implications distribution ofnames for cotton...

Implications of theDistribution ofNames

for Cotton (Gossypium spp.)in the Indo-Pacific

Received 16 December 1980

RUBELLITE K. JOHNSON AND BRYCE G. DECKER

INTRODUCTION

H UMANS HAVE BEEN ATTRACTED to cotton for a very long time. No less than fourspecies of Gossypium have come under domestication on at least three continents. The Old World diploid (n = 13) cultigens G. herbaceum and G. arboreum

were domesticated in association with spinning and weaving in Southwest Asia (Santhanam and Hutchinson 1974:89-91), where cloth fragments were found in the remainsof the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley 2300-1700 B.C. (Vishnu-Mittre 1974). InTehuacan Valley, Mexico, domesticated cotton, probably G. hirsutum, has been dated to3500-2300 B.C. (Smith and Stephens 1971:167). From Peru comes the oldest known artifact of cotton, a twined textile from the Andes dated 4550-3100 B.C. (MacNeish 1977:780), and cotton remains from coastal Peru, that have been dated about 2500 B.C., mayrepresent an early stage in the domestication of G. barbadense (Stephens and Moseley1974).

The geography of ancient cotton technologies sweeps almost around the world, eastward from East Africa and the Middle East across the Pacific to the New World. The NewWorld cottons G. hirsutum ("upland") and G. barbadense ("Egyptian;' "Sea Island") aretetraploid (n = 26) and have proven vastly superior in modern cultivation to the OldWorld diploids, which have been displaced to relic or curiosity status by the New Worldcottons almost everywhere but in India, even in traditional cultivation (Santhanam andHutchinson 1974:97; Phillips 1976).

We shall show evidence ofborrowing ofwords for 'cotton' over time and distance that is

Rubellite K. Johnson is affiliated with the Department orIndo-Pacific Languages, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Bryce G. Decker is affiliated with the Department ofGeography, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Revisedmanuscript received 4 December 1981.

250 Asian Perspectives, XXIII (2), 1980

even broader in scope. Taken together, if not quite hand-in-hand, since 'cotton' can meanmany things besides 'Gossypium', the lexical and botanical lines of evidence seem to bearimportant clues for an amplified view ofcultural history. We begin to see prehistoric transits and transplantings of words and techniques of fiber technology. From an apparentnexus in India, the set of words eventually embraces the whole of Eurasia and the IndoPacific islands. Finally, there appear faint echoes of the same thing in the New World aswell.

Our study of words and meanings as they relate to 'cotton' involves very many speciesand substances besides Gossypium. Gossypium is a very promising focus, however, becauseit is well known genetically, thanks to the efforts of cotton breeders during more than halfa century. The powerful tools of genetics applied to evolutionary studies of cultivated andwild Gossypium species have enlightened us about the role of cotton and textiles in thearchaeology and history of both the New and the Old worlds (Fryxell 1965; Hutchinson1962,1974; Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens 1947; Phillips 1963, 1976; Stephens 1973;Santhanam and Hutchinson 1974).

Our interest in Gossypium and native names for it first centered on the islands of thePacific Ocean. That interest had been quickened by papers by Stephens (1963) and Fryxell (1965), both cotton geneticists with scholarly interest in the historical relationsbetween Gossypium and human affairs. They pointed to the presence of indisputably wildand probably indigenous species scattered across the Pacific from the Galapagos to northern Australia and Saipan.

Stephens concluded from historical evidence that the wild Gossypium species wereknown to and effectively used by Polynesians before the arrival of Europeans. His evidence was threefold: (1) the botanist Solander on Cook's first voyage (1768-1771) hadrecorded Polynesian names for 'cotton' (Gossypium sp.); (2) the Marquesans possessed anancient tool for cleaning cotton that had no comparable model outside of Polynesia to suggest that it had been borrowed; and (3) the local economic value of Gossypium was singular, in that it was used in lamp-wick and for tinder in kindling fire.

The native Gossypium species of the Pacific Islands, wild and uncultivated, weregathered for nontextile purposes by the Polynesians, who had no looms. The nontextileuses of 'cotton' (not exclusively Gossypium) recur insistently in our lexical studies. Wenow see that the Polynesian ways of using 'cotton' were at one time very extensive in theworld.

Native names collected by Solander in eastern Polynesia in the eighteenth century werealso noted by Stephens in western Polynesia, indicating an early linguistic connection. ToStephens' list of native words (vavae, vavaz) for 'cotton' (Gossypium spp.; Ceiba pentandra) we may add the forms listed in Table 1, which permit us to evaluate the distributionof vavae 'cotton' (Gossypium spp.) in Polynesia before attempting to locate or to reconstruct a proto-Austronesian form.

Study of the Polynesian forms vavae "v vavai in relation to other Austronesian formsindicates that they are not uniformly distributed throughout Austronesian. l The closestAustronesian forms seem to occur in eastern Indonesian languages in island groupsbetween New Guinea and Celebes. Unless data are incomplete, Polynesian vavae "v

vavai are lacking in Melanesia and Micronesia. The Fijian form vavau 'cotton' inMelanesian, cited by Stephens, is not cognate with vavae "v vavai but rather with Polynesian fau "v hau 'cordage', as of hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus). Benedict (1975:249) citesNiala wai 'fire' (Pim, Ceram) in eastern Indonesian, which suggests an associationbetween 'cotton fluff' and firemaking that is consistent with Polynesian forms vavae "v

JOHNSON AND DECKER: Native Names for Cotton

TABLE 1. ADDITIONAL FORMS OF NATIVE POLYNESIAN WORDS FOR COTTON

251

LANGUAGE

Tongan

Samoan

Marquesan

Tahitian

Rarotongan

Tahitian

Hawaiian

WORD

vavae kanavavaetupenufila

vavae

vavae

vevaiha'avaihaha'avaipurupuruuruuru

vavai

vavaivavaimamau'ua vavaipu vavaimamau

(mamaku)

mama'u, mamau

ama'u, ma'uma'u

pulu, pulupulu

pulu, pulupulu

huluhulu

ma'o

GLOSS

'milkweed''cotton, kapok' (Churchward 1959)'cotton''cotton' (sewing thread)

'general name for cotton, Gossypiumspp.' (Milner 1966)

'large tree (Ceiba spp.), kapok tree'

'cotton''cotton''cotton, cotton plant''cotton, cotton plant, Gossypiulll''cotton, cotton plant' (Dordillon

1904)

'Gossypium religiosum' (Andrews1944)

'cotton, kapok' (Savage 1962)'kapok''cotton seed''cotton, tree or plant''kapok tree Ceiba caesaria medicus;

the silky product of the ripe podsof the tree' (Savage 1962)

'species of tree fern'

'tree fern' (cf. Rarotongan vavaimamau 'kapok'; mamau 'kapoktree'; mamaku 'species of treefern')

Cibocium spp. offern yielding pulupulu (Elbert and Pukui 1973) (cf.Marquesan purupuru 'cotton')

'fluff or down, as on plants; hairydown on the ama 'u tree fern usedas stuffing'

'cotton' (post-European usage)

ma'o plant

'Gossypium tomentosum' (Elbert andPukui 1973); probably from'green' ('oma'o) dye used to colortapa cloth

vavai 'cotton, fuse' (tinder). Except for the scant evidence from eastern Indonesia, Austronesian languages on the whole generally lack the proto-form for Polynesian vavae rvvavai 'cotton, fuse'.

Was it then borrowed from languages outside the Austronesian family? Indeed, Austroasiatic languages farther west in Mainland Southeast Asia do provide proto-forms for


vavae 'V vavai that are reflected in the languages of Ceram and Polynesia. Thai, Laotian,and Vietnamese forms for 'cotton', 'fire', 'kindling', 'tinder', 'spark', 'light', and in current modern usage, 'electricity' (electric light) are similar to Polynesian vavae 'V vavai.

It is linguistically important to note, however, that Austroasiatic forms are monosyllabicand phonemically distinguishable by tone and vowel length, so that 'cotton' (Jaay) in Thaihas a longer vowel and falling tone while 'fire' (Jay) has a short vowel and mid-tone. ThePolynesian forms vavae 'V vavai, which are comparable to Austroasiatic vay 'V bay 'V

pay 'V fay 'cotton', 'kindling', may thus combine two sememes into one disyllabic morphimplying either of two possible developments: (1) a fusion of Austroasiatic forms fay 'fire'andfaay 'Gossypium ssp.', or (2) a separation in Austroasiatic between 'cotton' as 'plant'and 'kindling' through tone differentiation, assuming that at one time 'cotton' and 'fire'were semantically associated. If not, then the Polynesian speakers may have treated theseAustroasiatic forms as homonyms, the fusion of which produced the reduplicated formsvavae'V vavai. (Table 2 compares Polynesian and Austroasiatic forms, some ofwhich areindicated in Fig. 1. Scholars are divided in opinion about including Thai and Laotian in

TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF POLYNESIAN AND AUSTROASIATIC FORMS

LANGUAGE

Polynesian

Samoan

Tongan

Tongan

MarquesanTahitian

Marquesan

Marquesan

Hawaiian

A ustroasia tic

Thai

Laotian

WORD

vavae

vavae (0 e ma'ama)vavae (e ma'ama kasa)filo

pate

patepate

pukohe patu ahi

pukohe

purupuruluruuru

pulu, pulupulu

pulupulu

tonfaj I-fay/*khoom-fajpleewfajpidfaj

da:ng fayma:t fay:

GLOSS

'cotton, fuse' (Milner 1966)

~wickJ

'mantle, as of a benzine lantern''cotton, fuse' (Churchward 1959)

'burner, as ofkerosene lamp'(Churchward 1959)

'tinderbox' (Stephens 1963)'to strike a light' (cf. pata 'to strike')

(Andrews 1944)

'tinderbox' (Dordillon 1904) (patu'to strike'; cf. Indonesian batu api

'to strike' as flint in making fire)'bamboo cylinder tinderbox'

'tinder' (Dordillon 1904) (cf. purupu

ruluruuru 'cotton')'to kindle as fire' (Elbert and Pukui

1973)'kindling, tinder'

'source of Itonl 'fire' */j = fl'lantern, lamp' (Haas 1964: 101)'flame (pleew)' (Haas 1964:330)'to turn off lights; electricity' (Haas

1964:320)

'kindle' (Marcus 1970: 117)'spark' (Marcus 1970:209)

JOH

NS

ON

AN

DD

EC

KE

R:N

ativeN

ames

forC

otton253

,

-ciQ.

en.S:!

ct).mtV

en·os

Q)

tVC

eg1;)en

::J::J

««


Austroasiatic. Until the matter is settled, we have decided to leave Thai and Laotian inAustroasiatic.)

Aside from the similarity of Polynesian vavae 'cotton, wick, fuse' to Thai/Laotian fay'lamp, flame, spark, kindle', Table 2 shows that the association between 'cotton' and 'fire'persists in other Polynesian forms for 'cotton', that is, purupuru, uruuru (Marquesan) 'cotton, tinder'. These forms establish an old association between 'cotton' or 'down, fluff, asof any tinder used to kindle fire, judging by other supportive data from Polynesian,Altaic, and Austroasiatic languages. Evidence from western Austronesian and other adjacent but unrelated languages helps to sort out the Austroasiatic connection between 'fire'and 'down', as of ,cotton' in Thai (Table 3 and Fig. 2).

Other Austroasiatic forms for 'cotton' vay '" fay 'cotton' are primarily associated with'cloth, thread' rather than fire. These forms, which register initial consonant /v/ with corresponding reflexes (b, p, j, ~), suggest that Polynesian vavae'" vavai 'cotton, tinder'retain a conservative form that does not carryover the semantic association of 'cotton'with 'cloth' nor undergo the internal sound changes within Austronesian from /v/ to /p/ to/f! and /y/ that one normally expects in Polynesian reflexes of proto-forms. In fact, similarconsonant changes appear in Austroasiatic (vay '" bay'" pay'" fay '" ~ay) 'cotton' (seeTable 4 and Fig. 3).

The forms shown in Table 4 are perhaps referable to Austroasiatic ko'paih (Bahnar)'cotton' (Guilleminet 1959), to which the Austronesian variant kiJpaih (Jarai) on the Asiancontinent is attributable. Etymological study of these forms to find the proto-etymon andparent language is complex and may involve, in Przyluski's view (1924, 1929), a prolonged history ofassociation between 'cotton' and the 'carding bow' (panah).

TABLE 3. EVIDENCE FROM WEST AUSTRONESIAN AND ADJACENT, UNRELATED LANGUAGESFOR THE CONNECTION BETWEEN FIRE AND DOWN

LANGUAGE

Hawaiian

Marquesan

Formosan

Old JapaneseKorean

Thai

Thai

WORD

pulu, pulupulupulu, pulupulupulu, pulupulupulupulu

purupuru, uruurupurupuru, uruuru

'apulu

bur, aburupul

pujpuj (j = y)pujfllaj

sam:bfaajfai

pleewfaj

GLOSS

'down, as offem''coconut fiber, sennit''to kindle, as fire''kindling, tinder'

'cotton''tinder'

'fire' (Tsuchida 1971)

'expose to fire' (Rahder 1953)'fire' (Rahder 1953)

'to be downy, fluffy, bushy, shaggy''cotton fiber, cotton wool' (Haas

1964:322)'boll ofcotton''cotton, Gossypium herbaceum'

(McFarland 1969:555)

'flame' (pleew-) + faj 'cotton' (Haas1964:330)

EJv.v..

vava.

vai 'fire, kindling'AustroasiasticAustronesian

vevai

vav..

