Soodak amp Erwin 2000) Parental concerns aboutthe adequacy of instruction for their children in inclusivesettings (Bennett Lee amp Lueke 1998 Guralnick 1994Hanson et al 2001 Turnbull amp Winton 1983) are sup-ported by evidence of challenges to implementation in-cluding the lack of professional collaboration (Lieber etal 1997) the lack of training and support for teachers(Scruggs amp Mastropieri 1996) and variability in the wayteachersrsquo beliefs about inclusion are implemented (Han-son et al 1998 Lieber et al 1998)

College and University FacultyHighlights From Monica and Markrsquos Experience

Teacher educators and university faculty are absent inMonica and Markrsquos story The role of teacher educatorsin providing training or technical assistance to supportLindsey and her family in inclusive environments wasbarely mentioned despite the practitionerrsquos limited expe-rience and lack of training in inclusive practices A rec-ommendation was made for the classroom teacher toattend an inservice training although the teacherrsquos atten-dance in the training was made conditional on findingcoverage for her classroom

Additionally some of the practitioners seemed tohave a narrow perspective of Lindsey and her family anddid not always exhibit the skills and dispositions neededfor effective family-centered team planning For examplethe team responded to concerns about Lindsey by telling


the parents to wait for her to change Mark and Monicafelt like they were ldquotolerated members of the teamrdquo asopposed to valued partners What kind of courseworkexperience and opportunity was provided to these prac-titioners in their training programs to prepare them toadvocate for and work with children with disabilitiesand their families

Typicality of Experience The movement to educateyoung children with and without disabilities together ischanging the way that practitioners need to be preparedChanges in professional development have resulted frominclusion as well as other critical developments in thefield such as family-centered practices integrated andtransdisciplinary therapy models and the unification ofearly childhood and early childhood special education(Buysse Wesley amp Able-Boone 2001) However it is notyet well documented as to whether and how well infor-mation about these practices is being disseminated byuniversities colleges and professional organizations

ResearchersHighlights From Monica and Markrsquos Experience

Throughout Mark and Monicarsquos experience there weremultiple opportunities in which research might havebeen used to inform practice There was a general ab-sence in the story about identifying and providing thefamily with research-based information and resourcesthat would have made the process of accessing and re-ceiving support less stressful and more positive Therewas also an apparent lack of awareness or consumptionof research by administrators and practitioners

Typicality of Experience Despite a growing bodyof research on effective implementation of early child-hood inclusion there is a serious issue regarding the lim-ited use of research in affecting practice (Fuchs amp Fuchs1998 Hoshmand amp Polkinghorne 1992 Kaestle 1993Kaufman Schiller Birman amp Coutinho 1993 Maloufamp Schiller 1995 Turnbull amp Turnbull 2001) This gapexists in spite of the Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act Amendmentsrsquo (IDEA 1997) policy mandatethat state education agencies ensure ldquothe continuing ed-ucation of regular and special and related services per-sonnelrdquo to acquire and disseminate to professional staffldquosignificant knowledge derived from education researchand other sourcesrdquo and to adopt where appropriateldquopromising practices materials and technology (-USC1413 (1)(3)(B))rdquo

THE PRICErsquoS STORY RETOLD ETHOPTIMAL SCENARIO

Imagine a different kind of experience for Monica Markand Lindseymdashbased on an approach to inclusion that re-

flects what research and recommended practices havediscovered to work

When Monica and Mark first expressed their con-cerns to the childcare center director she gave themcontact information for the transdisciplinary early inter-vention team that is part of the unified early childhoodintervention system in their county The formation of aunified system of services for all young children (birthndashage 8) in their county came about through a series ofcommunity forums on inclusion (Wesley 1995) sponsoredby their local interagency coordinating council (LICC)and held over an 18-month period These forums whichwere attended by key community stakeholders (ie par-ents Head Start staff public school and early childhoodteachers specialists administrators university facultyresearchers) focused on creating a joint vision for inclu-sion that is based on research The process included thedevelopment of a plan for making inclusion work withaction steps and specific responsibilities assigned

The LICC adopted the implementation and evalua-tion of the formation of the unified system and the in-clusion plan as part of their mission and workscope Asa result of the community forum the LICC has activeparticipation from many stakeholders including parentsParents get reimbursed for participation and agency rep-resentatives are exempt from some of their other respon-sibilities so they can devote time to this important role

The process of making changes in the systems hastaken 5 years of hard work on the part of the LICC A uni-versity faculty member with expertise in inclusion hasprovided facilitation support to the LICC as part of theuniversityrsquos tenure expectation for service and the facili-tation has ensured that all voices were heard during thenegotiations needed for creating changes in their sys-tems All new LICC members are provided with an ori-entation that includes building skills in teamwork andcollaboration This support comes from being part of astudy circle or ldquolearning podrdquomdashan idea that was gener-ated in the community forums and implemented by theLICC as part of a broader community-wide professionaldevelopment plan Learning pods provide opportunitiesfor small groups to form around topics or skill areas ofinterest and they are one of the many ways for ensuringthat ongoing staff development and lifelong learning arean expected part of everyonersquos role Because of the in-volvement of the local universities and colleges collegecredits can be obtained as part of learning pod partici-pation With this kind of infrastructure (ie LICC in-clusion plan community-wide professional developmentplan learning pods) in place everybody involved has thesupport they need to serve Lindsey in an inclusive environ-ment The end result is a learning community (Fullan1993) whereby all stakeholders are committed to ongoingprofessional growth and continuous improvement relatedto the policies and practices that affect young children


Because they were fully involved in the process Markand Monica felt ownership for the outcomes of the trans-disciplinary evaluation (Child Development Resources1992) of Lindsey and the IEP that was developed Basedon their preferences their involvement started when theywere asked what kind of role they wanted to play in theevaluation process They were also given a set of ques-tions that helped them write a description of Lindsey forthe team what she liked didnrsquot like their hopes for andquestions about Lindseyrsquos progress Because they choseto take a leadership role in the meeting they facilitatedthe meeting process and started by painting a picture ofLindsey that was the basis for the development of the as-sessment plan The team members spent ample time lis-tening to Mark and Monica who felt sincerely valuedand respected by this team For the first time in manymonths Monica and Mark began to relax and feel hope-ful

