improving science education in the arab states science education in the arab states: 3 preface...

Improving Science Educationin the Arab States:

Lessons Learned from Science Education Practices in Four

Developed Countries

2008

United NationsEducational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization

Improving Science Education in the Arab States:Lessons Learned from Science Education Practices in Four Developed

Countries

2008

This document was prepared by Dr. Saouma Boujaoude,Chairman of the Education Department, American University of Beirut

with the assistance of Dr. Zalpha Ayoubi, College of Education, Lebanon University andMrs. Lama Jaber, Graduate Student Department of Education, American University of Beirut

Upon the request and technical and financial support of UNESCO Cairo Office

3Improving Science Education in the Arab States:

Preface‘The major challenge of the coming century lies in the ground between the power which humankind

has at its disposal and the wisdom that it is capable of showing in using it’1. The new millennium has brought forth with it an enormous amount of discovery and innovation. Never before has information been this readily available and accessible as today. The new millennium also provides opportunities for reflection about and study of the achievements of the previous century as well as setting common goals and methods of new achievements in the years to come.

In the pursuit of improving science and technology education one has to analyze the problem facing science education which has manifested itself in the lack of interest in science education by the younger population, the lack of qualified teaching staff and the gap between science and science educators due mostly to the separation of science and education faculties in universities. This situation suggests that there is a tangible need to change the status quo if we want our students to succeed in the worlds of school and work.

Several international conferences took place seeking substantial means for the improvement of science education. These included: International Forum of 1993 held by UNESCO in collaboration with other international organizations and NGO’s in order to establish a global agenda to support and encourage governments and all stake holders working on reforming science and technology education; The World Conference on Science (Budapest, 1999) negotiated a new social contract for science in the 21st century; The International Expert’s Conference on Science, Technology and Mathematics Education for Human Development organized by UNESCO and CASTME in Goa, India in November 2001; and finally the Regional Workshop on Bridging the Gap Between Scientists and Science Educators in the Arab States, Cairo 2006, organized by UNESCO Cairo Office and The Arab League Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (ALECSO).

As a follow-up to the Bridging the Gap Workshop held in Cairo, UNESCO Cairo Office and ALECSO, collaborated in implementing a project for the reform of science education in the Arab Region. The project attempted to find means and ways of improving science education in the region. This project included two distinct phases. Phase One involved developing 5 background studies reflecting the history and improvements achieved in Science Education at the pre-university level (K -12) in 4 developed countries (United Kingdom, Japan, United States, France) and one regional study, focusing on the Arab Region. Phase Two included conducting a comparative study of the 5 countries. This was followed by an expert meeting which took place in Amman during 2007 for the revision and finalization of the study.

This document presents a description of the study along with the results generated from analyzing the data on the four countries and one region. These results identified the factors that contributed to the success or failure of the countries in achieving well in science and recommendations for the provision of science education in developed and developing countries, as well as identifying problems that hinder the progress of science education.

1 Refer to http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=33939&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html


Table of ConTenTs

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 9Access to Science Education in Arab States ...................................................................................11

Quality of Science Education in Arab States ..................................................................................11

Science Education Reform ..............................................................................................................11

Quality of Science Curricula ..........................................................................................................12

Achievement of Pre-College Students in Science and Math ...........................................................12

Quality of Science Teachers ............................................................................................................13

Attempts to Improve Quality of Science Education ........................................................................13

Singapore ................................................................................................................................................15Access to Education/Science Education .........................................................................................15

Inputs into the Educational System .................................................................................................16

The Singapore Education System............................................................................................16

Teachers ..................................................................................................................................17

Facilities .................................................................................................................................18

Textbooks.................................................................................................................................18

Curricula and School Courses ................................................................................................19

Teaching Methods ...................................................................................................................20

Assessment and Evaluation System ................................................................................................20

Educational Outcomes ....................................................................................................................21

Factors Contributing to Singapore’s Success in Education ...........................................................22

Issues facing Education/Science Education ...................................................................................23

England ................................................................................................................................................... 25Access to Education/Science Education .........................................................................................25


The Education System in England ..........................................................................................25

Teachers ..................................................................................................................................27

Facilities .................................................................................................................................29

Textbooks.................................................................................................................................29





Issues Facing Education/Science Education ..................................................................................33

Japan ....................................................................................................................................................... 35Access to Education/Science Education .........................................................................................35



The Education System in Japan ..............................................................................................36

Teachers ..................................................................................................................................39

Facilities .................................................................................................................................40

Textbooks.................................................................................................................................41





Factors Contributing to Japan’s Success in Education ..................................................................48


France ...................................................................................................................................................... 50Access to Education/Science Education .........................................................................................51


Education System in France. ..................................................................................................52

Teachers. .................................................................................................................................54

Facilities .................................................................................................................................57

Textbooks.................................................................................................................................58

Curriculum ..............................................................................................................................59

Teaching Methods. ..................................................................................................................63




Conclusions and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 70Recommendations .................................................................................................................................. 74Appendix I .............................................................................................................................................. 76Appendix II ............................................................................................................................................. 80Appendix III ........................................................................................................................................... 84Appendix IV ........................................................................................................................................... 85Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 87

List of TablesTable 1: Outcomes of Education in Singapore between 2001 and 2005 ................................................ 16

Table 2: Educational Institutions that Students Joined between 2001 and 2005 ................................... 16

Table 3: National Tests/Examinations and Teacher Assessment at the Grade 4 and 6 Levels ............... 21

Table 4: National Tests/Examinations at the Lower and Upper Secondary Levels ................................ 22

Table 5: Educational Qualifications of Singapore Citizens .................................................................... 23

Table 6: Student Gross Enrolment Ratio, Student/Teacher Ratio, and Sex of Teachers ......................... 25


Table 7: Summary Description of the Education System in the UK for Ages 316- ................................. 27

Table 8: Statutory National Curriculum Assessment Arrangements at the Primary School Level in

England ................................................................................................................................................... 32

Table 9: Student /Teacher Ratio in Schools in Japan.............................................................................. 36

Table 10: Structure of the Education System in Japan ........................................................................... 38

Table 11: Time Allocation Prescribed by the Course of Study for Elementary Schools (per year in hours,

1 hour = 60 minutes) (April 2002) ......................................................................................................... 42

Table 12: Time Allocation Prescribed by the Course of Study for Junior High Schools (per year in

hours, 1 hour = 60 minutes) (April 2002)............................................................................................... 44

Table 13: Compulsory Credits - Curriculum up to April 2003 ............................................................... 44

Table 14: Percentage of Curriculum Time Loss ..................................................................................... 45

Table 15: Percentage of Japanese Students Completing Lower Secondary Education and Advancing to

University Education .............................................................................................................................. 48

Table 16: Summary of the Structure of the Pre-College Educational System in France ........................ 53

Table 17: Learning Cycles in the Pre-College Educational System in France ...................................... 55

Table 18: Organization and Content of Training for Teacher Certification ........................................... 55

Table 19: Number of Positions, Candidates, and the Success rate of all Candidates in the Training

Recruitment Examination in 2001 .......................................................................................................... 56

Table 20: Weekly Timetable in Hours for Subjects in the Première and Terminale in General Lycées .. 64

Table 21: Percentage of students who Passed the Baccalaureate in 2005 ............................................. 67

Table 22: Percentage of a Cohort Obtaining a Baccalaureate (by Baccalaureate Type) ...................... 67

List of FiguresFigure 1: Educational Ladder of Singapore ........................................................................................... 17

Figure 2: Requirements for Initial Science Teacher Preparation Programs in England ....................... 28

Figure 3: Requirement for Initial Science Teacher Preparation Programs in England ......................... 58

Figure 4: Elementary curriculum prior to 2002 in France .................................................................... 61

Figure 5: Elementary Curriculum Since 2002 in France ...................................................................... 61


InTroduCTIon

Education, political, economic, and community leaders worldwide have agreed that science and technology are the catalysts for change in modern society. Concurrently, research has shown that the majority of people in developing and developed countries lack the necessary knowledge and skills in science and technology to function in the modern world (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1989, 1993; Eisenhart, Finkel, & Marion, 1996, Halloun 1993, Miller 1989, Ogawa 1998, Shamos 1995). Consequently, developing scientific and technological literacy has become imperative in a world that is increasingly shaped by science and technology (UNESCO 1994). UNESCO accentuates the necessity of scientific and technological literacy for people to function successfully and not to be alienated by rapid scientific and technological change. Science education should fulfill personal, societal, academic, and career needs (Project Synthesis). Specifically, science education should prepare informed citizens who are ready to deal responsibly with science-related societal issues, can utilize science for improving their own lives, and cope with an increasingly technological world. Moreover, science education should allow students who are likely to pursue science academically as well as professionally to acquire the academic knowledge and skills appropriate for their needs. Finally, it should increase students’ awareness of the nature and scope of a wide variety of science and technology-related careers (BouJaoude, 2002a, 2002b, 2003).