'--to=r:zenoZ>Zt::I

tJt>j()

~~

ZIl:l.-+

<i"(l)

ZIl:l

S(l)00

(51"'1

no.-+.-+o::s

Fig. 2 Distribution ofvai "v fay 'fire, kindling' in Austroasiatic, Thai, and Austronesian.

tvU1U1

256 Asian Perspectives~XXIII (2), 1980

TABLE 4. CONSONANT CHANGES IN AUSTROASIATIC FORMS FOR COTTON

LANGUAGE

Vietnamese

Muong Vietnamese

Vietnamese

Old KhmerModern Khmer

Laotian

Thai

WORD

Yay, bay, pay, ay

Yay, (b)vay·, byay', pay', flay·,*h8pay

vai [SV bol

canhvayc:JlJva:y

faysay fay

phaafay

GLOSS

'cotton' (Marcus 1970)

'cloth' (Thompson 1976:1167)

'cloth, material, fabric, cotton cloth'(Dinh-Hoa 1970:526)

'skein''skein' (Jacob 1976:643)

'cotton' (Marcus 1970)'cord, wire' (Marcus 1970)

'cotton cloth, cotton fabric' (Haas1964:322)

The Relationship between Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and Indo-European Wordsfor 'Cotton': A Case for Affinity

Polynesian forms for coconut 'sennit', as kafa (Tongan) 'V 'aha (Hawaiian), are apparent reflexes of Proto-Austronesian (PAN) kapas 'V kapat 'cotton', 'thread'. Althoughbotanical referents differ, the semantic relationship between the forms for 'coconut sennit'and 'cotton' is to be found in the common utility of the plants as cordage fiber. This portion of our study will examine the widespread distribution of these fiber terms in Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Indo-European, and Altaic languages and will also consider theopinions of linguistic scholars Przyluski (Austroasiatic), Schmidt and Mayrhofer (IndoEuropean), Turner (Indo-Aryan), Burrow and Emeneau (Dravidian), Rahder (Altaic), andDempwolff(Austronesian) for the etymological origins ofkapas 'cotton'.

Przyluski (1924:70) theoretically reconstructed an Austroasiatic root *bas for 'cotton'contra Schmidt (Rahder 1953 (9):214), who argued for a Greek origin in byssus 'V bussos'cotton' for all comparable Indo-European forms for Gossypium and Ceiba species. So faras is known Austroasiatic forms for 'cotton' are usually regarded as loans from Indo-Aryan(see Table 5). The close relationship between Austroasiatic and Indo-Aryan forms is obvious from Figure 4 and Table 6 (Turner 1966: 146).

Although linguistic evidence allows Przyluski to postulate an Austroasiatic proto-etymon, the botanical, historical, and geographical evidence apparently favors India andIndo-Aryan as the parent source of kapas. The earliest-known archaeological cotton in theOld World has come from Mohenjo-Daro (2300-1750 B.C.; Vishnu-Mittre 1974), wherewoven cloth was unearthed that demonstrates the existence of a sophisticated textileindustry based upon a cotton domesticated prior to that time (Santhanam and Hutchinson1974:90; Wheeler 1966:67-72).

The people who inhabited Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa may have spoken Indo-Aryan.Their Indus Valley cradle of civilization had been occupied formerly by Dravidianspeakers, who were largely displaced to the southeastern contiguous parts of peninsularIndia by Indo-Aryan invaders.

Fig. 3 Distribution ofvai "v fay 'cotton (thread, cloth)' in Austroasiatic and Thai.

vai 'cotton' (thread, cloth) '--Io:::t:ZenoZ)

Zt:1

t:Jt%l(')

~t%l~

Zll:l.........<:n

Zll:l

~'"~'"1

no..........o::s

~V1-:J

258 Asian Perspectives~XXIII (2)~ 1980

!, f! ..;

a>. !?

I~ ..,.g

!; ?..,i~ I~:i

~.t;os,p"tl:::os

':::.~ B

j '0y...

~ <B.si ~0 ...~ Q)

,D<.;::

Q)

-5....0:::0o§

~.~Q

-q<

toil~

JOHNSON AND DECKER: Native Names for Cotton 259

TABLE 5. AUSTROASIATIC FORMS FOR 'COTTON' REGARDED AS LOANS FROM INDO-ARYAN

LANGUAGE

Khmer (Modern Standard)

KuoiKancoBahnarStiengSedangSueSamrePearCrau

WORD

k(r)abah (Jacob 1974:5)kappasa Ikapbaahl <Pali kappasa; Sanskrit karpasakabas (Przyluski 1929)kopas (Cabaton 1905)ko'paih (Guilleminet 1959)pahi (Thomas 1966)kope (Cabalon 1905)tapa (Cabaton 1905)kuas (Cabaton 1905)koas (Cabaton 1905)pac, bac (Burrow 1946: 5)

TABLE 6. INDO-ARYAN FORMS THAT SHOW A CLOSE RELATIONSHIP TOAUSTROASIATIC FORMS

LANGUAGE

SanskritPaliKonkanINepali

Bihari, BhojpurrSinhalese

SindhiLahndaAssamesePanjabiKati (Katei)DumakiBurushaskiPanjabiKhowarPersianShina

WORD

karpasakappasakappusakapasikakapasikapsrkapukapahakapahakapahkapahkapahkarbesogupasagupaskupahkarvaskarvaskhayas

GLOSS

'cotton plant' (Gossypium)'cotton, silk-cotton tree' (Bombax)'cotton''cotton plant''cotton''cotton plant''cotton tree, cotton''cotton tree''cotton''cleaned cotton''cotton, cotton plant, cotton wool''cotton plant''cotton''cotton''cotton''cotton plant''cotton''cotton''cotton'

By the first millennium B.C., cotton cultivation for the purpose of cloth-weaving may beseen moving out ofIndia in at least three directions: (1) westward into Assyria at the timeof Sanherib, 704-681 B.C., (Isaac 1970:72); (2) southwestward into Sudan at Meroe by500 B.C. to A.D. 200 (Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens 1947:90); and (3) eastward throughBengal and beyond, to Burma, Southeast Asia, and Malesia by the beginning of the Christian era (Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens 1947:87; Crawfurd 1820 (1):439-442).

Bearing in mind India as a probable home of cotton cloth manufacture, examination ofOld World forms for 'cotton' and 'cotton cloth' across the continental corridor from Tur-

260 Asian PerspectivesJ XXIII (2), 1980

key and the Fertile Crescent countries into the Mediterranean reveals a consistent set ofkarpasa forms in Romance and Semitic languages. The association with 'linen' indicatesthat the form was borrowed into these languages west of India and Persia, probably as aresult of the wide trade in silk and cotton fabrics. Old Mediterranean trade produced thefamous "Jerusalem cottons," known by the names bazas, payas, baquins. Reminiscent ofbazas for Jerusalem cotton is Serbo-Croatian bez 'linen or cotton cloth', ascribed to Turkish bez, originally from Arabic bez. Modern forms in New Persian, Armenian, and Arabicfor 'fine fabriclcloth' appear to be borrowings from Indo-Aryan (Table 7 and Mayrhofer1956:174).

These forms are not to be confused with linear cognates of Sanskrit karpasa but may bereferred to as loans within Indo-European. It is interesting to note, however, that in thefarthest extension of basic forms from India to Europe and from India to Southeast Asia,the lsI phoneme in the root *bas "v pas is consistent. Yet, in Indo-Aryan itselfa distinctionis noticeable between lsI and ItI phonemes, the /sl usually in forms for 'cotton' as 'raw cotton' or 'cotton plant', versus ItI and variables Idl and Irl for 'cotton cloth'. In addition tothese phonemic sets, it is equally important that the ItI phonemic set does not limit thefiber set to 'cotton' exclusively and includes 'silk', 'leather', 'linen', as well as 'wool','hair' in addition to 'cloth' or any other fabricated article of covering for the body as 'garment' or 'tent' (Table 8).

Austroasiatic forms, if they are borrowings from Indo-Aryan, seem not to associate 'cotton' with 'cloth' (as in the Indo-European) but instead to designate the fiber and the plant.It is also important to note that even among Indo-Aryan forms for 'cloth', only one, theKashmiri kapur indicates 'cotton cloth' in the karpara set, which upon close examinationreveals that the set of fiber referents favor 'wool', 'silk', and 'jute' as well as 'cotton'. Itmay be appropriate to deduce here, if only temporarily, that there is a closer adherence for'cotton', semantically, between Indo-Aryan and Austroasiatic than between Indo-Aryanand European forms listed; this may indicate an earlier borrowing relationship betweenIndo-Aryan and Austroasiatic. What, then, may be said about the Austronesian forms thatare apparent borrowings from Indo-Aryan? In contrast with Austroasiatic forms, Austronesian retains a conservative trisyllabic form that Austroasiatic is lacking, and which is

TABLE 7. MODERN FORMS IN NEW PERSIAN, ARMENIAN, AND ARABIC THATApPEAR To BE BORROWINGS FROM INDo-ARYAN

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Arabic kerpas 'cotton'Hebrew karpas 'fine cloth oflinen or cotton'

(Przyluski 1929:70; Buck 1949:400-402)

New Persian kirpas 'fine fabric'Armenian kerpas 'fine fabric'Arabic kirbas 'fine cloth'

Greek Ikarpasosl 'cotton'

Latin carbasus 'cotton' (Monier-Williams 1899:258)Spanish carbaso lino 'cloth, linen or cotton'Italian carbaso 'cloth, linen or cotton' (Przyluski

1929:70; Battisti 1951 :755)


TABLE 8. INDO-ARYAN FORMS FOR 'CLOTH', AS OF 'COTTON, WOOL, SILK, FLAX,HEMP, JUTE, SKIN' AS VARIANTS OF para

261

LANGUAGE

SanskritPaliPrakritKonkanIOriyaOld AwadhiMaithilIPanjabiBengali

N. BihariGujaratiAssameseMarathi

Sindhi

KashmiriWest PaharIAssameseKumaunIMawarwi

Sanskrit

HindiSinhalese

KashmiriShina, Guresi, Kohistani

PaliSindhiHindiKashmiriWest PaharIAwankari

Sanskrit

PaliLahndaOld AwadhiOriyaSinhaleseKumaunIAssamese, BengaliKashmiri

WORD

karpatakappatakappa<;lakappa<;lakaparakaparakaparakapparkaparkaprakappkaparkaparkaparkapadkap<;lIkaprukapirokapurkaprukaporkaprokapro

patapatipallapallavapatpatapalapal, piliyapathpacu

panapaWpimilpotupettupattI

panra-urna

panapattpatapatapatapatpatpotu

GLOSS

'patched garment; rag''dirty, torn rag''old garment; garment, cloth''requiring clothes, adult''cloth''clothes''cloth, clothes''cloth''cloth, clothes'

'cloth, clothes''cloth''cloth, garment''cloth, garment''cloth''made of cloth''coarse cloth''coarse cloth''cotton cloth, clothes''cloth''cloth, garment''piece, big (rag?)''garment' (Turner 1966: 146)

'cloth, woven stuff'cloth''strip ofcloth''strip of cloth''cloth''fine cloth''cloth''cloth''long strip of cloth from 100m''cloth'

'wool, coarse woolen cloth''kind ofwoolen cloth''coarse woolen cloth''woolen cloth''woman's woolen gown''woolen cloth'

'bleached silk; cloth or garment ofbleached silk' (MacDonell1929:151)

'silk''silk''silk cloth,'silk, red silk cloth''silk''silk''silk''silk, silk cloth'


TABLE 8.-Continued

LANGUAGE

PhaluraNepaliOriyaBhojpurrBengali

Sanskrit

Pashai

Sanskrit

PanjabiHindiSinhalesePrakritMarathiSindhi(Gypsy, Rumanian)(Gypsy, Greek)(Gypsy, Welsh)Kashmiri

Wegali

WORD

panarapatpatapatapatpata

patapata-bhilksha-mandapapata·bhilksha-maya

pata

kilrpasahkarpatapatapatika

panapatpatiyapadrpalipiliyapatopatavopatavopalavparo

parupailk

GLOSS

'bark''flax, hemp''jute''jute' (Turner 1966)'jute''coarse, thick (hair)' (Bodding

1935:575)

'canvas' (MacDonell 1929: 150-151)'tent'

'made ofcanvas' (MacDonell1929: ISO)

'a strip of skin' (Turner 1966:434)

'jacket' (Mayrhofer 1956:255)'patched garment, rag''garment''garment''bandage, girdle''turban''turban, ribbon, girdle''a kind ofgarment''rag, shred''clothes''clothing''napkin''sock''skirts, garment''petticoat''covering of cloth for a saint's grave''shawl'

closer to the trisyllabic Indo-Aryan form kapasi (Nepali). This is easily seen by looking atPhilippine forms, as shown in Table 9.