From this assessment an IEP was developed to pro-mote Lindseyrsquos access to the curriculum in the childcarecenter The IEP goals were written clearly and had mean-ing for Monica and Mark as well as for the childcareteacher Because the center was part of the unified systemof early childhood services the teaching staff was able toreceive appropriate assistance from inclusion supportspecialists employed by the school district This supportwas flexibly designed to provide intense frequent sup-port initially and as needed throughout the course of theyear The inclusion support specialists had training inconsultation skills as well as expertise in different disci-plines Monica and Mark were relieved to find out thatthe inclusion support staff also worked in the kinder-garten and first grades of their local elementary school sothey knew that the transition to public school would gosmoothly In fact the transition to kindergarten was apart of the parent education series sponsored by theLICC The communityrsquos commitment to inclusion en-sured that the needs of all children and families were ad-dressed in any family involvement activities includingtransition

Monica and Markrsquos expertise and understanding ofthe school system based on their jobs as teachers delightedthe team especially the teacher and speechndashlanguagetherapist because they were seeking to recruit parents tojoin them in an action research project sponsored by thenearby university (Welch amp Chisholm 1994) The pro-ject was designed to evaluate two different language in-terventions embedded in daily activities With Lindseyrsquoslanguage development being a concern Mark and Mon-ica were thrilled to have a chance to learn about strate-gies that might work They would work with a researchteam that included the speechndashlanguage therapist theteacher a university faculty member and a graduate stu-dent from the allied health division at the universityWhen Monica learned that they would receive a gift of

educational toys for their project participation she feltwelcomed and appreciated

The graduate student also invited Monica to be herldquofamily mentorrdquo for a semester a project that was partof a course the student was taking (Capone Hull ampDiVenere 1997) Monica began to feel that she no longerhad a normal life because these new demands seemedendless However when she learned more about thementor project she realized it could address one of herneeds In this project students develop communicationand resource access skills by listening to families describean informational need and assisting the families in find-ing the information they want Monica knew exactlywhat information she wanted What would the transitionto the public schools be like for Lindsey and for them

By the time Lindsey made the transition to publicschool Monica and Mark had the opportunity to form re-lationships with the personnel on their new ldquoteamrdquo Thisincluded the teacher in the Head Startprekindergartenclassroom that Lindsey would attend the inclusion sup-port specialist from the public schools that they alreadyknew the speechndashlanguage therapist and the schoolprincipal Their readiness stemmed in part from theirparticipation in the family mentor project but also re-lated to the consistency provided by the inclusion spe-cialist and the public schoolrsquos readiness for them Atransition plan orchestrated by the early interventionteam and public school program (Rosenkoetter Hainsamp Fowler 1994 Rous 1997) addressed the concernsMonica and Mark had about how Lindseyrsquos IEP goalscould be accomplished within the new setting Theschool districtrsquos support for Lindseyrsquos classroom teacherwas critical She took a methods course over the summerand was paired with a peer mentor (Gallacher 1997)over the next year This helped ease some of Monica andMarkrsquos concerns Monica instigated another language in-tervention study that provided the teacher and some uni-versity students the opportunity to examine how well thestrategies that worked in the early childhood settingcould apply in a pre-K classroom

Mark and Monica were relieved and impressed withthe warm invitation from the school staff to participatein various school-related activities They especially appre-ciated the open door policy (Erwin et al 2001) with regard to parent visits Mark agreed to join the Account-ability Council a staffndashparent group engaged in self-study of the schoolrsquos inclusion policies and practices Thereimbursement for a substitute teacher for Mark whilehe participated in gathering data was a critical part ofhis ability to be on the Council The group used a set ofresearch-based rubrics developed through a participa-tory action research project undertaken by the schoolsystem and the local university to examine current inclu-sion practices and how they compared with what wouldbe ideal The rubrics are revised every 3 years as research


continues to clarify under what conditions and with whominclusion works best Most parents in the school agreethat the work of the Accountability Council has createdmore individualized learning opportunities for all chil-dren in the school

Lindsey has come a long way over the last several yearsand so has the community Monica and Mark feel theyare riding a wave that will carry them and Lindseythrough her middle and high school years As high schoolteachers Mark and Monica realize how much will needto change when the wave hits those high school shoresHowever buoyed by their success within the early child-hood system they are confident that change is comingand will positively affect every level of the education sys-tem

FACILITATORS OF INCLUSIVE EARLY

CHILDHOOD EDUCATION WHAT IS KNOWN

ABOUT SUCCESS

Many aspects of the optimal scenario rely on research-based or promising practices (a) the use of transdiscipli-nary practices for the early intervention team (b) servicecoordination among various early childhood agencies and(c) consultation with preschool staff about implementingbest practices and (d) systematic planning for transitionResearch-based facilitators of inclusive early childhoodeducation are provided in Figure 1 Practices included inthis figure were judged by the present authors to be wellvalidated by research

Practices in the optimal scenario that appear to bepromising are identified in Figure 2 These practices al-though not yet sufficiently validated by research areconsistent with the assumptions underlying IDEA and inseveral instances the study or use of these practices hasbeen supported by professional organizations There is aclear need for an expanded research agenda to investi-gate the promising practices to determine which onesmight become evidence-based as well as to continue torefine and expand on the practices that already have a re-search base established

ENHANCING PROFESSIONAL EMPOWERMENT

We encourage all stakeholders to reflect on the vast dif-ference between the typical and optimal scenarios in-volving Lindsey and her parents Monica and MarkInterestingly we often presume that it is the extent of thechildrsquos disability or the parentsrsquo visions resources con-cerns priorities and strengths that are the determiningfactors in the quality of services offered and in the childand family outcomes Although those variables certainly