The increased emphasis on developing scientific literacy is reflected in the goals of many curricula around the world and in the work of United Nations agencies (BouJaoude, 2002a). The three major science education reform projects in the US, specifically Project 20611, Scope Sequence and Coordination [SS&C]2, and National Science Education Standards [NSES]3 are guided by a ‘broad vision of scientific literacy’ (Eisenhart et al. 1996). A few years ago, the Report to the Nation from the US National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century [NCMST-21] has admonished Americans to support the development of scientific literacy for all children (NCMST-21, 2000). In the UK, Holman (1997) suggests that the National Curriculum presents a golden opportunity for helping all students to develop scientific literacy. In Lebanon, one of the goals of education presented in the National Educational Plan adopted by the Council of Ministers in 1994 is to help students to be continuously ‘abreast of the scientific and technological advances’ in the world (Center for Educational Research and Development [CERD], 1994: 4). Furthermore, the 400 educational leaders from 80 countries convened by UNESCO in 1993 in the Project 2000+ Forum recommended the promotion of scientific and technological literacy for all. More specifically, Project 2000+ participants admonished world leaders to promote

understanding of the nature of, and the need for scientific literacy and technological literacy in relation to local culture and values and to the social and economic needs and aspirations of each country and its peoples, and also in accord both with the general aims of education for the all-round development of human personality and with human rights and basic freedoms (UNESCO 1994: 9).

However, what is scientific literacy? And what are the rationales for developing scientific literacy?

A definition of scientific literacy should reflect current understandings of the nature of science and its purposes and be suitable for the social and cultural environments in which science is produced and taught. The definition of scientific literacy has passed through several iterations. One of the earlier

1 Refer to http://www.project2061.org/ 2 Refer to http://dev.nsta.org/ssc/ 3 Refer to http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/overview.html


detailed frameworks of scientific literacy was developed by the Center of Unified Science Education (CUSE,1974). This framework defines a scientifically literate person as one who:

understands the nature of scientific knowledge, applies appropriate science concepts, principles, laws, and theories in interacting with his [sic] universe, uses processes of science in solving problems, making decisions, and furthering his [sic] own understanding of the universe, interacts with the various aspects of his [sic] universe in a way that is consistent with the values that underlie science, understands and appreciates the joint enterprise of science and technology and the interrelationships of these with each other and with other aspects of society, has developed a richer, more satisfying, and more exciting view of the universe as a result of his [sic] science education and continues to extend this education throughout his [sic] life, and has developed numerous manipulative skills associated with science and technology (CUSE 1974: 1).

Defining scientific literacy has preoccupied science educators for the past few decades. The National Science Teachers Association [NSTA]) (1982), Hurd (1985, 1994, 1998), AAAS, (1989), National Research Council [NRC] (1996), Bybee (1995, 1997), and Koballa, Kemp, and Evans (1997) have all attempted to define scientific literacy. The shared elements among the definitions and frameworks of scientific literacy available in the science education literature were synthesized by BouJaoude (2002) to produce a comprehensive framework of scientific literacy, comprised of four aspects, akin to the definition presented in the work of Chiapetta, Fillman, and Sethna (1991) and Chiapetta, Sethna, and Fillman (1993), albeit with various adaptations. The four aspects of scientific literacy include the knowledge of science, the investigative nature of science, science as a way of knowing, and the interaction of science, technology and society.

The knowledge of science aspect of scientific literacy includes those facts, concepts, principles, laws, hypotheses, theories, and models of science that have been produced by the scientific community. The investigative nature of science aspect emphasizes tasks that require doing science and stimulate thinking. This aspect reflects emphasis on using methods and processes of science such as observing, measuring, classifying, inferring, recording and analyzing data, communicating, making calculations, and experimenting. The science as a way of knowing aspect emphasizes thinking, reasoning, and reflection in the construction of scientific knowledge and the work of scientists and underscores the importance of understanding the nature of science and scientific knowledge. Moreover, it includes the epistemology and nature of science and that science is one way rather than the only way of knowing. Finally, the fourth aspect of scientific literacy, the interaction of science, technology and society emphasizes helping students become aware of the nature and scope of a wide variety of science and technology-related careers open to students of varying aptitudes and interests.

Jenkins (1997) maintains that arguments for scientific literacy reflect the orientations and interests of those who seek to advance and realize this literacy. Scientists, for example, support the development of scientific literacy because it may help the public to understand science-related societal issues and everyday phenomena and because scientifically literate individuals provide the political support for the activities of scientists and oppose those individuals who are hostile to the scientific enterprise. Moreover, if scientific literacy helps people to understand the limitations of science, it may diminish the disenchantment with and hostility towards science. Alternatively, economic instrumentalists may support scientific literacy because they perceive the existence of a positive relationship between scientific literacy, prosperity, and


the creation of wealth. Supporters of participatory democracy promote scientific literacy because they see that science is an important cultural activity and citizens in democratic societies need science to decide on science-related issues and understand decisions taken by scientific experts. For environmentalists, scientific literacy may provide citizens with the knowledge and skills in science necessary for supporting sustainable development. Finally, for feminists and supporters of minority rights, enhancing scientific literacy may provide women and minorities with the ammunition to address economic and social inequalities and injustices.

The preceding paragraphs have argued for the importance of being scientifically literate in the modern world and the need to prepare all students to be scientifically and technologically literate if they are to be productive and successful. Moreover, it discussed the rationales for scientific literacy advanced by science educators. However, what is the status of science education, the formal vehicle to prepare scientifically literate students, in Arab States? The following paragraphs discuss the problems faced by science education in Arab States in terms of access to and quality of science education. More specifically, they address access to science education and quality of science education in terms of science education reform, quality of science curricula, achievement of pre-college students in science and math, quality of science teachers, and attempts to improve quality of science education.

Access to Science Education in Arab StatesProblems of access are manifested in the high levels of illiteracy, especially in females, in some Arab

countries. Many Arab States are attempting to increase access to education through a variety of programs and strategies. This has resulted in the increase in student enrollment at all educational levels in the past decades and the decrease in illiteracy rates among the population in general and among women more specifically. However, the illiteracy rates are still relatively high and there is an apparent serious problem in scientific and technological literacy (United Nations Development Program, Regional Bureau for Arab States [UNDP/RBAS], 2002, 2003). Basic literacy is no more sufficient especially when considering the need for scientifically and technologically literate individuals who can function in a world where competition is extremely high and knowledge is being produced at such a high rate that catching up is extremely difficult even for people who are highly educated and trained.

Quality of Science Education in Arab StatesEven when the problems of access are addressed, a serious problem in Arab States is the low quality

education that students at all levels are experiencing. The problem of quality is manifested in outdated curricula and teaching methods, emphasis on theoretical science education and neglect of hands-on and practical activities, lack of access to appropriate technologies and the Internet, low quality science and technology education programs, lack of teacher support, and most importantly, lack of sufficient budgets for improving the quality of science education.

Science Education Reform. There have been many attempts to reform science curricula in Arab States4. The Arab League Educational Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO)5 has been active in promoting science and technology education. As early as 1989, ALECSO published documents on the Arab strategy for science and technology followed by the Arab strategy for information in the Internet age in 1999. In 2007, it published a book that included background papers on the strategy for disseminating scientific and technological literacy in the Arab Nation. In 1994, it published the strategy of biotechnology in the Arab countries and subsequently a reference book on the integrated subjects for the basic level

4 It is important to mention that conducting a review of science education reform efforts, research, or projects across Arab States is very hard currently because of the absence of a pan-Arab data base that keeps track of publications in these areas. Any effort to review this research presently is by necessity limited and lacking breadth. 5 Refer to http://www.alecso.org.tn/


of education in 1996. In the past few years, ALECSO has published model audio-visual educational packages for teaching and learning in the field of renewable energies along with a number of dictionaries whose aim was to standardize usage of science and technology terminology in Arab States.