Noteworthy in Table 9 is that final lsi alternates with ItI in kapas rv kapat 'cotton' and'thread', and kapas does not isolate Gossypium from Ceiba cottons. The association of 'cotton' as a fiber is with 'thread' and 'rope' (-pisiq), that is, with 'cordage fiber', while'thread' indicates some association with cloth and sewing. The trisyllabic forms are evident in other Austronesian languages (Table 10).

Gonda's 1952 study of Sanskrit loans in Indonesian ascribes Indonesian forms for 'cotton' to Hindi kapas, ultimately from Prakrit kappasa and Sanskrit karpasa (Gonda 1973:323). Gonda mentions that Sanskrit loans came into Indonesian when commercial activitywith India flourished in Southeast Asia (Champa, Funan) between the first century B.C.

and the third century A.D. Southeast Asian sailors may have been in India, aroundMadras, by 1000 B.C. The semantic groups in Austronesian that are reflected in Oceanicwords for garden and field do not include kapas 'cotton' in Proto-Austronesian (Blust1976:21). If these facts suggest that forms for cotton were borrowed by Austronesian from


TABLE 9. TRISYLLABIC AND DISYLLABIC FORMS IN PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES

263

LANGUAGE

Sangil (Sarangani Is.)

Sangir(cf. Manobo)Ilocano

PanggasinanKankanay (North), InibaloiSebu, Hiligaynon, Bikol, Magin-

danaw, Sulu, Manobo, Kalagan, Mamanwa, Subanun,Subanon, Tagbanwa, Tausug

Tagalog, Itneg (Binongan)Kalinga

Ilocano

Itawis, GadangApayawIbanagIlonggot (Kakidug:en)Agta

Sambales (Botolan)BalangawIfugaoBilaan (Sarangani)Manobo (Ata)TagabiliBilaan

WORD

kapesiq

kapisiqpisiq

kapasanglay

kapeskapisgapas

kapaskapas

kapatkapatkapotgapitkapAska:paq

kapahkapokqa:pohkafokkapukkafukkJfuk

GLOSS

'cotton' (Reid 1971)(q = glottalstop)

'cotton' (Reid 1971)'rope' (Elkins 1968)'silk-cotton, kapok' (Ceiba pentandra)

(Constantino 1976)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton' (Reid 1971)

'cotton, thread' (Reid 1971)'cotton plant, boll' (Gossypium

religiosum) (Constantino 1976)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'thread' (Lopez 1974)'cotton' (Lopez 1974)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton' (Reid 1971)

'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton' (Reid 1971)'cotton''cotton''cotton''cotton'

Indo-Aryan at a time in history between 100 B.C. and A.D. 300, how is Polynesian kafa(Tongan) rv 'aha (Hawaiian) 'coconut sennit' to be reckoned with as a cognate of ProtoAustronesian kapas 'cotton', 'thread'?

Examination of Philippine forms throws light on this problem. Sangil kapesiq andSangir kapisiq 'cotton' are probably ancestral forms of pisiq (Manobo) 'rope' (Elkins1968), suggesting that different parts of the word for 'cotton' have become derivatives for'cord', 'rope' in Austronesian. Let us consider the set for 'rope' given in Table 11, whichshows that the Philippine and Micronesian forms for cordage of coconut fiber seem toreflect Proto-Austronesian gapas and kapisiq 'cotton'.

While Indo-Aryan has been favored as the etymological source for these forms in Austroasiatic, Austronesian (AN), and Indo-European, Przyluski (1924:66-71) has opinedthat Sanskrit karpa[a 'ragged garment' is derived from karpasa, ultimately attributable toAustroasiatic *bas without citing any pertinent comparable forms with Itl. He favoredAustroasiatic as the source for Sanskrit karpasa 'cotton plant' (Gossypium spp.) by considering P. W. Schmidt's study of the Mon-Khmer word for 'cotton carder' phno/:t Ipnaohl asthe etymological source ofwords for 'cotton', accordingly:


TABLE 10. TRISYLLABIC FORMS EVIDENT IN OTHER AUSTRONESIAN LANGUAGES

LANGUAGE

Proto-Chamic, Sea DyakJarai

RhadeMakassarAsilulu, HilaHamkuBabarBantik, SangiAtjehAtjehAtjehBumBumBumRoti, TimorGorom (Banda)BugineseJavaJava, Madur, Malay, SundaTumpakewaBatakSumbaMinahassaLetiMinangkabaw

LubuNortheast Halmahera, Sika

(Flores), TernateSermataSouth CeramSouth CeramCeramSouth CeramWetarKisar

Proto-KhmerModern Khmer

WORD

kapask6paih

kapaskapasakapasekapasokapatiekapesegapesgapenehbak gapesbasebak gapeskaubaseabasavasapevit kapaskapaskapes arorohapaskambakapeskavaskapehkapeh batangkapah kapah

kapaaafaaha kianaha kolaiahajaai ahaai saleaohe

*pospol). Ibaohl

phnol). Ipnaohlarppol). Iqambaohl

GLOSS

'cotton''cotton' (Lafont 1968) (cr. Bahnar

ko'paih)'cotton' (Przyluski 1929)Gossypium herbaceum

(Clercq and Greshoff 1909:249)

'to card cotton''to card cotton'

'cotton carder''raw cotton'

Przyluski saw that the verb pah "" poh "" boh was identical with the noun form for'bow' poh and that final I-hi was an alternate in Austroasiatic for an ancient I-sl. He thensupposed a root *bas for the verb pah "" poh "" boh with alternate Ip-I or Ib-I initially. He


TABLE 11. PHILIPPINE AND MICRONESIAN FORMS FOR 'ROPE'

265

LANGUAGE

Tagalog, Sebu, Bikol, Leyte,Samar, Sambales

Ilokano

PampangoIbanag

Chamorro (Marianas Is.)

Kusaiean

Kusaiean

WORD

pisiq

pissi

pisiqpisi

ga'pet

fuh

ah

GLOSS

'thread' (Lopez 1974) (cf. Sangirkapisiq 'cotton')

'a rope made ofcoconut husk orother strong fiber' (Lopez 1974)

'Chinese thread; cord; twine''whip' (Lopez 1974)

'rope' (type of rope used for climbingtrees) (Topping, Ogo, and Dungca1975) (cf. Ilonggot gapit 'cotton';Itawis/Gadang kapat 'cotton';Apayaw kapat 'thread')

'rope made of coconut fiber, coconutfiber, coconut husk' (Lee 1976) (cf.Tagabili ka/uk 'cotton')

'string, fishing line, rope, thread,cord' (Lee 1976) (cf. Ceram aha'cotton')

proposed that the I-i-I in paih before I-hi was "compensatory" and that a nasal or liquidwas inserted frequently between the root and the prefix (presyllable), explaining Khmer*(k)ambas'\... *(k)amboh 'cotton' (cf. AN Sumba kamba 'cotton'). Arguing that the changeof I-sl to I-tl in the last syllable of Sanskrit karpasa and karpara was unexpected in IndoAryan but regular in Vietnamese, he gave Austroasiatic the higher probability ofbeing thesource (Przyluski 1929:69-71). Mayrhofer (1956: 174) believes that Indo-European formsrelated to Sanskrit karpara 'cloth' are possibly from two morphemic roots: (1) kerp 'tocut', as from krpanah 'sword', or (2) kar 'black' + para 'fabric', further ascribing thesource of kar- not to Austroasiatic but to Dravidian. There the matter has rested, whileBurrow's early study (1946) of loanwords in Sanskrit credits Przyluski's study (1924,1929), noting that Austroasiatic languages exist in India as well as in Southeast Asia andare spoken by Indians in addition to Dravidian and Indo-Aryan:

As might be expected the names of Eastern plants unknown to the Aryans beforetheir arrival figure largely in this list of loanwords. Besides the word for 'banana' justmentioned we have also the words for betel (Skt. tambala-: ... cotton (Skt. karpasa-:... add also Skt. picu cotton, which can be compared with the unprefixed forms he(Przyluski) quotes; Crau par, ba~, Stieng pahl~' whence also the Dravidian words Ta.paiicl~ paiicu, Ka. paiijl~·. ... (Burrow 1946:5)

Despite this firm acceptance of Przyluski's views on loanwords in Sanskrit from Austroasiatic with respect to cotton, the problem of etymological origin of karpasa has notbeen resolved. The Dravidian contribution has not yet been assessed in this context, noreven the Munda. Since Burrow's study ofloanwords in Sanskrit (1946) from Dravidian

266 Asian PerspectivesJ XXIII (2), 1980

and Austroasiatic, his later studies suggest an alteration in point of view. Forms in Dravidian for 'cloth' and 'clothing' have been ascribed by Burrow and Emeneau (1961) andBurrow (1946) to Indo-Aryan (cf. Dumaki gupasa 'cotton'), Sanskrit karpasa (Prakritkuppasa, kuppisa) 'quilted jacket as armor' and Sanskrit pata 'cloth' (see Table 12).

What, then, in Przyluski's view would normally have been credited to Austroasiaticpat 'V patam has thus been attributed to Indo-Aryan, observing that patam may be a variant of vatam, in which case Przyluski's theories must honor a relationship and ancestry inIndo-European that has a stable history (see American Heritage Dictionary 1969:1550wes-4 'to clothe'; a-grade form *wos in Germanic *wazjan'V Old English werian'Vwear). This is illustrated in Table 13.

TABLE 12. DRAVIDIAN FORMS FOR 'CLOTH' AND 'CLOTHING'

LANGUAGE WORD

Tamil kuppacam

Malayalam kuppayamKota kapa:cm (kupa-ct-)

Toda kuposm (kupost-)Kannada kuppasa

kubbasakubusa

Kodagu kuppiaTulu kuppasaTelugu kup(p)asamu

kubusamukllsamu

Kolamu kubasamNaiki kubasam

Tamil paccavatam

Malayalam paccavatamKota pacad, pacatKannada paccavaQa

Tamil campatam

patamMalayalam patamTulu paQambuKannada paQa, paQu

pataKodagu pata

Toda paQTamil panuTamil paniMalayalam panuTelugu patamu

GLOSS

'coat, bodice, jacket' (Burrow andEmeneau 1961)

'jacket, gown, robe''coat, men's special dancing dress

with full skirt''coat''jacket''jacket''jacket''Coorg man's coat''petticoat, bodice''jacket, woman's bodice'

'bodice'

'long piece ofcloth used as a blanket,bedsheet, or screen' (Burrow andEmeneau 1961:45)

'very dirty cloth' (Burrow and Eme-neau 1961)

'cloth for wear, painted or printed''fine cloth, sheet, chequered cloth''rough canvas cloth''cloth, chequered cloth, picture'

'picture' (also Tamil and Malayalamparam)

'picture, photograph''silk cloth, sackcloth ofIndian hemp''cloth, picture, bandage''silk, sackcloth made of hemp''cloth, garment, picture


TABLE 13. FORMS FOR 'BAST' AND CLOTH IN INDO-EuROPEAN AND EGYPTIAN

267

LANGUAGE

HindiMaithiliSindhi

(cf. Persian)(cf. Hebrew)(cf. Spanish)

Proto-Indo-European

HittitePersian (Pahlavi)AvestanSanskrit

(cf. Korean)

(cf. Manchu)(cf. Malay)[from Malay, ascribedto Sanskrit]

(cf. Khasi)(cf. Khasi)

Sanskrit

Tocharian

Latin

Finnish(cf. Latvian)SwedishOld NorseOld High German

English

(cf. Ainu)PahlaviEgyptian (Old and Middle King

dom: 3200-2160 B.C.)

WORD

basan, basnabasanvasan, vasna

karvaskarvascarbaso \ino

*wes

wess, wasswastar(ag)yahvas, vastevasanasanasamsanabusanasana

salasalasala

vasana-vatvastra-vat

vastra-veshtitapatta-vastrawaswsalvestisvestirevaatevatevad-malvailwat, watengew<edian, gew<edian waten,giwati w<etenvest (archaic)weeds, iwede

watteswas

fwdf

GLOSS

'covering' (Turner 1966:667)'cloth''garment'

'cloth''fine cloth, oflinen or cotton''cloth, oflinen or cotton'

'to be clothed, clothing' (Buck1949:393-394)

'to be clothed''clothing''to wear clothing''to wear clothing''garment, dress, cloth''cotton obtained from hemp''hemp''cotton''raiment''hemp, hempen cloth' (Winstedt1960)'strip ofcloth''cotton cloth''red cotton cloth' (Rabel-Heymann

1976:1021)'to be clothed; woven cloth''having a fine garment, beautifully

dressed''well-clothed''cloth garment''to be clothed''garment''clothing''to clothe''cloth''cotton-wool' (Belzeja et a!. 1971)'coarse wool cloth''clothing''clothing'

'clothing''robe, garment, clothing''clothing'

'straw' (Rahder 1954: 136)'straw' (MacKenzie 1971)

'papyrus reed' (Gardiner 1927:470,509-511)

Continued

268 Asian Perspectives) XXIII (2), 1980

TABLE l3.-Continued

LANGUAGE

Egyptian (OK and MK)

WORD

/wt//wwt//wr//iswt/

/1)bs//wt/

GLOSS

'cord' (Gardiner 1927)'cord'

'to tie' (Gardiner 1927)'Scirpus reed' (Gardiner 1927)

(cyperaceous sedge, marsh grass)'linen, flax' (Gardiner 1927)'mummy cloth, bandage' (Gardiner

1927:507)

Related Dravidian forms have been attributed to Sanskrit pana 'cloth', and not toSanskrit vastra, which is from Prakrit vattha (Burrow and Emeneau 1961:58):

KotaKannadaKodaguTuluTelugu

batbanebanebanebana

'clothes''cloth''clothes''clothes''clothes'

The true semantic etymon (in the opinion of Johnson) for this entire range of derivatives in Indo-Aryan and European is 'bast fiber' from which cord and cloth are manufactured and which is fundamental to both items. Thus, as in early Egyptian hieroglyphs /wt/and /wd/ and /wr/ for a set of fibers, 'cloth, cord, flax', and 'tying', the Indo-Aryan andDravidian sets are fundamentally connected with 'bast' (see Table 14).