Administrators have been characterized as ordfgate-keepersordm to inclusive programs and key players insupporting effective implementation

middot Administrators set the tone for effective implementa-tion (Brotherson Sheriff Milburn amp Schertz 2001Lieber et al 2000)

middot Influences on initiation and implementation of inclu-sion include a shared vision national state and localpolicies training and external support organizationalstructure and community advocacy (Erwin ampSoodak 1995 Lieber et al 2000)

middot Successful implementation has been linked to policiesand procedures that require and support collabora-tive planning within programs and among agencies(Fink amp Fowler 1997 Smith amp Rose 1993)

A cornerstone of successful early childhood in-clusion is the commitment to and facilitation ofparentplusmn professional partnerships at all stages ofthe process

middot Implementation is supported in programs that buildeffective and trusting parentndashprofessional partner-ships by maintaining a supportive school climate andopen communication with families (Hanson et al2000 Hanson Gutierrez Morgan Brennan amp Zercher1997 Hanson et al 2001 Soodak amp Erwin 2000)

middot Family-centered practices (treating families with dig-nity and respect being sensitive to family diversityand using practices that are empowering) enhanceboth family and child outcomes (Dunst TrivetteBoyd amp Hamby 1996 McWilliam Toci amp Harbin1998)

middot Parentndashprofessional partnerships that are grounded intrust mutual respect and open communication facil-itate shared decision making and a sense of satisfac-tion for families (Bennett Deluca amp Bruns 1997Bennett Lee amp Lueke 1998 Soodak amp Erwin 2000)

High quality education which involves using ef-fective research-based childcare practices andpractitioners assuming new roles and relation-ships serves as a foundation for successful inclu-sive early experiences

middot The implementation of effective childcare practices isdependent on commitment training and resources(Lieber Schwartz Sandall Horn amp Wolery 1999)

middot Roles and relationships are influenced by teachersrsquopersonal investment in the program their shared phi-losophy their perceived responsibility for educatingthe children staff communication extent of role re-lease role clarity and satisfaction stability of adult re-lationships and the ability to initiate new roles (Lieberet al 1997)

FIGURE 1 Evidence-based facilitators of inclusive earlychildhood education


cannot be discounted it is compelling in these scenariosthat the same child with the same intensity of needs andsupports and the same parents in terms of their visionsresources concerns priorities and strengths have twosuch vastly different experiences Although we suggestthat the first scenario is typical we encourage stakehold-ers to reflect on it in terms of practices within their owncommunities In each of our communities is early child-hood inclusion implemented in a more similar way to thetypical or optimal scenario What are the elements thatdifferentiate the typical and optimal scenarios

Some factors are clearly more related to motivationthan to recommended practices and research-based knowl-edge For example the educators in the optimal scenarioappear to (a) have an openness and eagerness to collab-orate (b) have confidence that they can contribute to sys-tems change (c) work hard to implement changes in spiteof the systemrsquos natural resistance to change and (d) dem-

onstrate inquisitiveness in their commitment for ongoingprofessional growth and continuous improvement

Our analysis of the optimal scenariorsquos services andsupports pointed us in the direction of the literature onempowerment Empowerment writing and research havefocused largely on family empowerment (Cochran 1992Dunst Trivette amp LaPoint 1992 Koren DeChillo ampFriesen 1992 Valentine 1998) We strongly endorsefamily empowerment In fact Monica and Mark repre-sent a highly empowered family It is interesting to notethat although this vignette about Monica and Mark ishypothetical it closely reflects the real life experiences ofDr Mary Jane Brotherson and her husband Tom Rus-sell Brotherson (2001) responded to Baileyrsquos (2001) cogentarticle on accountability by describing the experienceswithin her own family in seeking inclusive supports andservices for her two daughters As demonstrated in thetypical scenario of Monica and Mark in this article and

Community and interagency collaboration can facilitate access to services and supports

middot Inclusive programs are involved with a community net-work of child and family services and have more con-nections with other service providers (OrsquoBrien 2001)

Preservice as well as inservice education is important in the effective implementation of inclusive early childhood education

middot There has been much discussion and some model development of blending training efforts in early child-hood education and early childhood special education(Burton Hains Hanline McLean amp McCormick 1992Division for Early Childhood National Association for theEducation of Young Children amp Association of TeacherEducators 1995 Stayton amp Miller 1993)

middot There is both growing interest in and support for interdis-ciplinary personnel preparation (Kilgo amp Bruder 1997McCollum amp Yates 1994)

middot Developing a community-of-practice framework mayfacilitate interdisciplinary accountability and collabora-tion (Buysse et al 2001)

College and university faculty should provide coor-dinated unified and family-focused training anddo so in partnership with families

middot The value of parent participation in teacher training hasbeen widely discussed (Capone et al 1997 McCollumamp Catlett 1997 Winton amp DiVenere 1995)

middot The nature of parent participation in professional devel-opment should be determined by the choices parentsmake for themselves (Winton 2000)

Familyplusmn researcher partnerships provide a new direction in familyplusmn professional partnerships

middot There has been recent discussion of the advantagesand feasibility of participatory action research that iscreating a partnership between key stakeholders duringall stages of the research process (Turnbull Friesen ampRamirez 1998)

middot Other action-based research also referred to as practi-tioner research has been emerging as a viable line ofinquiry (Arhar Holly amp Kasten 2001 Hubbard amp Power1993)

middot There is a growing body of participatory action researchon social and educational issues of older children withdisabilities (Salisbury Wilson Swartz Palombaro ampWassel 1997 Sapon-Shevin Dobbelaere CorriganGoodman amp Mastin 1998 Staub 1998) although thereis limited research of this type involving young childrenwith disabilities and their families