At the country level, Sleem (1996) contends that a number of Arab States have adopted science frameworks developed by ALECSO in their attempt to reform science education. These curricula have the advantage of being developed by Arab experts who are in tune with the needs of Arab society. Some countries have adopted or adapted science education reform projects developed in the West to their needs through a process of Arabization. Other countries have contracted Arab curriculum design specialists to develop their curricula.

Quality of Science Curricula. In terms of quality of science curricula, Nashwan (1993) analyzed the science curricula of eleven randomly selected Arab countries. He found that these curricula focused on the theoretical aspects of science and neglected the applications of science in novel and everyday situations, did not develop students’ abilities to use investigative, problem solving, and thinking skills, ignored students’ interests, backgrounds, and environments, paid no attention to creativity and imagination, did not attempt to address students’ unacceptable beliefs in myths and superstitions, and did not help students to understand their bodies and take care of their health and hygiene. Nashwan concluded that science curricula in Arab States should not be focused solely on helping students to know scientific facts but should also assist them to apply scientific knowledge in solving everyday problems. In a similar research project, Badran (1993) assessed the quality of science curricula and textbooks in seven Gulf States. Results of the study indicated that these curricula did not benefit from the new technologies in teaching science and did not address social and environmental problems associated with the applications of science and technology. Moreover, Badran found that the content of science textbooks appeared to be adapted from foreign books with no emphasis on local science related social and environmental problems or on the applications of science in technology and in everyday life. In addition, these textbooks lacked any emphasis on inquiry type activities.

On the other hand, science teaching in most Arab countries suffers from an overemphasis on teacher-centered teaching approaches and dissemination methods that encourage memorization and neglect the development of critical thinking, problem solving, inquiry and investigative skills. While it is hard to locate studies that have attempted to investigate the quality of science teaching across Arab countries, studies in individual countries and recommendations for change in reports on Arab education consistently highlight the necessity of adopting new and more student-centered teaching methods (see for example Abd-El-Wahed, 1996; Badran, 1993; BouJaoude & Abd-El-Khalick, 2004; Nashwan, 1993, 1996; Sleem, 19966; UNDP/RBAS, 2002, 2003). Moreover, many studies have shown that teachers do not emphasize the nature of science, and students and teachers have inadequate conceptions of this nature (Abd-El-Khalick & BouJaoude, 2003; Al Attar, 1993; BouJaoude, 1996; Haidar, 1999).

Achievement of Pre-College Students in Science and Math. One indicator of the quality of science education in Arab States is achievement of pre-college students in science and math as compared to other countries. This comparison was accomplished through the Trends in International Math and Science Study (TIMSS), developed by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) to measure trends in students’ math and science achievement worldwide. Offered in 1995, 1999, and 2003, TIMSS provides participating countries with data that allow them to measure students’ progress in math and science achievement every four years. Three Arab States participated in TIMSS in 1999 while ten participated in 2003. Results of TIMSS 2003 show that Arab States lag behind

6 See also the final reports of the fourth and fifth regional conferences of Ministers of Education and those responsible for economic planning in the Arab States held in the United Arab Emirates (1977) and Egypt (1994) respectively.


other countries. In science, only Jordanian grade 8 students ranked around the international average while students from Bahrain, Palestine, Egypt, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, and Lebanon scored lower than the international average7. Students’ achievement in math was comparable to that in science. All eight Arab States whose results appeared in the 2003 report scored below the international average.

Quality of Science Teachers. According to BouJaoude (2006), presently, most science teacher preparation programs in Arab States subscribe to an academic/technological orientation model of teacher preparation. According to Feiman-Nemser (1990), the academic orientation is “primarily concerned with the transmission of knowledge and the development of understanding” (p. 221). The technological orientation “focuses attention on the knowledge and skills of teaching. The primary goal is to prepare teachers who can carry out the task of teaching with proficiency. Learning to teach involves the acquisition of principles derived from the scientific study of teaching”(Feiman-Nemser, 1990, p. 223). Because of the emphasis on academics and on developing specific techniques, teachers prepared in these programs tend to re-create modes of teaching to which they were exposed to rather than use reflection and problem-solving. These teachers may be more interested in conserving the existing structures and processes rather than becoming agents of change and creativity. Additionally, focusing on specific teaching techniques in teacher preparation programs may result in the preparation of students who know and “consume” large amounts of scientific information but are unable to use science to address and possibly solve science related social issues. More importantly, these students do not seem to develop the creative skills necessary for the production of knowledge.

Attempts to Improve Quality of Science Education. There have been a variety of projects to improve the quality of science teaching in Arab countries. Many of these attempts focused on improving teaching methods, computer literacy, and updating teachers’ science content knowledge (Abd-El-Wahed, 1996; UNESCO Regional Office for Science and Technology, 2000). In many situations, however, these projects were of limited scope and duration and suffered from the same problems of teaching at the pre-college levels. That is, they were trainer- rather than learner-centered and focused on theoretical issues rather than on practical and useful classroom teaching skills. The enormous number of pre-service and in-service teachers who need to be trained or re-trained and the lack of human and material support to implement this training resulted in what can be characterized as “one-off” training experiences in which large numbers of teachers are trained together then they are left to fend for themselves in the classroom. Also, most of the pre-service and in-service training programs lacked the necessary mechanisms of follow-up to help teachers or to investigate the impact of training and university education on teachers’ classroom behaviors. Finally, teachers are rarely provided with supplementary instructional materials or with the training to produce these materials.

The above pages emphasize the pressing need for students in the modern world to be scientifically literate to fulfill their personal, academic, social, and career needs and to be productive, involved, and successful citizens. Additionally, these pages indicate that science education is lacking in Arab States and educational systems may not be preparing scientifically literate citizens. Consequently, in an attempt to provide recommendations for improving the quality of science education and bridge the gap between Arab States and developed countries, this paper describes educational systems in four countries in an attempt to derive lessons that may be useful in providing recommendations for reform and improvement in science education in the Arab States. The four selected countries are Singapore, England8, France, and

7 Two out of the ten Arab States that participated in TIMSS in 2003 did not appear in the math and science results because of logistical problems related to test administration. 8 This paper focuses mainly on England because it is the largest constituent of the UK and because its curriculum is similar, although not identical, to that of Wales and Northern Ireland. Scotland, on the other hand has a totally independent educational system.


Japan. Selecting these countries was based on their economic success, relatively high performance on science and math international comparisons, their perceived successful and ongoing attempts to reform their educational systems, and the similarities of their educational systems to those common in Arab States. The following issues were used to describe the educational systems in the four countries provided above:

1. Access to education/science education2. Inputs into the educational system to support science education: available facilities and

resources, curriculum, etc.3. Nature of assessment and evaluation systems: alternative vs. traditional assessments, high

stakes examinations, standardized tests, etc.4. Educational outcomes: quality of science students and scientific research5. Factors contributing to success in education, if any6. Issues facing education/science education7. What can be learned from the country in terms of access, inputs into the educational system,

educational outcomes, and nature of assessment and evaluation systems?


sIngapore

Results of the TIMSS 2003 indicate that Singapore ranked first in science and math at the Grade 4 and 8 levels. Moreover, previous TIMSS results show that Singaporean students also ranked very high in TIMSS 1999 and TIMSS 1995. Singapore is characterized by the emphasis it places on education for upward social mobility. Thus, parents try their best to provide their children with opportunities to succeed and score high on exams, teachers give a significant amount of homework and spend time coaching students to do well on examinations, and the Ministry of Education (MOE) provides the human and material resources necessary for all students to reach their potential.

The state is the principal provider of education at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels in Singaporei. Thus, MOE in Singapore controls the development and administration of public schools which receive government funding, but also has an advisory and supervisory role for private schools. However, the private sector plays a complementary role in non-formal education, continuing/supplementary education classes in commercial/business studies, computers, languages, and fine arts to name only a few areas.