The bast definition would suffice in some measure to explain the Indo-Aryan connection between 'cotton', 'cloth', 'stuff, and 'willow, cane, rattan, bamboo, pole', fromwhich set come derivatives for the 'beating', that is, striking to soften fibers, or in anothersense, 'soaking' to soften fibers, a process called "retting" before beating with a cane. Asecond relationship to 'cane, reed' and 'weaving' (vey '"'v ve) is the connotation of the useof reeds in the frames ofearly looms.

The definition of 'bast' in Enqlish is not restricted to phloem tissue as used in wovengoods but includes 'bark', as used for cordage. In Indo-Aryan the pat forms include 'bark','jute', 'flax', and 'hemp' (cf. Sanskrit pata 'canvas', 'rope, cordage from jute or hemp'(Latin cannabaceus 'made of hemp', Cannabis spp.) (see Table 15).

The definitions of bast are (1) 'any of several strong, ligneous fibers, as flax, hemp,ramie, or jute, obtained from phloem tissue and used in the manufacture of woven goodsand cordage' (Stein 1971: 125); (2) 'bark of the linden tree or any material used to makecordage or stuffing' (Murray 1888 (1 ):470; Whitney 1906:470). Thus Sindhi veya '"'v ve 'toweave' and 'cane', akin to Prakrit veasa 'cane, rattan' in Indo-Aryan. These may be compared to forms for 'wool' and 'flax', which belong to a set otherwise identified as responsible for 'cloth, of linen and cotton', that is, karpasos '"'v carbaslls, ultimately from CopticGreek/Egyptian byssus '"'v bllSSOS (Rahder 1953 (9):214) (Table 16).

The relationship between 'bast' as stuffing and 'bast' as cordage is so fundamental that


TABLE 14. INDO-ARYAN AND DRAVIDIAN SETS FUNDAMENTALLY CONNECTED WITH 'BAST'

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Sanskrit vata 'string, thread, rope'Sanskrit vatara-ka 'cord'

Tamil vatam 'string, thread, rope'

patam 'cloth'Kannada vatara 'string'

vati 'string'

(cf. Latvian) tauvas 'cordage' (Be1zeja et a1. 1971)

Tamil vanu 'small piece of cloth'

vanutai 'cloth tied round the waist and rea-ching to the knee, garment'

(cf. Japanese) *bata 'couon'

(cf. Tamil) tubata, tuppata 'wool~

tupparu

(cf. Assyrian) supatu, sipatu 'cloth, stuff (Sayee 1877:40-43)600-400 B.C. lubustu 'cloth'

rubtsu 'sheep' (Sayee 1877:41)

(cf. Sindhi patii 'woolen cloth'

and Hindi) parrii

TABLE 15. INDO-ARYAN AND AUSTROASIATIC SETS FUNDAMENTALLY CONNECTEDWITH 'BAST', 'REED', AND 'CLOTH'

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Sanskrit pata 'canvas' (MacDonell 1929)pata 'rope, cordage from jute or hemp'

Indo-AryanPhalura panara 'bark'

Nepali pat 'flax, hemp'Oriya pata 'jute' (Turner 1966)Bengali pat 'jute'

AustroasiaticSantaI (Munda) pat 'sinew, catgut' (Bodding 1935)

pat arak 'jute'

pat son 'jute, hemp'

pat 'Deccan hemp'

sura patia 'a mat made of sedge'patiol 'a kind of reed'patu lar 'part ofbark used for making cord'

(Bodding 1935)

patka 'long narrow strip ofcloth'


TABLE 16. INDO-ARYAN, SEMITIC, AND EGYPTIAN SETS FUNDAMENTALLY CONNECTEDWITH 'BAMBOO', 'CLOTH', AS OF SILK, COTTON, FLAX, WOOL

LANGUAGE

GuresiGujaratiMarathiAvestanShinaAshkunNewariLahnda

(cf. Egyptian)[Coptic, Greek]

(cf. Egyptian)[Old Kingdom, M.K.]

(cf. Hebrew)(cf. Assyrian)

WORD

baesvasavasa, vasavaetibeiwies, wyasbaisbIs

byssusbussosbyssine!).bs

biltzlubustu

GLOSS

'bamboo''bamboo''pole''pole''willow''willow''willow''willow'

'cloth, oflinen + cotton'

'made of silk, cotton, flax''linen cloth, flax'

'cloth''cloth, stuff, clothing' (probably of

wool)

what may appear to be borrowed forms may be true innovations; however, the set in Table17 is indicative ofwide borrowing.

In the sets given in Table 18 Rahder related Altaic forms to Indo-Aryan, Austroasiatic,and Austronesian words for 'cotton' and 'hemp'. Some of his deductions are pertinent tothe sampling of cordage and cloth fibers mentioned, while his comparisons are fluidacross language boundaries. The sets in Table 18 show further how Rahder (1953 (9):214)related Kazan-Tartar basa 'hemp, cotton' with Manchu boso and Proto-Japanese bata 'cotton', which may explain Russian byas and Old Turkic bez 'cotton'. IfRahder's comparisonis believable, then the Kazan-Tartar associations of basa 'hemp' and 'cotton' lead back tothe identical Indo-Aryan set of bast fibers with the exception of 'bark' and 'bark-cloth' asin Old Japanese.

The logic of assigning Tamil vatam 'V patam 'cloth' to Indo-Aryan (cf. Sanskrit vata'string' 'V Tamil vatam 'string') may then be in order. However, in the Indo-European/Dravidian comparative set of pata 'V karpata forms, Tamil campatam for 'very dirtycloth', is irregular, possessing an /m/ between the root and the prefix. Przyluski (1924:6671) observed this phenomenon in Austroasiatic /qambaoh/ 'cotton'. In Tamil, however, thesemantic associations connote 'dirty', the quality of which suggests poor wearabi1ity, as ofSanskrit karpata 'patched garment, rag'. This suggests that Mayrhofer's (1956: 174) viewthat the prefix kar- is ultimately from Dravidian for 'black' may be correct. Dravidianwords for 'cloth' are compounds with prefix kar'V kilg kilnku 'V kilnki for 'dark color,blue or black' (see Table 19).

If Mayrhofer is correct in assigning to Dravidian kar- the origin of the prefix to karpata, then Przyluski's theory that the Indo-Aryan form is exclusively a borrowing fromAustroasiatic can be questioned. The Indo-Aryan/Dravidian comparative set is in agreement on two features: (1) a meaning to the prefix or to the base, as of rough qualityor darker color, and (2) a multiplicity of fiber referents besides 'cotton' or 'cloth' (seeTable 20).


TABLE 17. COMPARISON OF INDO-EuROPEAN, MALAY, AND ALTAIC FORMS FOR'BAST', 'CLOTH', 'COTTON'

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Latvian vate 'cotton-wool'Sanskrit vata 'string, thread, rope'

patta-vastra 'cloth garment'Sindhi vasan, vasna 'garment'Malay busana 'raiment' (ascribed to Sanskrit)

(Winstedt 1960)Korean sana 'cotton'

sam 'hemp'

TABLE 18. ALTAIC FORMS RELATED BY RAHDER TO INDO-ARYAN, AUSTROASIATIC,AND AUSTRONESIAN WORDS

271

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Proto-Japanese *bata 'cotton' (Rahder 1953)Japanese wata 'cotton' (Rahder 1953)

hata 'cotton' (Rahder 1953)tanabata 'festival of the weaver' (Rahder 1953)

Korean hat, has 'colton'

Kazan-Tartar basa 'hemp, cotton'Manchu boso 'cotton)

Old Turkic b6z 'cotton'

(cf. Russian) byaz 'cotton' (Rahder 1953)(cf. Persian) pambezan 'cotton-dresser'

(cf. pambe) 'cotton, cotton wool'Old Japanese pusa 'hemp'

fusa 'hemp, tree'nusa 'sacrificial tree bark cuttings'

Old Japanese so 'hemp' (Rahder 1953)Korean sam 'hemp'

sana 'cotton obtained from hemp'Old Japanese pe, peba 'hempcloth'

peso, feso 'hempcloth'Old Japanese yu-bu 'hempcloth, tree bark-cloth'

yu-fu 'sacrificial bark-cloth'Proto-Japanese bo 'hemp' (not borrowed from Chinese)

bo 'cloth' (borrowed from Chinese)(cf. Chinese) puo, pwo 'cloth'

pO,puProto-Japanese wo 'hemp'Ainu bong 'hemp'Sino-Korean pho 'hemp'

(cf. Chinese) kafu 'flower cloth' (Osumi 1957:15)(cf. Japanese) mempu 'cotton cloth' (Rose-Innis 1966)

kempu 'silk fabric'sofuku 'coarse clothing'ifuku 'to put on clothing'


TABLE 19. DRAVIDIAN COMPOUND WORDS FOR 'CLOTH' AND 'COTTON'

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Tamil kanku-pputavai 'a kind ofcoloured cloth' (Burrowand Emeneau 1961)

Malayalam kanku 'blue or dark cloth (as offisherwo-men and Irawattis)'

Toda ka-g 'black thread'Tulu kangu 'a dark blue cloth worn by lower

classes or used for bedding'Tamil karikkan 'unbleached cotton cloth'Telugu karikamu 'unbleached'Kannada kanku 'blue or coloured cloth'

Malayalam kara 'coloured border ofa cloth'karayan 'striped cloth'

Tamil karai 'border of a cloth'Kota kar 'coloured woven stripes on end of

cloth'Kannada kare 'border of a cloth'Tulu kare 'coloured border ofa cloth'Toda kar 'coloured woven stripes on end of

cloth'

(cf. Kurdish [Iranian]) kal 'pale, fade(d), light brown'kal 'cloth, piece goods' (Wahby 1966)

(cf. Sanskrit) kala 'black'kala-ka 'dark blue, black'

Tamil karu 'black'Kannada kadu 'blackness, black'

kar 'blackness, black'kartu, kargu 'black'kagu 'dark blue color or dark black'

TABLE 20. INDO-ARYAN FORMS FOR 'CLOTH'

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Sanskrit karpata 'patched garment, rag'Pali kappata 'dirty, torn rag'Prakrit kappa<;\a 'old garment'Sindhi kapru 'coarse cloth'Hindi pata 'coarse woolen cloth'Marathi pali 'rag, shred'

Tulu (Dravidian) pa<;\ambu 'rough canvas cloth'


Other Dravidian forms for 'cloth' overlap with Austroasiatic on the one hand and IndoAryan on the other (see Table 21; also Table 33).

The Dravidian set which designates 'hemp' and 'cotton' is an interesting developmentwhich Burrow (1946:5) has ascribed to Austroasiatic (see Table 22).

Turner (1966:433) linked these Dravidian forms for cotton with Indo-European formspaiiji rv paiija rv puiija rv piiija 'cotton, to card cotton', suggesting relationships with orderivation from the process or instrument of carding (see Table 23).