Researcher accountability for dissemination and application of findings is needed to ensure thatsound research effectively informs practice

middot Suggestions to enhance researcher accountability areemerging (Turnbull amp Turnbull 2000)

middot A new venue for dissemination of research has been ini-tiated to bridge the research-to-practice gap in earlychildhood special education (ie Young ExceptionalChildren)

middot The Early Childhood Research Institute on Inclusion(ECRII) has used a variety of techniques to involve fami-lies in research by among other things providing fami-lies with materials and supports they requested

FIGURE 2 Recommended and promising practices in inclusive early childhood education


in Brothersonrsquos article these parents were well educatedeager to collaborate and resided in university communi-ties with state-of-the-art professional development andresources We conjecture that it would be easier to takeadvantage of the current knowledge base of research-based and promising practices in university towns withwell-educated knowledgeable parents in contrast to set-tings where it is more difficult to obtain the most state-of-the-art knowledge and where parents may not haveyet had the opportunity to experience empowermentGiven these rather ideal circumstances we wonder whythe typical scenario was the actual experience of thisfamily What is needed to move the knowledge base thatwe now have on inclusive early childhood education asdescribed in this article into optimal scenarios and to fur-ther advance that knowledge base Why is it that havingknowledge does not equate with using it

We believe that enhancing professional empower-ment may contribute to creating more optimal scenariosin communities across the country Empowered profes-sionals (and families) strive to have control over the cir-cumstances with which they are faced by taking action tosuccessfully solve problems they experience (Akey Mar-quis amp Ross 2000 Dempsey 1996 Dunst et al 1992Gutierregravez amp Nurius 1994 Man 1999 Pinderhughes1994 Rappaport 1981 Turnbull Turbiville amp Turn-bull 2000 Turnbull amp Turnbull 2001) A key researchfinding related to empowerment is that the extent ofonersquos empowerment is substantially influenced by onersquoscontextmdashonersquos empowerment can be facilitated or im-peded by contextual factors (Kieffer 1984 Man 1999Singh et al 1997 Thompson Lobb Elling HermanJurkiewicz amp Hulleza 1997) This suggests that em-powerment is dependent on both individual (ie profes-sionals and family) and program or contextual factors

Professional Empowerment at theIndividual LevelIn conducting an extensive review of the empowermentliterature Turnbull and Turnbull (2001) have identifiedfour elements of knowledgeskills and five elements ofmotivation that appear to comprise the larger constructof empowerment The four key elements of knowledgeskills are

1 Informationmdashhaving access to state-of-the-art knowledge (Cochran 1992 JonesGarlow Turnbull amp Barber 1996Scorgie Wilgosh amp McDonald 1999)

2 Problem solvingmdashdeveloping and imple-menting plans to create solutions to chal-lenges that impede progress (Cochran1992 Cornel Empowerment Group 1989

Jones et al 1996 Knackendoffel Robin-son Deshler amp Schumaker 1992)

3 Life management skillsmdashknowing how toreduce stress and obtain support in chal-lenging situations (Covey 1990 ElliottKoroloff Koren amp Friesen 1998 Olsonet al 1983 Sarason Sarason amp Pierce1990 Shank amp Turnbull 1993)

4 Communication skillsmdashbeing able to ad-dress individual and group issues throughnonverbal and verbal communication(Hackney amp Cormier 1996 Ivey Ivey ampSimek-Morgan 1993 Kroth amp Edge1997)

The elements of knowledge skills related to empow-erment are far more familiar within the professional com-munity in contrast to the elements of motivationMotivation elements are as follows

1 Self-efficacymdashbelieving in our own capa-bilities (Ashton amp Webb 1986 Bandura1997 DiBella-McCarthy McDaniel ampMiller 1995 Hoover-Dempsey Bassler ampBrissie 1992)

2 Perceived controlmdashbelieving we can applycapabilities to affect what happens to us(Allen amp Petr 1996 Bandura 1997 DunstTrivette Gordon amp Starnes 1993Wehmeyer 2001)

3 Visionsmdashhaving great expectations for thefuture (Cousins 1989 Seligman 1990Snyder 1994 Taylor 1989)

4 Energymdashvigorously exerting effort in tak-ing action (Covey 1990 Scorgie et al1999)

5 Persistencemdashputting forth sustained effort(Scorgie et al 1999 Turnbull 1988)

If every professionalmdashregardless of whether thatprofessional is an administrator practitioner college oruniversity faculty member andor researchermdashwouldmake an effort to incorporate the elements of knowledgeskills and motivation in his or her professional practicethere is every reason to believe that the optimal scenarioearlier described could and would exist throughout theUnited States

Professional Empowerment at theProgram LevelAs we stated earlier empowerment is highly contextualgiven that it occurs through an interaction between indi-viduals and the environments in which they operate


(Kieffer 1984 Man 1999 Singh et al 1997 Thompsonet al 1997) As important as it is for individual profes-sionals to be empowered it can be overwhelming for asingle or small number of professionals to be changeagents within a system that is resistant to change Thusfor professional empowerment to flourish in implement-ing inclusive early childhood practices it is critically im-portant to focus on empowerment at the program levelOne of the characteristics of the optimal scenario is thehigh number of professionals who are working collabo-ratively to incorporate best practices and to maintaintheir own high level of motivation for continuous learn-ing while encouraging their colleagues to do the same