Government spending on education constituted 18.2% of government spending and 3.1% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2004 while expenditure on research and development in science and technology was 2.3% of the GDP during the same year9. Finally, there were 4,999 researchers per 1,000,000 inhabitants in 2003.

Access to Education/Science EducationAccording to the Singapore MOE10, Singapore has a strong education system as evidenced by

the impressive results students achieve in international comparisons and the widespread international recognition of its accomplishments. This is because of the good quality school curricula and programs, capable school leaders and teachers, and facilities that are amongst the best in the world. Singapore does not have problems with access to education at all levels (see Table 1). A growing number of children in Singapore attend pre-nursery or playschool education before the age of 4, though this is optional and not supported by the MOE. Many children in Singapore also attend Nursery for 1 year at the age of 4, though this is also optional. By the age of 5, most children will be attending Kindergarten for 2 years (K1 and K2). Additionally, 100% of primary age children attend primary schools, especially that primary school years, until grade 6, are compulsory. At the lower and upper secondary levels, approximately 75% of students attend the academic stream. However, while numbers seem relatively low at this level, all Singapore students who are not capable of joining the academic streams have the opportunity to join technical or vocational institutions that prepare them for the world of work.

Table 1 shows the percentages of students who did not complete secondary education, were eligible for secondary school, sat for and passed GCE Ordinary (O) and Normal (N) levels, and sat for and passed GCE Advanced (A) levels between 2001 and 2005. This table indicates that a high percentage of students is eligible for lower secondary school but a much smaller percentage enrolls in and pursues the GCE A levels which are required for admission to university. Table 2 presents the educational institutions that students joined between 2001 and 2005. This table shows that approximately 20% of students pursue university education in Singapore. It is to note that the Singapore educational system is competitive and only those students who are deemed capable of pursuing secondary and university education are given the opportunity to do so.

9 These numbers are less than other TIMSS countries such as USA, Denmark, and Norway, comparable to others such as England and France, and higher than others such as Japan and Germany. 10 Refer to http://www.moe.gov.sg/corporate/eduoverview/Overview.htm.


Table 1: Outcomes of Education in Singapore between 2001 and 2005

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Percentage of P1 cohort who:• Did not complete secondary education 4.3 4.0 3.7 2.8 2.6• Sat for the Primary School Leaving Examination

(PSLE) and were eligible for secondary school98.4 98.5 98.5 98.7 98.9

• Sat for GCE ‘N’ or ‘O’ Level Examinations and had at least 5 ‘N’ level passes or 3 ‘O’ level passes

85.4 85.3 86.3 86.9 86.9

• Sat for GCE ‘A’ Level Examination and had at least 2 ‘A’ & 2 ‘AO’ level passes including General Papers

24.6 25.0 26.3 25.6 26.3

Source: MOE, Singapore, Educational factsheet 2006.

Table 2: Educational Institutions that Students Joined between 2001 and 2005

Percentage of P1 cohort admitted into:• Institute of Technical Education (ITE) 20.0 20.0 22.2 22.2 22.1• Polytechnics 39.3 39.6 38.6 39.1 39.8• Pre-University 29.0 30.4 29.5 29.9 29.8• Universities 21.5 21.7 22.4 23.2 23.1

Finally, while access to education is almost universal, the student teacher ratios have been decreasing in the past years to give students the opportunity to excel in a system that is demanding and competitive. The ratio of students to teaching staff ranged from 25.1 in 2001 to 23.5 in 2005 at the primary level and from 19.6 in 2001 to 18.5 in 2005 at the secondary level.

Inputs into the Educational SystemThe following paragraphs provide a description of the Singapore education system, along with the

physical and human resources in the system.

The Singapore Education System. The organization of the educational system in Singaporeii is described in Figure 1iii. At the primary level, students go through a four-year foundation stage, from Primary One to Four, and a two-year orientation stage from Primary Five to Six. These 6 years constitute compulsory educationiv. Students in the foundation stage follow the same curriculum whose aim is to provide students with a good grasp of the English language, mother tongue (Chinese, Malay, or Tamil), and math . The curriculum has three main foci: Life skills: skills necessary for students to be active and productive citizens, knowledge skills: emphasis on enabling students to analyze and use information and express their ideas clearly and effectively, and content based subject disciplines: Languages, humanities and the arts, math, and science (Science is introduced in Primary 3).

Students who pass the Primary Six Leaving Examination (PSLE) at the end of Primary 6 are promoted to lower secondary school. In the lower secondary level, students spend four years in the Special/Express Stream (academic) or in the Normal Stream (technical). These steams have different emphases to cater to the needs of all students. However, all students are required to take science and to participate in co-curricular activities. Students are required to sit for an official examination at the end of secondary school: GCE ‘O’ level exams for the special/express courses and GCE ‘N’ level for the normal course. A fifth year leading to GCE ‘O’ level is open for students who perform well on the GCE ‘N’ level exams. As at the primary level, the secondary level curriculum has three foci: Life skills: skills necessary for students to be active and productive citizens, knowledge skills: Emphasis on enabling students to analyze and


use information and express their ideas clearly and effectively, and content-based subject disciplines: languages (English, mother tongue, and the possibility of a third language), humanities and the arts including required and elective courses, and math and science required and elective courses. The content-based subject disciplines insure that all students, whether in the special/express or the normal streams, have a good grounding in a wide range of content matter areas albeit at different levels. Moreover, while the special/express and normal (academic stream) prepare students for academic careers, the normal (technical) prepares them for technical-vocational education at the Institute for Technical Education. It is important to note that an Integrated Program (IP)v is open for a limited number of capable students who can benefit from a flexible program which allows them to participate in broader learning experiences and possible alternative programs such as the International Baccalaureate.

Upon completion of their secondary level examinations, students who are academically inclined compete for admission to a Junior College (2 years) or a Centralized Institute (3 years) that lead to GCE A level examinations. Students who wish to pursue applied and practice-oriented training and have the necessary O level qualifications compete to join a polytechnic institute whose normal program is three years. Polytechnic graduates with good grades can pursue university education. A third option available to students who have O level or N level certificates is the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) which offers 1 or 2-year vocational courses. Students who do well in these courses are able to join polytechnics to attain specialized diplomas and qualified candidates may also proceed to universities. It is to note that all students are required to participate in co-curricular activities, the performance in which is considered for university admission. As is the case with other levels of pre-university education, the curriculum focuses on life skills, knowledge skills -- with emphasis on project work, knowledge and inquiry to encourage students to conduct investigative work and develop critical reasoning skills -- and content-based subject disciplines.

Even though students in the academic streams sit for GCE A level examinations, as of 2006 a broader and more flexible GCE curriculum has been introduced during the first year to encourage students to think critically and creatively. In this respect, students may select subjects at three levels of study ranging from Higher 1 (H1) level which has less content than the GCE A level, Higher 2 which is the same as the GCE A level, to Higher 3 (H3) which includes courses at levels more advanced than GCE A level aimed at encouraging capable students to acquire advanced content and research skills.

Figure 1: Educational Ladder of Singapore

1. Pre-nursery or playschool: optional; before the age of 42. Kindergarten: 3-year pre-school education (from age 3 to 6), Optional; 5 days a week, 3 to 4 hours a day.

2.1. Nursery 2.2. Kindergarten 12.3. Kindergarten 2

3. Primary education: 6 years (from age 6 to 12), Compulsory, consists of:3.1. 4-year foundation stage: from Primary 1 to 43.2. 2-year orientation stage: including Primary 5 and 6

4. Secondary education: 4-5 years: Special and Express (from secondary 1 to 4), Normal (Academic) and Normal (Technical) (from secondary 1 to 5)

5. Pre-University:5.1. Junior College / Centralized institutes: (2 years)5.2. Polytechnic: (3 to 4 years)5.3. Institute of Technical Education (ITE)

6. University education

Teachers. Teacher preparation in Singapore is very rigorous. All teachers, including science teachers, must have high secondary school grades in math and other subjects before they are accepted in teacher


preparation institutions. Moreover, science teachers take a large number of science education courses, spend a long time in student teaching, and have to continue updating their knowledge by participating in in-service science and science education courses.