TABLE 21. DRAVIDIAN FORMS THAT OVERLAP WITH AUSTROASIATIC AND INDO-ARYANWORDS FOR 'CLOTH' AND 'COTTON'

LANGUAGE

DravidianTamil

Tamil

Malayalam

Khasi

Indo-AryanBengaliAssameseBengaliOriya

Gujarati(cf. Sinhalese)Kashmiri

WORD

kanku-pputavai

par

porvai

paruvai

borkapor

b::lfkapJrbJrkapurkapUJ;iyakapuriakapariyakapriyakapukapur

GLOSS

'a kind ofcoloured cloth' (Burrowand Emeneau 1961)

'to wear, wrap oneself in, over, envelope, surround'

'covering, wrapping, upper garment,cloak, rug'

'covering, wrapping, upper garment,cloak, rug'

'cotton cloth' (Rabel-Heymann1976:991)

'cotton cloth''cotton cloth''cloth-seller' (Turner 1966: 146)'cloth-seller''cloth-seller''cloth-seller''cotton tree, cotton''cotton cloth, clothes'

TABLE 22. DRAVIDIAN WORDS FOR 'HEMP' AND 'COTTON'

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

Malayalam pani 'hemp cloth'panu

Kannada pani 'cotton'pani 'cotton'

Kannada panji 'ball of cotton from which thread isspun'

Tamil panci 'cotton cloth'pancu 'cotton cushion'

Malayalam panni 'cotton'Toda poj 'cotton blossom'


TABLE 23. DRAVIDIAN FORMS FOR 'COTTON' AND 'COTTON CARDER' LINKEDWITH INDO-EuROPEAN FORMS

LANGUAGE

SanskritHindi

HindiSindhiPrakritLahndaPanjabiGujarati/MarathiSanskrit

MarathiPanjabi

KhawarAssamese

Bengali

WORD

paiiji, paiijikapiiijana

pijnapiiianipimja napiiijanpiiijunpijiiipiiijana

prjiiepiiijnapajaunapizonupazi

paij

GLOSS

'cotton' (Burrow and Emeneau 1961)'act of carding, bow for carding'

(Turner 1966)'cotton carder, cards cotton''cotton-carding bow''carding cotton''carding cotton''carding cotton''carding cotton''a bow or bow-shaped instrument

used for cleaning cotton''cards cotton''cards cotton''cards cotton''ball ofwo01 or cotton for spinning''wisp ofcotton, roll of cotton or

thread''wisp, roll (esp. of cotton)'

Another set of Indo-European forms for the carding of cotton is available (Turner1966:335) (see Table 24).

The prefix of the forms in Table 24 means 'to strike' or to 'beat' cotton, but there is noreference to the 'bow for carding cotton'. It would be premature to suggest comparabilityto Austroasiatic Ipnaohl 'carding bow' although the final syllable I-fial bears some resemblance to the I-fial rv I-fief of the previous Ipafijil 'cotton', 'cotton-carding bow' set.

In this context comparison with Austronesian forms for 'bow' may shed some light onthe problem of the carding bow in Austroasiatic and Indo-Aryan. Formosan forms for'bow', as for shooting arrows, are reminiscent on the one hand of Proto-Munda (Kharia)panic 'bowstring', and on the other of Modern Khmer Ipnaohl rv Ipnohl 'bow for cardingcotton'. The Iml in Formosan and Tagalog forms may be a variant of Ipl as in pana (cf.Indonesian anak panah 'reed, arrow'; see Table 25).

Shono's (1971) study ofMon words for 'bow, arrow' ascribes Kharia panic 'bowstring'to Hindi panica, both forms of which may be considered with respect to Formosan pa:nzl(Kavalan) 'arrow, bow' in Austronesian and the Indo-Aryan pafiji 'cotton' rv pifijana'bow for carding cotton' set (Table 26).

If it is theoretically correct to relate the etymology ofcotton (karpasa, pqfijz) to the carding bow, bearing in mind that Shorto has ascribed the Munda (Kharia) form to Hindi,which Przyluski's 'carding bow' theory would in turn ascribe to Austroasiatic, is it practical to explain such Austroasiatic forms as Bahnar ko'paih 'cotton' in terms of Assamesepazi or Bengali piiij 'cotton' which has affinity with Sanskrit pafiji 'cotton' and pifijana'carding bow'? Or, is it time to probe a possible relationship between these forms and'reed, arrow' per Indonesian anak panah, inasmuch as Indo-Aryan words for 'cotton' suggest the fiber set for 'rattan, reed, cane, bamboo' as well? These associations prove to besemantically dominant and should not be ignored. In Japanese the reed of a loom is called


TABLE 24. INDO-EuROPEAN FORMS FOR THE CARDING OF COTTON

275

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

PaIi tumbJ:.la 'to tease cotton' (Turner 1966:335)[ < /tup/ 'to strike' = /tub/ rv/stup/Turner 1966:334]

Pali tumbati 'to tease cotton'tumpati

Khowar dumbati 'to tease cotton' Sanglechi /d;Jmb-/Munji libbati 'to tease cotton'

Hindi tubna, tIlmna 'to pull cotton or wool to pieces; toseparate with the fingers beforecombing'

Marathi tl1bI)e 'to accumulate through beingobstructive (as in combing hair)'

Sindhi tumbaI:lU 'to beat'Lahnda tumban 'to re-pick old cotton; be strung

repeatedly by warps'Kashmiri tombun 'to card cotton'

Waigali tuppa-un 'to tease wool'

Panjabi (Ludhiana) tummana 'to clean cotton'

Lahnda (Awankari) tumna 'carding'

tummuJ:.l 'to card cotton'

Bihari, Bhojpuri tarnal 'to card cotton'

TABLE 25. FORMOSAN AND TAGALOG FORMS IN WHICH Iml MAY BE A VARIANTOF Ipl AS IN pana

LANGUAGE

FormosanTsouDhutuMagaKavalan

Tagalog

WORD

pnaapono, pnaupnapma:ni?

pa:ni?

pumanamamanamakapanamapana

GLOSS

'to shoot''shoot''shoot''shoot' (Tung T'ung-ho 1964:603)

'arrow, bow'

'to shoot, hit with an arrow' (English

1965:938)

276 Asian Perspectives) XXIII (2), 1980

TABLE 26. AUSTROASIATIC FORMS FOR 'BOWSTRING' AND 'Bow'

LANGUAGE WORD

Kharia panic

Sre panyNicobarese f:Jin

Old Khmer panLiterary Mon panMon pan /p:Jp/

pan po(h)Modern Khmer bapBiat papBoloven pmTheng pIp, piI)Spoken Mon p:JnStieng peI)Bahnar peI)Riang-Lang pwpVietnamese b~n

Bahnar panah

ponahKhmer phnaoh

baoh

GLOSS

'bowstring' (perhaps borrowed fromHindi panica) (Shorto 1971 :220)

'to shoot with crossbow''crossbow'

'to shoot with crossbow''to shoot with crossbow''to shoot with crossbow and (pel

lets?)''to shoot with crossbow and (pellets)'

'to shoot with bow' <panah (Shorto1971:241)

'to shoot with bow''bow for beating cotton''to throw; to gin (cotton)'

osa, reminiscent of other forms for 'grass family': sasa 'bamboo grass', so 'kusa grass', sho'sugar cane'. It serves the purpose of this study to compare Austroasiatic, Indo-Aryan,Dravidian, and Austronesian forms for 'grass' and 'reed' ('bamboo, rattan, cane'), inTable 27. (Compare with data in Table 13.)

In the comparative sets between these unrelated languages, it is noticeable that inDravidian and Austroasiatic, the consonant changes are similar from Ibl to Iml with a consistent regularity (see Table 28; refer to Figs. 5, 6, 7).

These forms may be traced in Polynesia only if they are related to 'cord', 'thread' forwhich precedence is to be found in Austroasiatic rather than Austronesian (Table 29).

The forms in Table 29 may be compared to forms in Austronesian, Austroasiatic,Dravidian, and Indo-European for 'cane, bamboo, rattan, cloth, cotton, tinder'. The connection between 'bamboo', 'fire', and 'cotton, as tinder' may be with the so-called Malayfire-piston method in which two cylinders, one smaller than the other, are shoved oneinside the other forcefully. The method is not found in Polynesia but has been observednearby in Melanesia. The Austroasiatic vai sets for 'cotton' and 'tinder' are distinguishedphonemically. 'Cotton' Ifaayl in Thai has a longer vowel and falling tone; 'fire' is distinguished by a short vowel and mid-tone, indicating distinct semantic units in Thai(Table 30).

The regional distribution of buru "v puru for the familiar range of cordage and clothfibers 'cotton' (cf. Indonesian bulu kapas 'kapok'), 'bamboo, hemp, hair, wool, coconutsennit' is as extensive as kapas, the proper discussion of which (puru) would overextend


TABLE 27. DRAVIDIAN, INDO-ARYAN, AND AUSTRONESIAN FORMS FOR'BAMBOO', 'GRASS', 'REED'

277

Dravidian: 'bamboo, reed, cuscus grass'Tamil vanci

LANGUAGE

MalayalamTamil

Te1ugu

Tamil

GondiKolamiKotaTeluguTamil

Indo-EuropeanSanskritSindhiLahnda

Panjabi

DravIdianNaikiKotaKolamuBrahuiTamilTamil, MalayalamTulu

Indo-EuropeanSanskrit

SindhiShinaNewariKashmiriLahndaAshkunHindi, Lahnda, BengaliMarathiAvestanOriya

Prakrit

WORD

vanci, vannivanivatibanivanivani-veruvetirvayirwaddurvedurvedyrveduruvetti-ver

vanjulavanjhuvanjjhvajhvanjh, banjh

venjvejvenz, venstvey, bei, meyvaivai-kkolbai

vaidava (= vedu)vainavaveya, vebeibaisbisabIs

wies, wyasbetvetvaetibetara

yetta, vittavedasa, veasa

GLOSS

'common rattan ofSouth India(Calamus rotang)' (Burrow andEmeneau 1961:355)

'bamboo, reed' (cf. Sanskrit vanjula)'straw, grass, basket''cane, stick''rattan''cuscus grass)

'cuscus grass'

'bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''cuscus grass'

'bamboo, reed''punting pole' (Turner 1966)'punting pole''user ofbamboo''pole'

'to thatch''to thatch''to thatch''grass, as for thatching''straw of paddy, grass''straw'~straw'

'consisting of or made of reeds''consisting of bamboo' <venu'cane', 'to weave''willow''Salix tetrasperma''Salix babylonica'

'willow''cane''cane''willow''weaving cane strips on the rafters of

a thatch''cane''rattan'

Continued


TABLE 27.-Continued

LANGUAGE

Pali

Sanskrit

ShinaGuresiOriyaAssameseGujaratiKonkanISinhalesePali, PrakritMarathi (cf. Dravidian)TamilKannada

AustronesianProto-Austronesian

Tagalog

Kavalan (Formosan)Indonesian

PampanganHanunoo

WORD

vettavetasavetravetasa, vetavetuka

basbaesbausabahvasvasovasavaf!1savasa, vasavacambase

*uvaykubaylabay (-bar)

uway

su:waykumpairumbaiawebayi

GLOSS

(cane'

'rattan, Calamus rotang''large reed' (Turner 1966:701)

'bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''bamboo''rafter, pole''rafter''rafter'

'reed, cane, rattan''vegetables, greens''yarn, thread' (Dempwolff 1938)

'species ofrattan Calamus mollis'(Lopez 1974)

'grass' (Tsuchida 1971)'bulrush' (Wojowasito 1959)'fringe''species ofrattan' (Lopez 1974)'hunting bow, ofbamboo' (Conklin

1953)

the limits of this study. In one context, however, with regard to 'cloth' and 'clothing', it ispertinent to our study, as Table 31 shows.

In addition, the form purupuru (Polynesian) is applied to fiber used in caulking andstuffing, although denoting coconut sennit rather than cotton (see Table 32). In "Notes onHainan and Its Aborigines;' Calder (1883:44-45) makes the following commentary on theMalay use ofcoconut for caulking:

The fishing boats in the vicinity of Ty-chow and Manchow are of a very primitive construction, being sewn together with rattan and then caulked with cocoa-nut fibre . .. AtNga-long or Gaalong, we first met with the Li or the Aborigines of Hainan ... The Lihave but few firearms, but those that do possess guns are said to be very expert in theiruse. They will readily barter scented woods or cattle for firearms or knives. Their ownweapons are the bow and arrow, and the spear ... what I here state has been derivedfrom the Shuk-Li ... Sweet potatoes, betel and cocoa nut palms are also largely cultivated ... The Li seem to be more closely related to the Malays than to the Chinese


TABLE 28. CONSONANT CHANGES IN DRAVIDIAN AND AUSTROASIATIC FORMS

279

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS

DravidianBrahui vei, bei, mey 'grass, as for thatching'

AustroasiaticLaotian bay, may 'bamboo' (Marcus 1970)

Mon pai 'hemp'AhomShan may 'bamboo' (Benedict 1975)Thai phaabaj 'canvas, sailcloth'

bajjaa 'blade ofgrass'OngBe moi 'sugar cane' (cf. Li may) (Benedict

1975)

Thai phaj 'bamboo' (j = y)tonphaj 'bamboo stalk, stem'ton?;);} 'giant reed' (Haas 1964:182)ton?;)j 'sugar cane' (Haas 1964: 184)may 'tree, wood' (Benedict 1975:364)p;};} 'hemp'

... They will readily barter for Chinese clothing ... Their dress consists of a sort ofpetticoat or kilt coming down nearly to the knee. They weave the cloth of which this ismade from grass, and it is usually of a blue ground with a few horizonta~ bright-colouredstripes running through it.

A bride's clothing is called serang; a jacket is vaing; a 'bow' is vat, and an 'arrow' is a teak(Calder 1883:45, 60) (cp. Polynesian teka [Tuamotuan] 'arrow' rv ke'a [Hawaiian] 'cross','bow and arrow', 'to shoot with bow and arrow').