Since the initial groundwork for the original passageof IDEA in 1975 parents of children with disabilitieshave had a critically active role in advocacy (Turnbull ampTurnbull 1996 Turnbull amp Turnbull 2001) In reflect-ing on Mark and Monicarsquos role in the typical scenariotheir major goal was to obtain appropriate and individ-ualized inclusive services for their daughter Again a sim-ilar perspective was expressed by Brotherson (2001)These parents would have preferred to invest much of thetime that they devoted to advocacy into enhancing theirown familyrsquos quality of life There has been some researchand writing on the consequences to parents related totheir advocacy experiences in terms of the amount of timeit takes the expenses involved and especially the emo-tional drain it exacts (Cunconan-Lahr amp Brotherson1996 National Council on Disability 1995 Turnbull ampTurnbull 2001) Further advocacy can be completelycountercultural to many parents whose values place pri-ority on deference to professionals (Kalyanpur amp Harry1999 Kalyanpur Harry amp Skrtic 2000) Mlawer (1993)has called for professionals to assume stronger advocacyroles in implementing best practices so that families are notin the position of trying to hold professionals account-able for providing an appropriate and individualized ed-ucation for their children Our analysis of the typical andoptimal scenarios suggests a similar conclusionmdashin thetypical scenario it is tedious and time-consuming for Markand Monica to push professionals to provide appropriateservices In the optimal scenario Mark and Monica col-laborate rather than advocate and we believe there is avast difference in terms of enhancing their own empow-erment in contrast to contributing to their frustrationand disempowerment We believe that professional em-powerment is the key to professionals assuming strongeradvocacy roles

In the optimal scenario there are many such partner-ships with parents and others in the community throughstrategies such as (a) a series of community forums on in-clusion with active participation by all stakeholders (b) avital local interagency coordinating council (c) learningpods that provide the opportunity for small groups to

work together around specific topics (d) a transdiscipli-nary evaluation with active participation of all stake-holders (e) family mentorships provided by students fromthe local university with supervision from faculty (f) ac-tion research with research and stakeholder teams work-ing together and (g) an Accountability Council to engagein self-study and promotion of best practice (Wesley1995) Interestingly the individual empowerment of eachprofessional was supported and enhanced by the reliablealliance with other stakeholders Partnerships across stake-holders result in synergy as large numbers of profession-als from different stakeholder groups and families allmove in the same direction making the whole greaterthan the sum of its parts (Craig amp Craig 1974 TurnbullTurbiville amp Turnbull 2000 Turnbull amp Turnbull2001) Together these stakeholders become empowered ad-vocates for implementing best practices consistent withthose described in the optimal scenario Through the im-plementation of these practices programs can provideexcellent inclusive services to children and state-of-the-art parent involvement and family support opportunitiesas suggested by Bailey (2001) Baileyrsquos call for account-ability provides us with a good foundation in which toexamine three areas of accountability but they are notsufficient to create change It is critical to also enhanceprofessional empowerment

Future Directions for EnhancingProfessional EmpowermentMuch has been written about the gap between researchand practice (Fuchs amp Fuchs 1998 Hoshmand amp Pol-kinghorne 1992 Malouf amp Schiller 1995 TurnbullFriesen amp Ramirez 1998) Most of the commentary onthe research-to-practice gap has focused on improvedmethods for dissemination so that stakeholders will haveresearch-based information readily accessible We concurwith the importance of this recommendation but fromthe empowerment literature we also suggest that therehas not been adequate attention in the past focused onprofessional motivation related to empowerment We be-lieve an important direction for the future is to focus onstrategies to enhance the self-efficacy perceived controlvision energy and persistence of professionals as a meansfor increasing the likelihood that research-based andpromising practices will be put into everyday supportsand services for young children and their families

REFERENCES

Akey T M Marquis J G amp Ross M E (2000) Validation of scoreson the psychological empowerment scale A measure of empower-ment for parents of children with a disability Educational andPsychological Measurement 60 419ndash138

Allen R I amp Petr C G (1996) Toward developing standards and


measurements for family-centered practice in family support pro-grams In G H S Singer L E Powers amp A L Olson (Eds)Redefining family support Innovation in public-private partner-ships (pp 57ndash86) Baltimore Brookes

Arhar J M Holly M L amp Kasten W C (2001) Action research forteachers Traveling the yellow brick road Upper Saddle River NJPrentice Hall

Ashton P A amp Webb R B (1986) Making a difference Teachersrsquo senseof efficacy and student achievement White Plains NY Longman

Bailey D B (2001) Evaluating parent involvement and family supportin early intervention and preschool programs Journal of EarlyIntervention 24 1ndash14

Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy New York FreemanBennett T DeLuca D amp Bruns D (1997) Putting inclusion into

practice Perspectives of teachers and parents Exceptional Chil-dren 64 115ndash131

Bennett T Lee H amp Lueke B (1998) Expectations and concernsWhat mothers and fathers say about inclusion Education andTraining in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities 33108ndash122

Brotherson M J (2001) The role of families in accountability Journalof Early Intervention 24 22ndash24

Brotherson M J Sheriff G Milburn M amp Schertz M (2001)Elementary school principals and their needs and issues for inclu-sive early childhood programs Topics in Early Childhood SpecialEducation 21 31ndash45

Burton C B Hains A H Hanline M F McLean M ampMcCormick L (1992) Early childhood intervention and educationThe urgency of professional unification Topics in Early ChildhoodSpecial Education 11 53ndash69

Buysse V Wesley P W amp Able-Boone H (2001) Innovations inprofessional development In M J Guralnick (Ed) Early child-hood inclusion Focus on change (pp 179ndash200) Baltimore Brookes

Capone A Hull K M amp DiVenere J (1997) Parent-professionalpartnerships in preservice and inservice education In P J WintonJ A McCollum amp C Catlett (Eds) Reforming personnel prepa-ration in early intervention (pp 435ndash449) Baltimore Brookes

Child Development Resources Inc (1992) Transdisciplinary arena as-sessment process A resource for teams [Videotape with print view-ing guide] Norge VA Author

Cochran M (1992) Parent empowerment Developing a conceptualframework Family Studies Review 5(1 2) 3ndash21

Cornel Empowerment Group (1989) Empowerment through familysupport Networking Bulletin Empowerment and Family Support1 1ndash3

Cousins N (1989) Head first The biology of hope New York DuttonCovey S R (1990) The seven habits of highly effective people

Restoring the character ethic New York FiresideSimon amp SchusterCraig J H amp Craig M (1974) Applying family-centered principles

to child assessment In P J McWilliam amp E R Crais (Eds)Practical strategies for family-centered intervention (pp 69ndash96)San Diego CA Singular