Professional training of Singapore teachers is conducted by the National Institute of Education (NIE), an institute of the Nanyang Technological University. NIE offers four-year degree programs which lead to Bachelor of Arts (Education) or Bachelor of Science (Education) including specialization in physical education. Non-degree two-year programs which provide a Diploma in Education/Physical Education are also offered. University graduates can also take the Postgraduate Diploma in Education/Physical Education. In addition to preparing regular teachers, NIE prepares early childhood and special needs teachers. Admission to NIE is competitive and requires passing special exams. Moreover, after graduation newly appointed teachers participate in induction programs with master teachers who support and guide them in their first year of teaching. Additionally, in-service teachers have ample opportunities to participate in professional development programs organized by the MOE. (Appendix I presents a detailed description of the teacher preparation requirements in Singapore11).

Facilities. Education in Singapore is very well funded. Billions of dollars have been spent to equip every school with computers and peripherals, with the target being 100 computers per school. Moreover, the government helps schools to train their personnel, especially teachers, to use computers in teaching science among other subjects. As a result, Singapore was ranked second in the world in the ease of access of its students to the Internet. In addition, teachers are trained to help students use IT for active learning to stimulate them to think and experiment independently and creatively. The aim of Singapore education authorities is to incorporate information technology into planning, design, and delivery of the curriculum. Singapore schools are also equipped with laboratories and scientific equipment especially that practical laboratory exams are required for many students at the secondary level. In terms of other resources, results of TIMSS 1999 indicate that Singapore students have higher availability of educational resources than schools in other countries. These resources include instructional materials, budget for supplies, instructional space, school buildings and grounds, computers, library materials, and audio-visual resources. Finally, Singapore students have excellent home support. TIMSS 1999 results show that 80% of Singapore students had access to computers at home; this is an increase of 30% over 1995 results with indications that currently it is even much higher.

Textbooks. All school textbooks, workbooks and assessment books have to follow the subject syllabi set by the Singapore MOE for each level. However, recently there has been some liberalization of the school textbook market and schools are allowed to choose from a list of several textbook packages to meet their needs as long as the textbooks follow the required curriculum.

One significant feature of the Singapore educational system is the widespread use of assessment books and workbooks. Assessment books provide students with additional drill and practice beyond those covered in school workbooks. It is common for parents to buy a variety of assessment books for their children for each subject and almost every child in Singapore owns at least a few assessment books for each subject. Assessment books are also widely used in Singapore schools as part of the school curriculum as well as in centers that help students in their school work after school hours. The assessment books come in a variety of forms and serve a variety of purposes. For example, assessment books provide topical exercises, revision exercises, previous test papers, word problems, thinking skills exercises, or a combination of two or more of the above. However, significant among assessment textbooks are those used to help students improve their math. These textbooks provide students with more difficult and challenging exercises than those available in typical workbooks.

11 Excerpted from http://www.inca.org.uk


Singapore textbooks, workbooks and assessment books have become popular worldwide as a result of the high ranks Singapore students achieved in international comparisons. Recently many international schools have adopted these books in the hope of improving students’ results in all subject areas especially in science and math12.

Curricula and School Courses. The Singapore MOE determines the scope and sequence of all school curricula which are competency-based. These curricula are updated regularly, along with the associated textbooks, to ensure that they remain relevant to the global economy. All students in Singapore study English along with their mother tongue (Chinese, Malay, and Tamil). English is the language of instruction for most subjects, especially math and natural sciences. However, a number of secondary schools under the Special Assistance Plan (SAP), which encourages the use of the mother tongue, may teach in English and another language. There are also other schools which have been experimenting with curricula that integrate languages with math and sciences, using both English and a second language.

Formal education in Singapore starts at the age of 6 (Grade 1 of the foundation stage). During the foundation stage (grades 1-4) students take a variety of subjects, with the teaching of science starting in grade 3 (see Figure 1). During the foundation stage schools emphasize basic literacy and numeracy, with 80% of the time spent on providing students with a working knowledge of English, a good grounding in Mother Tongue, and Math.

During the orientation stage (grades 5 and 6) students are encouraged to participate in co-curricular and community-based activities along with completing the regular curriculum. In general, most schools provide 2 hours of science at the grade 4 level, and 3.5 to 5 hours of science per week for lower secondary classes13. Finally, at the secondary level students can choose one of three courses designed to match their learning abilities and interests. Below is a detailed description of the education system in Singapore.

According to the Singapore MOE14, “The goal of science education was once thought to be solely to prepare a person for a career in science or engineering. Hence, great emphasis was given to the acquisition of scientific knowledge and understanding. However, the ever-expanding scientific knowledge makes it impossible for the student to acquire all of it, while the ability to access, generate and process information becomes more important.” The aims of the science education now “include the acquisition of knowledge and understanding as well the acquisition of lifelong skills, from discrete process skills, thinking skills to processes such as decision-making and problem solving. The rapid advances in science and technology require ordinary people to acquire basic scientific and technological literacy so as to enable them to understand and make informed decisions on matters relating to science and technology in everyday life.” Thus, the science curriculum framework “encapsulates the thrust of science education in Singapore to prepare … students to be sufficiently adept as effective citizens, able to function in and contribute to an increasingly technologically-driven world. Central to the curriculum framework is the inculcation of the spirit of scientific inquiry. The conduct of inquiry is founded on three integral domains of (a) Knowledge, Understanding and Application, (b) Skills and Processes and (c) Ethics and Attitudes. These domains are essential to the practice of science.”

MOE continues “The curriculum design seeks to enable students to view the pursuit of science as meaningful and useful. Inquiry is thus grounded in knowledge, issues and questions that relate to the roles played by science in daily life, society and the environment. The science curriculum seeks to nurture the student as an inquirer. The starting point is that children are curious about and want to explore the things

12 Refer to http://columbia.edu/programs-projects/profile-asia.html.13 Refer to http://isc.bc.edu/timss1995i/TIMSSPDF/BSciAll.pdf14 Excerpted from http://www.moe.gov.sg/cpdd/doc/Science%20Primary%20Syllabus%20Sep%202007.pdf


around them. The science curriculum leverages on and seeks to fuel this spirit of curiosity. The end goal is students who enjoy science and value science as an important tool in helping them explore their natural and physical world. The teacher is the leader of inquiry in the science classroom. Teachers of science impart the excitement and value of science to their students. They are facilitators and role models of the inquiry process in the classrooms. The teacher creates a learning environment that will encourage and challenge students to develop their sense of inquiry. Teaching and learning approaches center around the student as an inquirer.”

Teaching Methods. In recent years, Singapore has been moving towards an education system that focuses on learning rather than teaching, is flexible and diverse, and provides students with greater choices to meet their different interests and learning approaches in the hope that they would have ownership of their learningvi. In addition, students would receive a broad-based education to ensure their holistic development and the readiness to be productive and well rounded citizens (Singapore MOE, 2006). The Thinking School, Learning Nation (TSLN) initiative which was enacted in 1997 overhauled the education system of Singapore. The thrust of this initiative was to prepare students with critical and creative thinking skills who show initiative and are able to apply knowledge and use information to solve problems. According to Ventham (2006), the TSLN encouraged teachers to focus on helping students to understand science, construct knowledge, and develop positive attitudes towards science. Additionally, it urged them to help their students solve complex problems by integrating knowledge across disciplines and use teaching methods that arouse a passion for learning in general and science more specifically.

Teach Less, Learn More (TLLM) is a call by MOE for teachers to put the student at the center of the teaching-learning process. Teachers are urged to focus on developing students’ understanding, nurturing critical and creative thinking, and encouraging students to ask questions and seek solutions. These teachers are implored to interact productively with students regarding academic issues and equip students with the knowledge, skills and values that prepare them for life.

Another MOE initiative, the FutureSchools@Singapore Project, endeavors to utilize Information and Communications Technology (ICT) effectively to engage students in meaningful learning and maintain relevance of education to the present and future needs of students and society. The ultimate aim of this project is to transform education in Singapore by integrating ICT in the curriculum of all subject areas.