In Dravidian and Austroasiatic the 'cotton', 'bamboo', and 'bow and arrow' sets have inprevious analytical and theoretical discussions by several linguists indicated no connection with 'fire', but if the notion offire can be shown to be related to 'reed', 'bow' in IndoAryan and Dravidian culture, the comparison between these sets as shown in this papermay then be pertinent. Consider the forms given in Table 33, which in this context arerandom.

Przyluski's study of the carding bow provides a description of the Indian implementthat was observed by Sonnerat in India (ViJyages aux Indes et ala Chine, Paris, 1782:1:108,p1.26) (Przyluski 1929:20):

"The machine for carding the cotton ... is extremely simple. It is made of a piece oflong wood of six to seven feet. To each of its ends is attached a strong string of entrailswhich, when touched, makes [a] a sound like that of a violin (our hatters also have amachine almost similar to it called the archet or fiddle-stick). The violin is suspended bythe middle to that ofa bow attached to a plank. The worker holds the violin by the middle in one hand and in the other, with a piece of wood with a pad at the end, stretchesquickly the catgut which slips out, strikes the cotton, throws it out, fills it with wind,

280

-ci.ftEj

"5.

~oC)-

Asian Perspectives, XXIII (2), 1980

'cotton, kindling'. 'fluff, as tinder;' 'cloth'AustroasiasticAustronesianDravidianIndo-Arvan (Hindi)

vev••

-,i/o

tv00tv

~

'"$::i'~

;;p'-t

'tia~ .

..'"~...............

..-..tv~\000o

Fig. 7 Distribution ofpafiji (Dravidian, Indo-Aryan); vai (Austroasiatic, Thai); and vai "v vae (Austronesian) for 'cotton, kindling, cloth'.


TABLE 29. COMPARISON OF AUSTROASIATIC AND POLYNESIAN FORMS Uzy rv VaiFOR 'CORD', 'CLOTH'

283

LANGUAGE

AustroasiaticOld KhmerModern KhmerMuong VietnameseVietnamese

Laotian

Polynesian

SamoanTahitianTuamotuan

(cf. Tamil)

Tuamotuan

Hawaiian

Hawaiian

Samoan

Tuamotuan

Tahitian

WORD

canhvayc::>IJva:yyay, (b)yay, *h:lpay, pay, ayvai [SVbo]

say fayfay

vailaumeato ha'avaivavai, kavai

kovai

kayeave

'awe'awe

ma'awe

'awe

'avei

kaveikayekavekave

makave

tavaimave

GLOSS

'skein''skein' (Jacob 1976:643)'cloth' (Thompson 1976: 1167)'cloth, material, fabric, cotton cloth'

(Dinh-Hoa 1970:526)'cord, wire' (Marcus 1970)'cotton' (Marcus 1970)

'herbs''cane, banana' (i.e., 'plantain fiber')'a variety ofrunning vine, Triumfetta

procumbens'

'common creeper, Bryonia epigaea,cucurbitaceous vine' (Burrow andEmeneau 1961:148,280)

'tendril' ( = 'ave')'long hairs, as on dog's tail'

'strip ofpandanus used in makingthe papa ball for the pei (juggling)game'

'tentacles' (as of banana plant, octopus) 'runners, as on a vine'

'fiber, strand, thread, as ofa spider'sweb'

'strand, thread'

'strap, cord'

'to lash with fine cords''the thread of a fringe''ends, strands, threads, fibres, as ofa

cord, belt, or mat''a fibre, strand; composed ofseveral

fibres'

'twined weaving''to weave'

separates the dust from it and makes it fit for spinning. The elasticity of the bow, whichsustains the violin, affords the worker the facility of carrying it from one place toanother on the heap of cotton which they come to thrash." The instrument, on thewhole, is formed of two bows superposed [italics mine], because the lower part of the violin which Sonnerat compares with the archet is essentially a vibrating string attached tothe ends of a piece of wood. Sir G. Grierson has described a similar but more simplemachine in Bihar Peasant Life, pp 64-65.


TABLE 30. AUSTROASIATIC AND THAI FORMS FOR 'COTTON' AND 'FIRE'

LANGUAGE

Austroasiatic: 'cotton'LaotianVietnamese

(Thai)

Austroasiatic: 'fire, kindling;electricity (modern)'

Laotian

(Thai)

WORD

fayvay, (b)yay,pay

phaafay

pugpujpujraajfai

sam5J raaj

da:ng faymat fay

t6nfaj I-faylkhoomfajpleewfajpidfaj

GLOSS

'cotton' (Marcus 1970)'cotton' (as cloth)

'cotton clorh, cotton fabric' (Haas1964:322)

'ro be downy, fluffy, bushy, shaggy''cotton fiber, cotton wool''cotton, Gossypium herbaceum'

(McFarland 1969:555)'boll of cotton'

'kindle' (Marcus 1970)'spark'

'source of/toil/fire''lantern, lamp' (Haas 1964: 101)'flame (pleew 'flame')' (Haas 1964)'to turn off lights; electricity' (Haas

1964:320)

As such the description is too ambitious a design to be applied to anything the Marquesans may have had, except that it also fits the jew's harp, the Marquesan and Hawaiian'utete. The Hawaiian and Marquesan bow and arrow are called pana, but the Hawaiianshave another form for 'arrow' /ke'a/ from cane tassel. The significance here is that it alsomeans 'cross' (cf. Li of Hainan teak 'arrow'). A note in Przyluski mentions: "The languages of the Malaya Peninsula have forms ig, eg, tig, and the equivalent ek which is preserved in Khmer where it means the bow fixed against the stag-fly (ek khleng); cf. also Santali ak 'bow' " (Przyluski 1929:20). The ak bow in Mon Khmer is a cross-bow, also called/panan/ 'V /panen/ 'V /monen/.

In the same discussion, Przyluski mentions that the carding and archer's bow was ofbamboo:

The Aryans, however, certainly knew the use of[the] bow before their entrance intoIndia. Why have they then borrowed from the Austro-Asiatics a word for the arrow?Probably the arrow made of bamboo [italics mine] was unknown to them and this is whythey borrowed the name as well as the instrument itself from the aborigines of India. Infact, in the Malaya Archipelago, the arrow called panah is made of bamboo ... In thesame way bti1;la (Sanskrit) designates precisely an arrow of bamboo or cane in India....(Przyluski 1929:23)

On the other hand amongst the Makassar of Celebes, the word pana designates thebow for shooting the arrows and a kind of bow which is also used for washing the cotton. (Przyluski 1929:20)


TABLE 31. AUSTRONESIAN AND AUSTROASIATIC FORMS FOR 'CORDAGE' AND'To WEAR' AS CLOTH

285

LANGUAGE

Austronesian

PAN

Tagalog, SebuPampangan, PalawanIvatan

PAN

PAN

Nggela (Solomon Is.)Samoan

Samoan

Tongan

Hawaiian

Malay

A ustroasia tic

SakaiMundaThengMon

Proto-Khmer

Middle-Khmer

Dravidian

TamilMalayalam

KannadaTulu

WORD

*I-butllsabutl

bunotbunutvunut

*bulut

*I-put/ltaputl

pulu, pupulupulupulu

sulusuluihulu

hulu

simpul

sempul, sapurbiurparpurpuI-buut/, l-b:Jtl

sarpba'ta

Isamputl

putaiputaputappupodepodepuni

GLOSS

'cordage, coconut fiber' (Wojowasito1959)

'coconut husk and coconut fiber''coconut husk and coconut fiber''coconut husk and coconut fiber'

'fiber, filament, thread' (Dempwolff1938)

'to wrap up, cover up; winding, as ofsheet or shroud' (Dempwolff1938)

'to put on, dress' (Fox 1955)'to wrap, as a sheet, wrap, shawl'

(Milner 1966)'to put on, wrap around''to put on, wear''to tuck one's loincloth' (Church

ward 1959)'cloth' (Elbert and Pukui 1973)

'to wrap up' (Shorto 1971)

'to wrap up' (Shorto 1971)'to turn around, surround''to wrap)

'to surround.with, to bind''around''to wrap, cover' (Jenner and Pou

1982)'to wrap, cover' (Jenner and Pou

1982)

'to be covered, to clothe''outer garment''warm clothing, blanket''to put on, wrap around''covering, wrapping, upper garment,

cloak, rug'

It is therefore interesting to find that the Santal of India made mats ofsedge called suraparia, which belongs in the set of cordage and hemp cloth fibers. While Polynesians arefamous for bark-cloth manufacture, they also produced clothing and mats from twinedweaving of flax-like plants. The woven cordage garment on the small image ofa Hawaiianpriest in the Bishop Museum is an example. The name of a special kind of waist girdle or


TABLE 32. POLYNESIAN Puru AS 'FIBER' AND 'STUFFING'

LANGUAGE

Tuamotuan

Maori

WORD

puru

ka-purupuru

puriiapurupuru

puru

purupuru

GLOSS

'to plug with fibrous material; tothrust, stuff, cram in'

'the husk of the coconut''caulking material (Vahitahi) made of

ngeongeo root''plugged, crammed''a caulking material of small coconut

husk fibres twisted together'(Stimson 1964)

'plug, cork, bung' (Williams 1971)'plug up, stuffup''confine by means ofa plug''thrust in, stuff in, cram in''caulking of a canoe'

mara called patia in Rarotonga is made from interwoven sinnet (Savage 1962:241). InHawaii, the Hawaiians used bulrushes and sedge called nanaku or makalaa (Cyperus laevigatus) in the fine mats of Ni'ihau. Ngatu in Tongan means 'bark cloth', but Tongans wrapthe ta 'avala mat around their persons as a garment. Maori ngatu refers to the lower part ofthe raupo, defined as 'reed, bulrush' (Reed 1971; Williams 1971:231). The implication isthat Polynesian ancestors wore clothing made of reeds, bulrushes, or flax, and were nottotally dependent upon tapa cloth. The process of "retting" is known to them and waspracticed by the Hawaiians to soften wauke bark before beating it into tapa. The Tuamotuans used it on vavai (Triumfetta pracumbens), a vine, to fashion an ornamental girdle fordancing: "Its fibres were used in making cordage and the clothing formerly worn by thepeople; the vine soaked overnight in salt water, and the fibres then stripped out ..."(Stimson with Marshall 1964:603).

The very ancient use of cotton for purposes other than cloth manufacture has beenshared by a large portion of the world's people despite the separation of ice ages, regionalisolation of continents and islands, and restrictive boundaries of linguistic families. Cotton words, in particular karpasa (Sanskrit), karvas (Hebrew, Persian), karpasas (Greek),carbasus (Latin), kabah (Austroasiatic), and kapas (Indo-Aryan, Austroasiatic, Austronesian), basa (Altaic), representing a distribution over vast ground for a single etymon, havebehaved in a time span between 3000 B.C. and the present in the way "ice-cream" has circled the globe. This paper has demonstrated, however, that the more ancient reference ofthese forms pertained to all fibers used for cordage, cloth, and stuffing such as 'silk, flax,hemp, and wool'. Thus, Polynesian kafa as a reflex of Proto-Austronesian kapas 'cotton',of Gassypium or Ceiba species, pertains to 'coconut' or any other fiber used in the makingofsennit.

The Polynesians, however, had another word for cotton, vavae, for the same botanicalreferents in connection with 'fire', as used in lamp-wicks, and another word, pulupulu, forany kind of fluff used in stuffing, caulking, and also for tinder. They may have acquiredwords for 'cotton', after Hindu influence reached Indonesia, but the historical context of


TABLE 33. RANDOM ASSORTMENT OF FORMS SHOWING ASSOCIATION OF'ARROW SHAFT' OR 'Bow' WITH 'FIRE'

287

LANGUAGE

A ustroasiaric

Mon

CumKon-lUSedangHalang

Indo-AryanSanskrit

DravidianTamilKannada

Indo-Aryan

Hindi

Kurdish (Iraq)

Lahnda

Eskimo

Ifiupiat

WORD

pnan/pnaiI)//pnen/

pananpanen/paneI)/ponen, monenmenen

val)ampafijupafiji, pafijupafijupaiijaya

pafiji

kewan

awan

palliksrak

GLOSS

'lamp, candle' (Shono 1971)

'bow' (Przyluski 1924:68)'cross-bow''cross-bow''cross-bow'

'reed shaft, made ofreed, as anarrow' (Monier-Williams 1899)

'arrow, rocket, fireworks, fire''torch' (Burrow and Emeneau 1961)'torch' (ascribed to Hindi)'torch''torch'

'sort of torch with five branches forlights' (ultimately from Persian)(Burrow and Emeneau 1961 :45)

'bow (archer's), carder's bow, segment ofa circle' (Wahby andEdmonds 1966)

'carder's bow' (Turner 1966:461)

'cotton, used for tinder, from cottongrass, pussywillow buds, cottonwood buds' (Webster and Zibell1970:98)

the forms in Austronesian argues for earlier borrowing from Austroasiatic. The form vaifor 'fire' is well distributed in Austroasiatic and is sparse in Austronesian. Benedict(1975:249) relates Niala (Piru, Ceram) wai 'fire' to Thai vai 'fire'. The area of its distribution in eastern Indonesia pinpoints a region around Ceram and Buru which nineteenthcentury scholars Abraham Fornander and Percy Smith favored as the ancestral homelandof the Polynesians. Soft cotton and coarse coconut husk, which at first glance display suchdifferent properties, seem to be associated by a view of both as excellent spark-holding tinders, and as raw fiber for very strong cordage.