Cunconan-Lahr R amp Brotherson M J (1996) Advocacy in disabil-ity policy Parents and consumers as advocates Mental Retarda-tion 34 352ndash358

Dempsey I (1996) Facilitating empowerment in families with a mem-ber with a disability Developmental Disabilities Bulletin 24 1ndash9

DiBella-McCarthy H McDaniel E amp Miller R (1995) How effica-cious are you Teaching Exceptional Children 27 68ndash72

Dinnebeil L A Hale H amp Rule S (1996) A qualitative analysis ofparentsrsquo and service coordinatorsrsquo descriptions of variables that in-fluence collaborative relationships Topics in Early ChildhoodSpecial Education 16 322ndash347

Dinnebeil L A amp Rule S (1994) Variables that influence collabora-tion between parents and service coordinators Journal of EarlyIntervention 18 349ndash361

Division for Early Childhood National Association for the Educationof Young Children amp Association of Teacher Educators (1995)Personnel standards for early education and early interventionGuidelines for licensure in early childhood special educationReston VA DECCEC

Dunst C J Trivette C M Boyd K amp Hamby D (1996) Family-oriented program models helpgiving practices and parental con-trol appraisals Exceptional Children 62 237ndash248

Dunst C J Trivette C M Gordon N J amp Starnes L (1993)Family-centered case management practices Characteristics andconsequences In G H S Singer amp L E Powers (Eds) Familiesdisability and empowerment Active coping skills and strategies forfamily interventions (pp 89ndash118) Baltimore Brookes

Dunst C J Trivette C M amp LaPoint N (1992) Toward clarifica-tion of the meaning and key elements of empowerment FamilyStudies Review 5(1 2) 111ndash130

Elliott D J Koroloff M I Koren P E amp Friesen B J (1998)Improving access to childrenrsquos mental health services The family as-sociate approach In M H Epstein K Kutash amp A Duchnowski(Eds) Outcomes for children and youth with behavioral and emo-tional disorders (pp 581ndash609) Austin PRO-ED

Erwin E J amp Soodak L C (1995) I never knew I could stand up tothe system Familiesrsquo perspectives on pursuing inclusive educationThe Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps20 136ndash146

Erwin E J Soodak L C Winton P amp Turnbull A (2001) ldquoI wishit wouldnrsquot all depend on merdquo Research on families and early child-hood inclusion In M J Guralnick (Ed) Early childhood inclusionFocus on change (pp 127ndash158) Baltimore Brookes

Fink D amp Fowler S (1997) Inclusion one step at a time A casestudy of communication and decision making across boundariesTopics in Early Childhood Special Education 17 337ndash362

Fuchs D amp Fuchs L S (1998) Researchers and teachers working to-gether to improve instruction for diverse learners Learning Disa-bilities Research amp Practice 13 126ndash137

Fullan M (1993) Change forces Probing the depths of educationalreform Philadelphia Taylor amp Francis

Gallacher K (1997) Supervision mentorship and coaching Methodsfor supporting personnel development In P J Winton J A McCol-lum amp C Catlett (Eds) Reforming personnel preparation in earlyintervention (pp 191ndash214) Baltimore Brookes

Guralnick M J (1994) Mothersrsquo perceptions of the benefits anddrawbacks of early childhood mainstreaming Journal of EarlyIntervention 18 168ndash183

Guralnick M J (Ed) (2001) Early childhood inclusion Focus onchange Baltimore Brookes

Gutierregravez L amp Nurius P (Eds) (1994) Education and research forempowerment practice (Monograph No 7) Seattle University ofWashington School of Social Work Center for Policy and PracticeResearch

Hackney H L amp Cormier L S (1996) The professional counselor(3rd ed) Boston Allyn amp Bacon

Hanson M J Beckman P J Horn E Marquart J Sandall SGreig D et al (2000) Entering preschool Family and profes-sional experiences in this transition process Journal of EarlyIntervention 23 279ndash293

Hanson M J Gutierrez S Morgan M Brennan E L amp ZercherC (1997) Language culture and disability Interacting influenceson preschool inclusion Topics in Early Childhood Special Educa-tion 17 307ndash337

Hanson M J Horn E Sandall S Beckman P Morgan MMarquart J et al (2001) After preschool inclusion Childrenrsquoseducational pathways over the early school years Exceptional Chil-dren 68 65ndash83

Hanson M J Wolfberg P Zercher C Morgan M Gutierrez SBarnwell D et al (1998) The culture of inclusion Recognizing di-


versity at multiple levels Early Childhood Research Quarterly 13185ndash209

Hoover-Dempsey K V Bassler D C amp Brissie J S (1992)Explorations in parent-school relations Journal of EducationalResearch 85 287ndash294

Hoshmand L T amp Polkinghorne D E (1992) Redefining the science-practice relationship and professional training Education and Train-ing in Psychology 47 55ndash66

Hubbard R S amp Power B M (1993) The art of classroom inquiryA handbook for teacher-researchers Portsmouth NH Heinemann

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 20USC sect 1400 (26)

Ivey A E Ivey M B amp Simek-Morgan L (1993) Counseling andpsychotherapy A multicultural perspective (3rd ed) Boston Allynamp Bacon

Jones T M Garlow J A Turnbull H R amp Barber P A (1996)Family empowerment in a family support program In G H S SingerL E Powers amp A L Olson (Eds) Redefining family support in-novations Innovations in public-private partnerships (pp 87ndash114)Baltimore Brookes

Kaestle C F (1993) The awful reputation of educational researchEducational Researcher 22 23ndash31

Kalyanpur M amp Harry B (1999) Culture in special education Balti-more Brookes

Kalyanpur M Harry B amp Skrtic T (2000) Equity and advocacy ex-pectations of culturally diverse familiesrsquo participation in special ed-ucation International Journal of Disability Development andEducation 47 119ndash136