Assessment and Evaluation SystemExaminations are integral to the Singapore education system. All students are required to take a

school-based examination in English, the mother tongue, and math at the end of Primary Four (age 10) for the purpose of streaming them for the final two years of primary education. Then, students take national official exams at the end of elementary (PSLE) (see Table 3), lower secondary (GCE ‘O’ or ‘N’ levels), and upper secondary (GCE ‘A’ level) levels (see Table 4). It is worth noting that the science examinations at the lower and upper secondary levels include a practical component. Students’ performance on the exams determines the track they join in higher levels of education. Consequently, students’ performance on the GCE ‘N’ Level and GCE ‘O’ Level examinations determines their access to the next phase of education. In addition to sitting for several official national exams during their pre-college school years, children in Singapore are assessed frequently by their teachers via homework, projects, tests and exams.

Streaming is part and parcel of this examination-laden system. Children are streamed into various classes according to their academic ability, which is highly dependent on their grades. It is to note that Singapore schools are ranked according to the national exam grades that their students receive each year. These rankings are made public to increase school accountability. Students’ scores on continuous


assessment and the twice-yearly assessment tests are aggregated to produce a profile of the student’s progress over the school year. This is one of the sources of feedback used to counsel students at the annual parent-teacher meeting15.

Table 3: National Tests/Examinations and Teacher Assessment at the Grade 4 and 6 Levels

Primary 4 streaming examination for 10-year-olds

Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) for 12-year-olds (leaving Primary 6)

What do the examinations cover?

Listening, speaking, reading, writing and math. In English, there are written, oral and aural examinations. In the mother tongue language (Chinese, Malay or Tamil) there are written, oral and aural examinations and, in math, there is a written examination.

Listening, speaking, reading, writing, math and science. In English, there are written, oral and aural examinations. In the mother tongue language (Chinese, Malay or Tamil), there are written, oral and aural examinations, and in math and science there are written examinations.

How long is the examination?

A total of around seven hours A total of between 9.5 and 14 hours, depending on the stream.

When does the examination take place?

On set days. Generally the written and aural examinations take place on set days in October, and the oral examinations take place in September.

On set days. Generally, the written examinations take place in October; the aural examinations in September; and the oral examinations in August.

Are the tests set internally or externally?

The school sets the tests in English, the mother tongue and math.

The tests are set centrally and question papers are distributed to schools.

Educational OutcomesAs mentioned earlier, one of the most convincing pieces of evidence for the success of the Singapore

education system is the performance of students in international comparisons. TIMSS results in 1999 and 2003 show that more than one third of Singapore students of all ethnic backgrounds were in the top 10% in math and science. Significantly, Singapore students did not only achieve high ranks in math and science but also have positive attitudes towards these subjects. According to TIMSS 1999, approximately 80% of Singapore students had positive attitudes towards science and math. In addition to well rounded and competent students, the education system has resulted in a well educated and competent workforce. As Table 5 demonstrates, more than 80% of the population has some kind of education qualification. The literacy rate in Singapore was 83.0% for females and 95.1% for males for those 15 years and older and 99.1% for females and 98.9% for males for those between 15 and 24 years.



Table 4: National Tests/Examinations at the Lower and Upper Secondary Levels16

Lower secondary exams• The GCE ‘N’ Level and GCE ‘O’ Level examinations are national examinations which measure student

attainment on completion of lower secondary (known as ‘secondary’) education. National public examinations, such as the GCE ‘N’ Level or GCE ‘O’ Level examinations, serve to evaluate the performance of the school, as well as the standard achieved by students. The continuous, formative assessment which also takes place during this phase aims to monitor students’ progress in academic studies and extracurricular activities. In the GCE examinations, candidates may take written, oral and/or practical examinations, depending on the subjects they are studying. Candidates are also assessed through coursework in subjects such as design and technology, food and nutrition and fashion and fabrics.

• Students’ performance on the GCE ‘N’ Level and GCE ‘O’ Level examinations determines their access to the next phase of education. It is also one of the factors used to measure the performance of the school.

• More than 30 percent of secondary school students sitting for Singapore Cambridge GCE ‘O’ Level examinations go on to upper secondary (known as post-secondary or pre-university) education every year. A further 40 percent are admitted to polytechnics.

Upper secondary exams• At the end of upper secondary education, students take the GCE ‘A’ Level examinations (or the GCE ‘AO’

Level examinations) which are externally set and moderated national examinations. The most able students (typically the top 10 percent of the junior college cohort) take ‘Special’ papers (S-papers) in addition to GCE ‘A’ Level examinations. These are available in most subjects. Depending on the subject, the tests may be written, oral or practical. Some schools may also incorporate project work and tutorial assignments as part of the assessment.

• Since the 2003 academic year, all students completing this phase and wishing to enter higher education have also to take a verbal and mathematical reasoning test, the Scholastic Assessment Test 1 (SAT1).

• Singapore has maintained a tight grip on access to higher education, especially in the scientific fields, requiring better GCE ‘A’ Level results for access to science and engineering courses than for arts and humanities courses.

• Student performance in the GCE ‘A’ Level examinations is also one of the factors used to measure the performance of the school.

Factors Contributing to Singapore’s Success in EducationA variety of factors have contributed to the success of Singapore’s education system, among which

are the following:

1. The efficiency, dedication and work of the MOE of Singapore. Staff of the MOE, including teachers, principals, and ministry staff are known for their professionalism, dedication, and care for students.

2. The significant value that parents and the community place on education as a vehicle for upward mobility, success of the individual, and success of the country.

3. Rigorous, demanding, and comprehensive curriculum that is continuously reviewed and updated.

4. Available school resources at school and home.

5. Students’ positive attitude towards science and math.

6. The competitive environment in most schools in Singapore and the very strong emphasis on school and teacher accountability.



Table 5: Educational Qualifications of Singapore Citizens

Highest qualification attained Population (2000) Percent (2000)Total 2,277,401 100.0%No qualification 445,444 19.6%Primary – PSLE 276,542 12.1%Lower secondary - Sec 1-4 248,598 10.9%Secondary - ‘N’ & ‘O’ levels 560,570 24.6%Upper secondary - ‘A’ level 226,275 9.9%Polytechnic – Diploma 140,970 6.2%Other Diploma 112,371 4.9%University - Degree, Masters & PhD 266,631 11.7%

Source: Humanities and Aesthetics Department, Curriculum Planning and Development Division, MOE, Singapore (2002).

Issues facing Education/Science EducationThe education system in Singapore has been criticized for being too specialized, rigid, and elitist

and for its overemphasis on rote memorization, examinations, and early streaming, lack of connection of school learning to life, and lack of encouragement of students to become life long learners. In response to these criticisms, the size of the new curriculum has been reduced so that there is more time for original thinking and for pursuing more creative projects. Moreover, Singapore is attempting to increase student involvement in science and adopt an investigative problem approach to teaching science. This is done without losing rigor and without neglecting other subjects especially languages: students in Singapore are required to master two languages, one of which is English.

However, recent research indicates that some problems in instructional practices still linger. In a study using a large sample of randomly selected secondary schools (57 secondary schools, observations in 1000 lessons), Ventham (2006) showed the following:

1. Science classroom practices were heavily teacher-centered, textbook-based, and content-oriented with very little verbal interactions between students and teachers and among students. Ventham (2006) showed that approximately 65% of classroom talk was done by the teacher in the form of whole class lectures, initiation-response-evaluation (IRE), and whole class discussion. The rest of the time was spent on seatwork (16.7%), student demonstrations (6.7%), laboratory experiments (5.8%), whole-class activity (3.2%), small group work (2.6%), and test taking (0.6%).

2. Most science teaching was accomplished through teacher explanations with short initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) sequences to check for students’ understanding. Focus in science lessons was on the correct answer with little space for the students’ voice in the teaching-learning process.

3. Science textbooks were the prominent tools for teaching followed by worksheets and workbooks. Teachers asked students to highlight what they considered important and students took these highlighted sections as necessary for success on exams.

4. Computers were mainly used as tools to produce worksheets and extra exercises. There was very little use of computers and other ICT tools, such as the Internet, as vehicles for meaningful learning of science. It was apparent that Singapore’s educational system had not attempted to integrate the advances in technology and pedagogy to harness the strengths inherent in the use of ICT tools.


5. Most teachers had low expectation of their students and rated their prior knowledge as deficient. Moreover, the intellectual demand in the classrooms was very low.


england

The United Kingdom consists of Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) and Northern Ireland, each of which has its own educational system. More than 90 percent of UK students attend publicly-funded state schools17. Primary schools are usually co-educational while secondary schools may be either single-sex or co-educational.