If we give credence to Przyluski's theory that the etymon for these forms was Austroasiatic, rather than Indo-Aryan, then their spread into Austronesian antedates the time


when Hindu culture was an influence upon Indonesia between 100 B.C. and A.D. 300, atwhich time it is likely that they were again borrowed from Indo-Aryan. India, where IndoAryan, Austroasiatic, and Dravidian languages are spoken, would be most favored for thespread of these forms eastward and westward at a time preceding the manufacture of cotton cloth in Mohenjo-Daro around 2400 B.C. The wide distribution of a lexical item suchas kapas over an immense portion of the earth suggests that diffusion of culture is not anuntenable theory, implying that societies were not so separated as we might think.

Amerindian Words For Cotton

Although our study seeks to be thorough about the Indo-Pacific cottons, the situation ofcotton origins in South America and the spread of Gossypium hirsutum into the Pacificand westward into the Indian Ocean demands that we venture into the associated problemof native names, if only to settle the issue of influence on native names for cotton, cloth,weaving, and cordage fiber in Oceanic languages. The names for 'cotton' as a fiber orplant seem, at first glance, to differ widely. Perhaps an experienced Amerindian linguist,however, may be able to locate cognates in the Amerindian forms for 'cotton' given inTable 34.

In another context, that of the semantic set for 'cotton' in 'cloth' or 'weaving', as of'cotton' and 'hemp' (maguey), the forms appear to be very similar to the South Indian batrv pat and Austroasiatic baf rv paf (Crau; see Table 5) forms for 'cloth' that were particularly connected with 'cotton' (Table 35).

We note here that the forms given in Table 35 are all in agreement on the semantic asso-

TABLE 34. RANDOM AMERINDIAN FORMS FOR 'COTTON'

LANGUAGE WORD

Goajiro (Arawak) mawi-kalJicaques (Honduras) tunimArawak kumaka

Tlappanecan (Mexico) mugu, muguInca (Peru) ?ushku

?utkuutcu

Kayuvava (Bolivia) yuxuru

Pochutla (Oaxaca, Mexico), oxquetMexican pochut

pochot!pochoichcatl

Timote (Paez) caco, caMMakfi (Brazil) s5w5gi

k5wadnArawak yaho, yaho-balli

GLOSS

'silk-cotton' Ceibaoccidentalis

'cotton, kapok'

'wild cotton' Pavoniaspicata

SOURCE

(Holmer 1949:111)(Conzemius 1923:167)(Fanshawe 1949:67, 73)

(Radin 1933:57)(Rowe 1950: 145)

(Creqi-Montfort and Rivet1920:256)

(Boas 1917:14, 40)

(Rivet 1927:155)(Rivet, Kok, and Tastevin

1925: 152)(Fanshawe 1949:67, 73)


TABLE 35. SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN FORMS FOR 'CLOTH'

289

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS SOURCE

Xinca (from Mayan) pati 'cloth' (Campbell 1972: 189)Aymara (Lake Titicaca, patikala 'vari-colored textile' (La Barre 1948: 107)

Bolivia)(cf. Goaziro) mawikahi 'cotton' (Table 34)(cf. Miskito, Nicaragua and aibakaia kwa-la 'bark or cotton cloth (Heath 1950:2)

Honduras) wrapped aroundloins'

Otomian (Mexico) pahni 'shirt' (Newman and Weitlanerpe 'to weave' 1950:18)

Xinca (from Mayan) pafiuelo 'cloth' (Campbell 1972: 189)Quechuan (Bolivia) paCa 'clothes' (Bills, Vallejo, and Troike

1969:7)Yana (Cuzco, Proto- *bae "v baCi 'maguey-, hemp- (Matteson et a1. 1972:51,

Amerindian, Fox) p?a"v p?aea cloth' 68)Quechuan *bats

beCi

TABLE 36. AMERICAN INDIAN PROTO-FoRMS CONNECTED WITH THE SPINNING OF THREAD

LANGUAGE

Mayan-Chipaya (Bolivia)Uru-Chipaya

ChipayaCholYunga

Proto-Maya-ChipayaProto-Mayan

WORD

spahtspahts(s - object referent)(s - noun classifier)ba¢?

beepas

xxpahe*bae

GLOSS

'to spin thread''to spin thread'

'to spin thread'

SOURCE

(Olson 1965:35)(Olson 1965:35; Stark

1972:134)

(Pre-Conquest Peru;Chimu culture)

ciation with 'cloth', and that the fibers represented in the woven articles are primarily of'hemp' (maguey), allowing 'cotton' or 'bark'. In citing the proto-forms, Amerindian linguists connect these 'hemp-cloth' forms with the spinning of thread as shown in Table 36.

The sets in Table 36 may serve to demonstrate the lal "v leI vowel changes in the formsfor 'cotton cloth' and 'cotton clothing' and also to illuminate the evolution ofother, possibly related, forms, as Table 37 shows for 'cotton'.

Inasmuch as we have previously argued a possible connection between 'grass' (i.e., as'cane', 'reed', 'bamboo') in the fiber set for 'cordage' and also in tools for weaving, weencounter a remarkable similarity between the forms for 'cotton' in connection with 'hay','grass', and 'down' and those for 'fire' particularly found in North American Indian languages (see Table 38).

In terms of the data in Table 38, the following forms from Mexico are for woven arti-

290 Asian Perspectives> XXIII (2), 1980

TABLE 37. ADDITIONAL AMERICAN INDIAN FORMS FOR 'CLOTH' AND 'COTTON'

LANGUAGE

Tzeltal (Mayan)

Paez (Colombia)

Proto-Amerindian(Ashaninka)

Proto-ArawakProto Piro-Apurina

Culina

Proto-TacananAmahuaca

WORD GLOSS SOURCE

spak'ul 'its cloth'(from pak) 'cloth' (Slocum 1948:77-86)ats-pets 'light cotton skirt' (pittier 1907:316)spats 'piece ofbroad cloth'*ampehi 'conon' (Matteson et a!. 1972: 52,

175,196-201)

*wa-ma-pe-hi 'conon'wa-ma-pe-se 'cotton'

wepe 'cotton'

waphi 'cotton'mapoa 'conon'(from *mapet) 'cotton'

wapesecopa 'clothes' (Osborn 1948: 189)

TABLE 38. AMERICAN INDIAN FORMS FOR 'FIRE' AND 'GRASS'

LANGUAGE

Dakota-Teton

DakotaPoncaOsagePiloxOfo

Siouan

Osage, WinnebagoKansaCiwereOmaha PoncaTeton, Dakota

Arawakan (Caribbean)

WORD

*p'a-za

p'ezi

p'e-tape-depe-dsepe-tiaphe-ti, aphiti-

apeti "v pe' C

pece, peepyezepejepedepe-ta

eoeda

GLOSS

'porous, or soft, ascotton, hay, down'

'grass'

'fire'

'fire'

'kindle'

SOURCE

(Boas and Deloria1932:109,112)

(Holmer 1947:3)(Holmer 1947:3)(Holmer 1947:3)(Holmer 1947:3)(Holmer 1947:3)

(Wolff 1950a:65,1950b: 113)

(Taylor and Rouse1955:108)

cles, especially mats made of grass or straw. They may be compared with forms for 'cane'and the '100m comb' in Meso- and South America given in Table 39.

The forms in Table 39 serve to remind us of the comparable bata '" hata forms in Japanese and vata forms in Indo-European (Sanskrit, Russian) for 'cotton'· and 'hemp''cloth', for which there are comparable forms in Eskimo and Natchez for 'cotton' and'weaving':


TABLE 39. FORMS FOR 'CANE' AND 'LOOM COMB' IN SOUTH AMERICA

291

LANGUAGE WORD GLOSS SOURCE

Proto-Aztecan (Mexico) *p;nla 'woven mat' (Campbell and Langackerpetlatl 1978:269)

Zoque-Mixe (Mexico) *pata 'straw mat' (Wonderly 1949:4)padapara

Cayua (Brazil-Paraguay), bat 'loom comb' (Watson 1952:31)Guarani

Honduras wat? 'cane' (Campbell 1976:75)

TABLE 40. AMERICAN INDIAN FORMS FOR 'CLOTH', 'THREAD', 'KINDLE'

LANGUAGE

Quechua (Bolivia)

Inca (Peru)

Atakapa-Chitimacha

Mexico

(cf. Fox)

Miskito (NicaraguaHonduras)

Coeur d'Alene

(cf. Shoshone)

WORD

waskawataawasqawarawarachikay

awaywayiwari

way

khwa

apahkwaya

aibakaia kwala

gwasiqwayi

we: hawaya

GLOSS

'rope'

'tie up''cloth' (maguey)'loincloth''loincloth'

'cloth''to weave'

'spider web'

'maguey cloth'

'flag reed'

'bark cloth or cottoncloth'

'wrapped aroundloins spin thread'

'kindle'

'to flame'

SOURCE

(Bills, Vallejo, and Troike1969: 15)

(Murra 1962:711)

(Murra 1962:723)(Swadesh 1946: 130)

(Newman and Weitlaner1950: 13)

(Bloomfield 1927:181)

(Heath 1950:21)

(Reichard 1945:56)(Reichard 1945:49)

(Shimkin 1949:212)

U naaliq/ProtoEskimo

Natchez(Muskhogean)

vaataq

hata

'cotton'

'to weave'

(Swadesh 1952:256)

(Swanton 1924:66)

The other forms, which are noticeably familiar in assOCiatiOn with the fiber set for'cordage', 'cloth', 'weaving', 'hemp-cloth', 'reed', 'kindling', and 'fire' as way-, was-, andwar- forms, are also present. Whether they are related to vas "v vat or to vae "v vai in

292 Asian Perspectives~ XXIII (2), 1980

Indo-European and in Austroasiatic and Oceanic cannot be considered here as part of thestudy of karpas 'V karvas and of vavae 'V vavai for 'cotton' and also 'fire'. Nevertheless,the semantic sets that are normally associated with these forms in the Indo-Pacific studyare present here in Amerindian to the same extent as they are present in Proto-Amerindian reflexes of *bac and *p'azd for 'cotton', 'thread' (spinning of), 'clothing', 'fire' and'cloth', as of cotton or hemp (see Table 40).

FURTHER REMARKS ON Gossypium

Cotton fibers manifest several distinct qualities to people in subsistence economies withneither matches nor loom-weaving. In accordance with evidence from our lexical studies,we emphasize three.

The first two are self-evident properties of various cottons and not peculiar to Gassypium. The absorbent softness ofvarious cottons recommends them to stuffing, batting, andmedical dressings. The flammability of the fine, dry fibers makes excellent tinder. Thethird property, which which was eventually to become the most important to humans, ismore peculiar to Gossypium. That is the remarkable strength of the delicate Gossypiumfibers when twisted together into cordage ofany caliber.

Once acquired, knowledge of the latter freed people to bend Gossypium to the mostpressing needs of subsistence life as thread, string, rope, nets, mats, and hand-twined textiles, all quite independent of the special requirements of weaving on a loom, which camelate in prehistory.

The remarkably preserved archaeological materials from coastal Peru (Stephens andMosely 1974) demonstrate the uses for cordage between 2500 and 1750 B.C., and suggestthat Gossypium domestication is a process that required no loom to initiate it. The selection of superior fibers by people and the appearance near habitation of cotton thicketsfrom discarded seeds must have begun with the earliest gathering of locks of cotton fromwild plants.

THE CULTIVATED COTTONS OF THE OLD WORLD: Gossypium arboreum AND

G. herbaceum

The acclimation of the Old World Gossypium spp. to the short growing seasons of theMediterranean, central Asia, and China is only a few centuries old at most, and is theresult of selection for early-flowering and maturation. It has occurred in all four of thetrue cultivated cotton species and accounts for the enormous expansion of the acreageplanted to them in the industrial era.

To find the progenitors of the Old World diploids, G. arboreum and G. herbaceum, wemust look no farther north than modern Pakistan and Baluchistan, because the earlydomesticated cottons and their wild relatives are all perennial shrubs of the dryer tropicsand subtropics.

The cotton of Mohenjo-Daro is presumed to be G. arboreum, the distinctive species ofIndia, and the plant on which that country's traditional textile industry was based. Hutchinson's (1971 :279) authoritative guess is that G. arboreum was domesticated in Gujeratand Sind, but there is no direct evidence. G. arboreum apparently was carried out ofIndiaearly. An acclimated African type is thought to have been the basis of the Sudanese textileindustry at Meroe (Hutchinson, Silow, and Stephens 1947:90).