Kaufman M Schiller E Birman B amp Coutinho M (1993) A fed-eral perspective on improving practices programs and policies inspecial education Evaluation and Program Planning 16 263ndash269

Kieffer C H (1984) Citizen empowerment A developmental per-spective Prevention in Human Services 3 9ndash36

Kilgo J L amp Bruder M B (1997) Interdisciplinary approaches topersonnel preparation in early intervention In P J Winton J AMcCollum amp C Catlett (Eds) Reforming personnel preparationin early intervention (pp 81ndash101) Baltimore Brookes

Knackendoffel E A Robinson S M Deshler D D amp SchumakerJ B (1992) Collaborative problem solving A step-by-step guide tocreating educational solutions Lawrence KS Edge Enterprises

Koren P E DeChillo N amp Friesen B (1992) Measuring empower-ment in families whose children have emotional disabilities A briefquestionnaire Rehabilitation Psychology 37 305ndash321

Kroth R L amp Edge D (1997) Strategies for communicating with par-ents and families of exceptional children (3rd ed) Denver CO Love

Lieber J A Beckman P J Hanson M J Janko S Marquart J MHorn E M et al (1997) The impact of changing roles on rela-tionships between adults in inclusive programs for young childrenEarly Education and Development 8 67ndash82

Lieber J A Capell K Sandall S R Wolfberg P Horn E ampBeckman P J (1998) Inclusive preschool programs Teachersrsquo be-liefs and practices Early Childhood Research Practices 13 87ndash106

Lieiber J A Hanson M J Beckman P J Odom S L Sandall SSchwartz I et al (2000) Key influences on the initiation and im-plementation of inclusive preschool programs Exceptional Chil-dren 67 83ndash98

Lieber J A Schwartz I S Sandall S Horn E amp Wolery R A(1999) Curricular considerations for young children in inclusivesettings In C Seefeldt (Ed) Early childhood curriculum A reviewof research New York Teacher College Press

Malouf D B amp Schiller E P (1995) Practice and research in specialeducation Exceptional Children 61 414ndash424

Man D (1999) Community-based empowerment programme forfamilies with a brain injured survivor An outcome study BrainInjury 13 433ndash445

McCollum J A amp Catlett C (1997) Designing effective personnel

preparation for early intervention In P J Winton J A McCollumamp C Catlett (Eds) Reforming personnel preparation in early in-tervention (pp 105ndash125) Baltimore Brookes

McCollum J A amp Yates T J (1994) Technical assistance for meet-ing early intervention personnel standards Statewide process basedon peer review Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 14295ndash310

McWilliam R A Tocci L amp Harbin G L (1998) Family-centeredservices Service providersrsquo discourse and behavior Topics in EarlyChildhood Special Education 18 206ndash221

Mlawer M A (1993) Who should fight Parents and the advocacy ex-pectation Journal of Disability Policy Studies 4 105ndash115

National Council on Disability (1995) Improving the implementationof the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Making schoolswork for all of Americarsquos children Washington DC Author

OrsquoBrien M (2001) Inclusive child care for infants and toddlers A nat-ural environment for all children In M J Guralnick (Ed) Early child-hood inclusion Focus on change (pp 229ndash252) Baltimore Brookes

Olson D H McCubbin H I Barnes H Larsen A Muxen M ampWilson M (1983) Families What makes them work Beverly HillsCA Sage

Pinderhughes E (1994) Empowerment as an intervention goal Earlyideas In L Gutierreacutez amp P Nuris (Eds) Education and research forempowerment practice (pp 17ndash30) Seattle University of Wash-ington School of Social Work Center for Policy and PracticeResearch

Rappaport J (1981) In praise of paradox A social policy of empow-erment over prevention American Journal of Community Psychol-ogy 9 1ndash25

Rosenkoetter S E Hains A H amp Fowler S A (1994) Bridgingearly services for children with special needs and their familiesBaltimore Brookes

Rous B (1997) Project STEPS (sequenced transition to education inthe public schools) Lexington University of Kentucky

Salisbury C L Wilson L L Swartz T J Palombaro M M ampWassel J (1997) Using action research to solve instructional chal-lenges in inclusive elementary school settings Education andTreatment of Children 20 21ndash39

Sapon-Shevin M Dobbelaere A Corrigan C R Goodman K ampMastin M (1998) ldquoYou canrsquot say you canrsquot playrdquo Promoting in-clusive behavior in inclusive classrooms In L H Meyer ISchwartz amp B Harry (Eds) Making friends The influence of cul-ture and development (pp 105ndash132) Baltimore Brookes

Sarason B R Sarason I G amp Pierce G R (Eds) (1990) Socialsupport New York WileymdashInterscience

Scorgie K Wilgosh L amp McDonald L (1999) Transforming part-nership Parent life management issues when a child has mentalretardation Education and Training in Mental Retardation andDevelopmental Disabilities 34 395ndash405

Scruggs T E amp Mastropieri M A (1996) Teacher perceptions ofmainstreaminginclusion 1958ndash1995 A research synthesisExceptional Children 63 59ndash74

Seligman M E P (1990) Learned optimism How to change yourmind and your life New York Pocket Books

Shank M S amp Turnbull A P (1993) Cooperative family problem-solving An intervention for single-parent families of children withdisabilities In G H S Singer amp L E Powers (Eds) Families dis-ability and empowerment Active coping skills and strategies forfamily interventions (pp 231ndash254) Baltimore Brookes

Singh N N Curtis W J Ellis C R Wechsler H A Best A Mamp Cohen R (1997) Empowerment status of families whose chil-dren have serious emotional disturbance and attention-deficithyperactivity disorder Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Dis-orders 5 223ndash229

Smith B J amp Rose D (1993) Administratorrsquos policy handbook forpreschool mainstreaming Cambridge MA Brookline Books


Snyder C R (1994) The psychology of hope You can get there fromhere New York Free PressMacmillan