Results of the TIMSS 2003 indicate that England ranked 5th in science at the grade 4 level18. In the previous TIMSS tests, England ranked 8th in science in both 1995 and 1999. These results indicate that England was consistently significantly above the international average. The fact that England has implemented a national curriculum since 1992 in which science plays a prominent role, student achievement in international comparisons are significantly above average, and English schools have a long history in education, provides opportunities to analyze the educational system in England to derive lessons from its educational experience; lessons that might help improve science education in other parts of the world.

Access to Education/Science EducationPublic expenditure on education was 5.4% of the Gross Domestic Product in England during the

academic year 2004-200519 as compared to 3.5% for Singapore and 5.7% in France. Most students at the pre-college level in England are educated in state funded schools, financed through the tax system, even though there are private schools that enroll a small percentage of the student population. There is almost universal access to education, and consequently science education, at the pre-college level in England. According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2006), student enrolment in public and private schools (Table 6) was approximately 72% at the pre-primary level, 100% at the primary level, and 95% at the lower and upper secondary level. These statistics also indicate that males and females have almost equal access to education. Moreover, the student/teacher ratio is relatively low, ranging from a high of 24 at the pre-primary level to an average of 15 at the lower and upper secondary levels. Finally, like many other developed countries, the majority of teachers are females at all levels, even though this ratio is lower in higher grade levels.

Table 6: Student Gross Enrolment Ratio, Student/Teacher Ratio, and Sex of Teachers

Gross Enrolment Ratio

Student/Teacher Ratio

Female Teachers

Pre-primary 72% 24 97%Primary 100% 17 81%Lower and Upper Secondary 95% 15 55%

Inputs into the Educational SystemThe following paragraphs provide a description of the education system in England, along with the


The Education System in England. Students between the age of 3 and 19 years in England attend four types of institutions: 1) Pre-school institutions serving children under 5, 2) Primary schools serving students aged 5 (compulsory school entry age) to 11 - with some exceptions, 3) Secondary schools catering

17 http://www.britishcouncil.org/usa-education-uk-system-k-12-education.htm18 England did not participate in TIMSS 2003 at the Grade 8 level.19 Refer to http://www.dfes.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/TIM/m002002/index.shtml


for students aged 11 to 16 - although many of these schools serve students up to age 18, and 4) Secondary schools and further education institutions serving students between 16 and 19 years old.

In 1989, the UK introduced a National Curriculum20, whose use is mandatory in all state schools until students reach the age of 16, the compulsory education age21. However, independent private schools are not obliged to do so. The National Curriculum defines four key stages: Key stage 1: up to age seven (Years 1 and 2), Key stage 2: age seven to eleven (Years 3, 4, 5 and 6), Key stage 3: age eleven to fourteen (Years 7, 8 and 9), and Key stage 4: age fourteen to sixteen (Years 10 and 11 - preparation for academic and equivalent vocational qualifications).

Primary education comprises key stages 1 and 2 of compulsory education. Primary schools in England that are state-supported are generally co-educational, non-selective, and accept children of all abilities. Secondary schools provide compulsory general lower secondary education for students in key stages 3 and 4 (until the compulsory age of 16), although some schools also serve students of post-compulsory age up to age 19. Most state supported lower secondary schools, known as comprehensive schools, are non-selective and accept students of all abilities. However, in some areas there are schools which select all their students by ability, known as grammar schools. State-supported secondary schools are most commonly co-educational, although single sex schools do exist.

In 1993, in a effort to improve standards in lower secondary schools, the Government of England introduced the Specialist Schools Program (Gorard & Taylor, 2001), which allowed publicly-funded secondary schools to specialize in a particular area of the curriculum while still teaching the National Curriculum and providing a broad and balanced education to students. The program began with schools specializing in technology (Technology Colleges) in 1994, and subsequently added other subjects, with science specialist schools added during the 2002-2003 academic year. Developing specialist schools is one of the strategies that the government uses to make schools more responsive to the needs, aptitudes, and aspirations of individual students.

Full-time post-compulsory upper secondary education is offered in the sixth form of many secondary schools, in Sixth Form Colleges, and in Further Education institutions. Further Education Colleges traditionally offered vocational education courses while Sixth Form Colleges originally offered full-time academic courses. Presently, Sixth Form Colleges and Further Education Colleges can offer academic or vocational courses. Finally, Tertiary colleges combine the functions of Further Education and Sixth Form Colleges. While no official qualifications are required for admission to the sixth form of a secondary school or to institutions of further education, many of those set their own admissions requirements, some of which might be stringent. Table 7 presents a summary of the different stages of the national curriculum along with the students’ ages, year, and required tests.

20 Refer to http://www.britishcouncil.org/usa-education-uk-system-k-12-curriculum-England.htm21 The British government announced in January 2007 plans to change the compulsory age to 18.


Table 7: Summary Description of the Education System in the UK for Ages 3-16

Age Stage Year Tests3-4 Foundation4-5 Reception5-6 Key Stage 1 Year 16-7 Year 2 National tests and tasks in English and math7-8 Key Stage 2 Year 38-9 Year 49-10 Year 510-11 Year 6 National tests in English, math and science11-12 Key Stage 3 Year 712-13 Year 813-14 Year 9 National tests in English, math and science14-15 Key Stage 4 Year 10 Some students take General Certificate of Secondary Education

(GCSE).15-16 Year 11 Most students take GCSEs or other national qualifications

In addition to state-supported schools, England has many independent private fee-collecting schools. The term public school is often used for independent secondary schools, and the term private school for independent preparatory schools22. Admission to independent schools is usually on a competitive basis. Independent schools, as compared to state schools, are generally characterized by better pupil-teacher ratios and more individual teaching, longer teaching hours, though shorter terms, more time for organized sports, a broader view of education than that prescribed by the national curriculum, and more emphasis on individual achievement in academic and non-academic activities.

Teachers. Initial training for school teachers in England has traditionally been provided by higher education institutions (HEIs), with students undertaking block periods of school-based experience known as teaching practice. Since 1983, all newly qualified teachers trained in England have had graduate status. Courses are now provided either by partnerships of HEIs and schools or, in a limited number of cases, by groups of schools, consulting HEIs and other agencies as required. (Appendix II presents a detailed description of the teacher preparation requirements in England23).

There are different routes available for students interested in training to be teachers in England. The main routes to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) are the concurrent or the consecutive routes. The concurrent programs, which require three or four years of full time study leading to the Bachelor of Education degree (BEd) and to the Qualified Teacher Status (QTS), are generally organized in an integrated pattern, comprising a mixture of higher education subject studies (such as biology, chemistry, math, English, etc...), theoretical education courses, and practical teaching activities throughout the period of study. Most concurrent programs are for primary teachers, but there are also some programs aimed at secondary teachers. These programs require 32 weeks of school-based training for all four-year undergraduate programs and 24 weeks for all two- and three-year undergraduate programs. This school-based experience has to be done in at least two schools.

22 These schools prepare students for fee-paying, secondary independent schools.23 Excerpted from http://www.inca.org.uk


The consecutive training model involves three or four years of study leading to a subject-based first degree, followed by one year of professional training leading to the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). The PGCE focuses on curriculum, pedagogical and educational studies, practical teaching skills and the application of the student’s degree subject(s) to school teaching. Traditionally, consecutive programs are for secondary teaching, but they are becoming popular for elementary teaching. These programs require 24 weeks of school-based training for all secondary and key stage two or three postgraduate programs and 18 weeks for all primary postgraduate programs. This school-based experience has to be done in at least two schools.

In addition to the concurrent and consecutive type programs, there are three other ways to be qualified as a teacher: The Graduate Teacher Program (GTP), the Registered Teacher Program (RTP), and the Overseas Trained Teacher Program (OTTP). These programs enable schools to hire individuals who are not yet qualified to teach and to support them through an individual training program leading to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS).

The content of initial science teacher preparation programs required for primary and lower secondary include general teaching knowledge and skills, teaching knowledge and skills for science, and scientific knowledge and skills. Figure 2 presents details of these requirements as excerpted form Eurydice (2006). Moreover, initial teacher training institutions are required to provide science teachers with sufficient knowledge and understanding of the required curriculum, including its experimental and investigative science requirements. However, Eurydice (2006) presents data to suggest that many teacher preparation programs in England do not provide teachers with the skills necessary to update their scientific knowledge and the ability to identify and address students’ misconceptions and commonsense understandings in science.