An obscure early history also surrounds the other important Old World diploid cotton,G. herbaceum, the "cotton of Africa and western and central Asia" (Hutchinson 1959:4).Associated with the cotton textile industries of Arabs and East Africans, its cultivationapparently did not spread to India until about the eighteenth century (Hutchinson 1959:15-16), and was not significantly cultivated east ofIndia. Otherwise, G. herbaceum is particularly associated in the Mediterranean world with the expansion of Islam. Hutchinson(1971 :279) suggests southern Arabia and Baluchistan as likely sites for its early domestication because wild relatives of the domesticates grow there.

It was G. arboreum, however, that became the cultivated cotton of East and SoutheastAsia. It was transmitted to Malesia by the beginning of the Christian era along with aSanskrit name, karpasa. It eventually became acclimated to Chinese latitudes by A.D. 9001300 and ultimately reached Korea and the Ryukyus (Crawfurd 1820(1):439-442; Fryxell1979: 170). In the Malesian island world, the distributions of the Old and New World cottons overlap.

WILD COTTONS (Gossypium spp.) IN THE PACIFIC AND INDIAN OCEANS

Because they derive from the New World, the wild cottons of the Pacific and Indianoceans are very intriguing to students of cultural diffusion, especially when it is realizedthat there is every reason to suspect that wild varieties of G. hirsutum may have beenindigenous to the shores of Malesian islands, hence available to the aboriginal peoplesthere as we know they were in Polynesia.

The three wild Gossypium species in the Pacific and Indian oceans are all of ultimateAmerican origin. They are amphidiploid, the tetraploid (n = 26) progeny of a singlehybridization that may have occurred in tropical America before humans arrived there inthe Pleistocene or earlier (Fryxell 1965; Phillips 1963; Stephens 1963). Figure 8 showstheir distribution.

The beautiful G. tomentosum is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands and may have beenevolving there since the Pleistocene (Stephens 1964). The names of the other two speciesare familiar as the cottons of world commerce, a circumstance that, along with freeinterbreeding with their introduced cultivated relatives, has confused the status of islandpopulations of G. barbadense and G. hirsutum. There are, in fact, distinctly wild varietiesof each. G. barbadense var. darwinii is restricted to the Galapagos Islands (Archipel deColon). Quite spectacular by contrast is the wide western distribution of wild varieties ofG. hirsutum. Wild hirsutum varieties that resemble their Central American and Caribbeanrelatives are known from the South Pacific part of Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, theSulu Islands, south coastal New Guinea, northern Australia, and in the Indian Ocean asfar west as Madagascar (Table 41).

The lexical evidence we have summarized suggests that knowledge of 'cotton' predatesEuropean influence in the Pacific Islands cultures that did not spin or weave, and fartherwest, knowledge of 'cotton' predates introduction ofcotton-weaving over 2000 years ago.

Without insisting that 'cotton' must mean Gossypium, we would like to pose this question about the geography of the plant: How long have the wild species of Gossypium beenthus widely dispersed and are they in fact a part of the indigenous coastal flora of theMoluccas and Lesser Sundas? If the plants are indigenous to eastern Malesia, there shouldbe evidence of it in the folklore and language of the people. Here and there, too, shouldpersist relict populations of the wild plants.

tv\0

*'"

>-'\000o

~

'"~.;:s

~...,~~....~.

",'"~~...............

-----tv-"

......:.:.:.:<::;:::;;.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

..III~III~···~··A

,/

/",/

OCEAN

(®)

WILD TETRAPLOID COTTONS

IN THE PACIFIC&

INDIAN OCEANS

PACIFIC

.~-:----.-.......

,-If---W/ )

• GOSSYPIUM TOMENTQSUM (Wild)

l\.

MILES

o 1000 2000 3000

INDIAN OCEAN

t;1~~~~~~~-:-_-

Fig. 8 Three of the four known wild tetraploid (n = 26) species of Gossypium have dispersed westward to Pacific Islands (Table 41), although the relative antiquity and vehicles of dispersal must remain conjectural. In Polynesia, wild cottons were gathered for minor uses as tinder and stuffing at the time of Captain JamesCook's voyages (1768-1780). A probable indigenous status of the far-ranging wild varieties of G. hirsutum may have been obscured by free interbreeding with thedomestic varieties of G. hirsutum, almost universally introduced in warm countries by the end of the nineteenth century.


TABLE 41. WILD TETRAPLOID Gossypium SPECIES OF AMERICAN ORIGIN IN THEPACIFIC AND INDIAN OCEANS

G. tomentosum Nutt. ex Seem. Hawaiian Islands

G. barbadense L. var. darwinii (Watt) Hutch, Galapagos Islands, or Archipel de COIOII

G. hirsutum L. var. taitense "Polynesian Cotton"FijiMakatea, Tuamotu ArchipelagoMarquesasNew CaledoniaNew Guinea, southern coast (Borssum Waalkes 1966)Marianas: Saipan (F. R. Fosberg, personal communication)SamoaTongaTahiti

G. hirsutum L. other varietiesArnhem Land, Northern Australia: wild riverine formsMadagascar (Watt 1907)Marianas: Maug 1. (c. Lamoureux, University of Hawaii, personal communication)Revillagigedos: Soccoro 1.Mascarene Islands: Rodriguez I. (Watt 1907)Philippines: Sulu Islands (Watt 1907)Wake 1. (Fosberg 1959, & Stephens 1963)

SOURCES: Except as noted, the taxa are as listed by Stephens (1963) and Fryxell (1965).

295

Serious attention to the possibility that the island hirsutum varieties were truly wild,rather than weedy escapes from cultivation, has begun to appear in the literature on cotton genetics and evolution (Fryxell1965; 1979:171-173; Stephens 1963; 1971). Excepting the Polynesian G. hirsutum var. taitense and a Wake Island population, the wild hirsuturns are poorly known from a few dried specimens. The status of the Mascarene and SuluIsland ones has not apparently been reviewed since 1907 (Stephens 1963; 1966; Watt1907).

The wild tetraploids are everywhere almost entirely coastal in their distribution, andoften occur on small uninhabited islands, as emphasized by both Fryxell (1965:40-41)and Stephens (1958b:83-84). They are plants of the drier tropics and subtropics and arenot usually found in places lacking a dry season, hence our emphasis on the drier easternparts of Malesia. The plants do not require a coastal site to grow well. Wild and feral cotton populations are also occasionally found inland on open rocky sites and along riverbanks.

However, a natural occurrence of wild Gossypium shrubs in the open scrub behindtropical marine shores favors the plants doubly for possible dispersal either by ocean currents or by seafaring peoples, as Stephens has noted for the Caribbean (1958b:90-91).

While not all of these attributes are shared by every population, we may summarizesome of the characteristics of wild Pacific Island cotton shrubs: (1) Fibers on the seeds areshort, often sparse, and colored. (2) Capsules or bolls are small-less than 3 cm in diameter. (3) The ripe seeds with attached fibers usually fall freely from the opened dry capsulewhen it is shaken. (4) The hard, small seeds have impermeable seed coats, resulting in


delayed germination and a capability oflong immersion in sea water without losing viability. (5) Plants tolerate conditions near marine shores, including salt-laden winds and salinesoils (Fryxell 1965, 1979: 142-147; Stephens 1963, 1964, 1965).

How did the plants travel out of America? Natural dispersal of G. hirsutum westwardfrom America across the open Pacific involves substantial difficulties and enigmas thoroughly reviewed by Stephens, who also conducted flotation experiments in salt water withseeds of several hirsutum varieties, with results that leave us without definite answers(Stephens 1958a, 1958b, 1963, 1966). Prehistoric human transport ofsuch seeds is alwaysa possibility, for which there is no evidence. Birds might also be invoked.

In the end, one is left with the facts that certain wild varieties of G. hirsutum are welladapted to marine littoral habitats; that their seeds withstand immersion in sea water forseveral months at least; and that they are widely dispersed in the Pacific Islands and farther west. A natural dispersal out of America may at least be conceived, if not quite demonstrated.

Once arrived in the western Pacific Islands, successful founder populations might haveprovided a center for further dispersal within the region. In Malesia, the modest distancesbetween islands make dispersal from island to island easily credible on currents that shiftdirection with each turning of the monsoon.

Are there wild G. hirsutum varieties in Malesia? It is clear from the taxonomic review ofMalesian Malvaceae by Borssum Waalkes (1966) that forms of G. hirsutum that "run wildeasily" are widespread in those parts of eastern Indonesia that have a marked dry season,especially islands in and near the Lesser Sundas, Sulawesi, and the Moluccas.

Do the wild and cultivated forms recorded by Borssum Waalkes reflect historical introductions in colonial times, or do the wild cottons represent a separate archaic arrival of G.hirsutum from America?

One might envision a chronology ofcotton introduction into the Malesian region:1. Before about 3000 years ago: Introduction and spread of wild tetraploid G. hirsutum

from America by whatever means; utilization for nontextile purposes.2. Between 3000 and 2000 years ago: Introduction of the Indian diploid G. aboreum (and

its name kapas) along with the expansion ofIndian culture into Malesia; utilization of thenew cotton in spinning and weaving; genetic barriers prevent hybridization. The two species remain distinct.

3. About 450 years ago: In the era of European expansion, introduction of Americancultivated tetraploid Gossypium species, including cultivated varieties of G. hirsutum. Thelong-established wild hirsutum varieties freely cross with the cultivated varieties andobscure the status of the wild populations in the eyes ofbotanical explorers.

If there is any truth in that historical scenario, the distinctly wild strains are probablystill present on islands where cotton has not been cultivated. In the vicinity ofcultivation,the wild forms are likely to have interbred with, and come to resemble, cultivated forms,persisting as weedy races on the fringes of old and recent plantings (Hutchinson 1970).Such weedy and wild races would quite naturally have been confused with "escapes fromcultivation," and despised as weeds unworthy of the thoughtful attention of either scholarly botanists ofpractical cotton growers.

Such "wild" and "weedy" hirsutum varieties should be sampled and studied for thepossibility that they may have been in Malesia for a very long time. When examined inlight of their role in traditional culture, they, along with the little-known cultivated strainsof the region, promise to help us better understand the courses ofhuman culture history.


CONCLUSIONS

297

Gossypium species entered the Indo-Pacific islands from two directions in pre-Columbian times. In the first millennium B.C., the excellent textile cotton, diploid G. arboreum,entered Malesia. Out of the Americas several tetraploid species have dispersed from timeimmemorial. Noteworthy are the varieties G. hirsutum, which occur as far west as Madagascar. Their occurrence west of Polynesia before 1770 is suspected but not confirmed byexisting evidence.

Linguistic evidence supports two loci for the spread of words for 'cotton' into Polynesia: (1) the Southeast Asian mainland, possibly from Thai or Laotian (Austroasiatic); and(2) eastern Indonesia, in the region of Ceram (Austronesian). Etymological history ofProto-Polynesian vavae'V vavai 'cotton, tinder' suggests a proto-form in Austroasiaticvay 'V fay 'cotton, flame'. Eastern Indonesian forms kapa, abas, avas, afa, aha, ai aha'cotton, Gossypium' reflect Proto-Austronesian *kapas 'cotton, cord' (see Table 9).

However, as this study has shown, the ancestral antecedents of these forms in Austronesian are present in Austroasiatic and Indo-Aryan (i.e. karpasa, karvas). From this point ofview, two inferences are possible:

1. Proto-Polynesian forms for cotton have antecedents in Proto-Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and Indo-Aryan.

2. Proto-Polynesian forms for cotton, especially kafa as 'cord' (from Proto-Austronesian *kapas 'cotton, cord'), may not be the immediate predecessors of Eastern Polynesianforms afa 'V aha (Tahitian, Hawaiian). Eastern Indonesian forms show the greatest number of morphemic variations, suggesting that the phased evolution from Proto-EasternOceanic into Proto-Tongic (Western Polynesian) and then into Proto-Eastern Polynesianmay be true for some, but not all, Polynesian lexemes. Our assumption that Eastern Indonesia was the funnel through which Indo-Aryan and/or Austroasiatic forms effected thedetermination of these forms in Polynesia is strongly supported by the data we have presented.

Within the constraints of comparative linguistic theory, no proof of direct relationshipbetween forms for 'cloth' and 'bast' (as cotton or other fiber) on opposite sides of thePacific is claimed. A formulated conclusion seems premature at this time. Nevertheless,as we have shown, language boundaries based on strict morphological distinctions ofclassification do not necessarily limit the diffusion of key technology words vital to humansurvival in prehistoric times. Resolution of the problem of comparability between Amerindian forms and the fiber set for Indo-Aryan, Ural-Altaic, Austroasiatic, and Austronesian (see Fig. 4) may not be determined except on the basis of additional cognate sets thatwill dramatize the equivalent world sweep. Our tentative findings and continuing research into this sensitive area may provide more evidence for what linguists term "worldlanguage."

NOTE

1 Austronesian is the family oflanguages that groups what was formerly called Malayo-Polynesian: Malagasy(Madagascar), Malay, Indonesian, Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Balinese (Malay Peninsula/Indonesia); Brunei; Ngaju, Land Dyak (Borneo); Sea Dyak (Malay coast/Indonesia); Philippine languages; Formosan (hilltribes); Chamic (Montagnard; Vietnam/Kampuchea); Micronesian, Melanesian, Polynesian.


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implications distribution ofnames for cotton...

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