Soodak L C amp Erwin E J (2000) Valued member or tolerated par-ticipant Parentsrsquo experiences in inclusive early childhood settingsThe Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps25 29ndash44

Staub D (1998) Delicate threads Friendships between children with andwithout special needs in inclusive settings Bethesda Woodbine House

Stayton V K amp Miller P S (1993) Combining general and specialearly childhood education standards in personnel preparation pro-grams Experiences in two states Topics in Early Childhood SpecialEducation 13 372ndash387

Taylor S E (1989) Positive illusions Creative self-deception and thehealthy mind New York Basic Books

Thompson L Lobb C Elling R Herman S Jurkiewicz T ampHulleza C (1997) Pathways to family empowerment Effects offamily-centered delivery of early intervention services ExceptionalChildren 64 99ndash113

Turnbull A P (1988 December) The challenge of providing compre-hensive support to families Education and Training in Mental Re-tardation 23 261ndash272

Turnbull A P Friesen B J amp Ramirez C (1998) Participatory ac-tion research as a model for conducting family research Journal ofthe Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps 23 178ndash188

Turnbull A P Turbiville V amp Turnbull H R (2000) Evolution offamily-professional partnership models Collective empowermentas the model for the early 21st century In J P Shonkoff amp S LMeisels (Eds) The handbook of early childhood intervention (2nded) New York Cambridge University Press

Turnbull A P amp Turnbull H R (1996) The synchrony of stake-

holders In S L Kagan amp N E Cohen (Eds) Reinventing earlycare and education (pp 290ndash305) San Francisco Jossey-Bass

Turnbull A P amp Turnbull H R (2001) Families professionals andexceptionality Collaborating for empowerment (4th ed) UpperSaddle River NJ MerrillPrentice Hall

Turnbull A P amp Winton P (1983) A comparison of specialized andmainstreamed preschools from the perspectives of mothers of hand-icapped children Journal of Pediatric Psychology 8 57ndash71

Turnbull H R amp Turnbull A P (2000) Accountability Whose jobis it anyway Journal of Early Intervention 23 231ndash234

Valentine F (1998) Empowerment Family-centered care Journal ofPediatric Nursing 10 24ndash27

Wehmeyer M L (2001) Self-determination and mental retardationAssembling the puzzle pieces In H Switzky (Ed) Personal andmotivational differences in persons with mental retardation (pp147ndash198) Hillsdale NJ Erlbaum

Welch M amp Chisholm K (1994) Action research as a tool for prepar-ing specialists to use strategic interventions in educational partner-ships Teacher Education and Special Education 17 269ndash279

Wesley P W (1995) Community forums Finding common ground forchange Journal of Early Intervention 20 79ndash108

Winton P J (2000) Early childhood intervention personnel prepara-tion Backward mapping for future planning Topics in Early Child-hood Special Education 20 87ndash94

Winton P amp DiVenere N (1995) Family-professional partnershipsin early intervention personnel preparation Guidelines and strate-gies Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 15 296ndash313

Winton P amp Turnbull A P (1981) Parent involvement as viewed byparents of preschool handicapped children Topics in Early Child-hood Special Education 1 11ndash19

View publication statsView publication stats

lois
Text Box
This research was supported by a grant from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research to the Beach Center on Disability Grant H133B980050

TECSE 222 91plusmn 102 (2002) 91

Implementing Inclusive Early Childhood Education A Call for Professional Empowerment

W e present two scenarios involving a familyrsquos experience in accessing a qual-ity inclusive education for their young child to illustrate what it might looklike if all stakeholders assumed responsibility for implementing the available

research-based information to facilitate inclusive early childhood education The in-fluence and role of each stakeholder group (ie families administrators practitionerscollege and university faculty researchers) are discussed We suggest that to move frommediocrity to excellence in providing inclusive early childhood education professionalempowerment must occur at the individual and program levels

Leslie C SoodakPace UniversityElizabeth J ErwinQueens College of theCity University of New YorkPam WintonUniversity of NorthCarolinandashChapel HillMary Jane BrothersonIowa State UniversityAnn P TurnbullUniversity of KansasMarci J HansonSan Francisco StateUniversityandLinda M J BraultSonoma State University

Address Leslie C Soodak Pace University School of Education 861 Bedford Rd Pleasantville NY 10570

Inclusion of young children with disabilities into programswith their typically developing peers continues to be anongoing complex challenge in many ways (Guralnick2001) There is no simple solution to making inclusionsuccessful yet the gap between recommended practicesand reality for many children and families is astonishing(Erwin Soodak Winton amp Turnbull 2001) The pur-pose of this article is to contrast how children and fami-lies presently experience inclusive early childhoodeducation with what it might look like if all stakeholdersassumed responsibility for using effective practices Inaddition we discuss ideas for enhancing professional em-powerment at both the individual and program levels

The following story reveals the complex nature ofinclusion for one family Monica and Mark Pricersquos expe-riences with inclusion are based on a composite of truestories Although individual professionals helped makeinclusion successful for them they experienced littlesense of collaboration and significant breakdowns in im-plementation

MONICA AND MARK PRICE ETHTYPICAL SCENARIO

Monica and Mark had dreamed of becoming parents fora long time when Lindsey joined their family Like mostfamilies they were learning how to juggle their jobs andfamily time but both Monica and Mark taught at thehigh school so their jobs gave them some flexibility Lind-sey was about 3 years old when Monica and Mark rec-ognized her slow development Monica had noticed thatLindsey was slower than other children but her pedia-trician comforted her fears by telling her that childrendevelop at many different rates At the neighborhoodplayground she would notice children who looked aboutthe same age as but more developed than Lindsey andask the parents ldquoHow old is your childrdquo Monicarsquos con-cerns grew

Monica and Mark enrolled Lindsey in a neighbor-hood childcare center when she was 4 so she could havemore opportunities to learn to talk and play with friends





















































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implementing inclusive early childhood education: a call

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