Figure 2: Requirements for Initial Science Teacher Preparation Programs in England

General teaching knowledge and skills:Regulations in initial teacher education for general teaching knowledge and skills:

• Theories of child development• Creation and management of learning situations• Working with diverse pupil groups• Collaborative approaches to teaching

Teaching knowledge and skills for science:• Knowledge of different teaching approaches and their history• Knowledge of school science curricula and their objectives• Scope for experimental/investigative activities• Knowledge of children’s “common sense” understanding of scientific concepts and phenomena• Taking account of children’s “common sense” understanding of scientific concepts and phenomena• Ability to keep up-to-date with recent scientific developments

Scientific knowledge and skills:• Knowledge of scientific concepts and theories• Knowledge of and competence in scientific experimentation/investigation• Knowledge of history and epistemology of science

It is worth noting that there are no specifications for science teacher trainers in England. It is left to the universities that offer initial teacher training programs to select and train individuals involved in these types of programs. Some universities also train teachers who supervise teacher trainees during their school placements.


Continued Professional Development (CPD) is a requirement for all teachers in the UK. According to the Professional Standards for Teachers in England from September 200724, “All teachers should have a professional responsibility to be engaged in effective, sustained and relevant professional development throughout their careers”. The national priorities for teachers’ CPD for 2007-2008 are behavior management, subject matter knowledge, and curricular change. In addition to keeping teachers up-to-date in content and pedagogy, CPD provide teachers with opportunities for career advancement in the classroom, within the school, and in the larger context of the educational system.

Facilities. All UK schools, including schools in England are connected through an information management system, which according to Eurydice (2006) creates “a single database system with a fully integrated suite of effective data handling tools.” This system “enables whole school improvement and opens up opportunities to maximize every child’s potential. Coupled with a powerful virtual learning platform … the system is helping primary and secondary schools to support their students’ development. In addition to helping schools with their administrative and educational tasks, the information management system allows parents to access immediate and accurate information from the central database via the web”. “The direct access enhances their sense of involvement, promoting a more active role for them”, according to Eurydice (2006). The information management system and its accessories are helping schools in the UK to reach “new heights in attainment, behavior improvement, attendance, and teaching and learning standards”. In addition, because of the curricular statuary requirements for using inquiry and ICT in the science classroom, all schools are outfitted with the necessary equipment and materials to implement the curriculum.

Textbooks. There are mandated textbooks in England. Many approved publishing companies and suppliers produce textbooks and educational materials that follow the National Curriculum or the requirements of GCSE and Advanced level (A level) courses from which schools can choose what best fits their needs. Suppliers compete on the basis of quality of product and its price. In addition to textbooks, state schools receive funding to purchase electronic resources whose budgets have increased significantly recently25.

Curricula and School Courses26. The National Curriculum, introduced initially in 1989 underwent several revisions - the last of which started in 2004- in response to developments in the different fields of knowledge and feedback from all stakeholders. The core subjects in the National Curriculum are English, math and science; foundation subjects are design and technology, information and communication technology, history, geography, modern foreign languages, music, art and design, physical education, religious education, and citizenship. Welsh is a core subject in Welsh-speaking schools. Northern Ireland follows a similar framework; however, Irish language is taught in Irish speaking schools and schools can develop additional curricular activities to meet students’ individual needs and give schools an opportunity to develop their own identities.

The science curriculum for Key stages 1-3 is organized around four attainment targets that determine the knowledge, skills, and understanding that different ability students are expected to accomplish by the end of each key stage. Each attainment target consists of eight levels of increasing difficulty in addition to a level dedicated to exceptional performance. The levels provide teachers with the basis to make judgments about students’ performance in key stages 1-3 with the following expectations:

24 Refer to http://www.tda.gov.uk/upload/resources/pdf/i/introduction_to_standards.pdf25 Refer to http://www.culture.gov.uk/PDF/PWC_SECTION_4i.pdf 26 Information in this section was adapted from http://www.qca.org.uk/146/19-th-form-schools/68_241.htm AND http://www.ncaction.org.uk/subjects/science/


• levels 1-3 in key stage 1 and attain level 2 at the end of the key stage.

• levels 2-5 in key stage 2 and attain level 4 at the end of the key stage.

• levels 3-7 in key stage 3 and attain level 5/6 at the end of the key stage.

When progressing from key stage 1 to 2, the emphasis in the science curriculum is on moving students gradually from using everyday language and thinking to using precise scientific language, from separate to integrated scientific understandings, from descriptions to explanations, from conducting practical activities to building abstract models of situations, from unstructured to systematic investigations and explorations. Similarly, in key stage 3, science teaching attempts to move students from separate to integrated scientific understandings and applications, from describing and explaining simple phenomena to explaining more complex phenomena using scientific knowledge, from viewing science as a school subject to a more in-depth understanding of the nature of science and its relationships with technology and society, from simple to complex investigations, from accepting models and theories to realizing that these change as a result of accumulated evidence. Appendix III presents a description of the four attainment targets while Appendix IV presents the levels of one of the attainment targets, specifically scientific inquiry.

Students between the ages of 14 and 19 choose their subjects according to their future plans. The curriculum for this age group leads to GCSE, A level, and other qualifications and is based on the principle that both breadth and depth of study are necessary for students’ future. Breadth can have a variety of forms such as more subjects (four or five subjects) or subjects drawn from different areas such as arts, sciences, and social sciences, to name only a few ways by which breadth is accomplished. However, the curriculum does not sacrifice depth for breadth and has become more flexible in providing students with more choices. Consequently, students can take more subjects (more that the traditional 3 A level courses that students used to take under the older regulations), study some of these in depth, and others in less depth. For example, students aiming to apply to universities in a certain field of study can take the required two A level courses in-depth and other subjects that require lesser in-depth study.

The National Curriculum requires that students use ICT in science to support their learning in a variety of ways. For example, in key stage 1, teachers are required to help their students use ICT to report results of their investigations and use ICT-based sources of information and data. In key stages 2 and 3, students are encouraged to make systematic observations by using ICT for data logging, communicate the results of their investigations by using ICT, and ICT-based sources of information and data. In Key Stage 3, in addition to what is required in Key Stage 2, students are required to use data logging to monitor several variables at the same time with precision and to represent and communicate quantitative and qualitative data using ICT.

Teaching Methods. Inquiry is one of the attainment targets in the UK National Curriculum. As indicated in Appendix III, according to this curriculum students are expected to understand the connections between empirical questions, evidence, and scientific explanations, and plan investigative work using a range of approaches. In addition, they are expected to obtain and record valid and reliable evidence, interpret evidence, draw conclusions, evaluate their own work, and communicate findings using a range of appropriate scientific terminology. These skills are distributed over eight levels ranging form simple to complex. In addition, students are expected to relate science to everyday life and use a variety of ICT tools to collect and interpret data and communicate results27. Furthermore, one of the requirements of teacher preparation is that science teachers have the knowledge of and competence in scientific experimentation/

27 Refer to http://www.nc.uk.net/nc_resources/html/download/cSci.pdf


investigation. These requirements, for both teachers and students, point to the importance accorded to science and to making it more interesting and relevant to students’ lives.

While these are the expectations, what does research say about the actual quality of classroom teaching and schools? A report by the Directorate-General for Education and Culture European Commission entitled “Science Teaching in Schools in Europe: Policies and Research” published in 2006, indicates that many of the inquiry activities listed above are implemented in key stages 1, 2, and 3 in England. Moreover, the Office of Standards in Education (Ofsted, 2002)28, an arm of the UK government, evaluated the implementation of the national curriculum in a number of successful elementary schools (key stages 1 and 2). Results indicated that the national curriculum was successful in these schools as evidenced by their achieving high standards in English, math, and science. These schools had principals who started out as teachers, were focused on school improvement, were personally involved in the improvement process and strategies, had clear visions of what needed to be accomplished in their schools, provided teachers with release time to plan activities to improve the curriculum, had clear and high expectations, and encouraged consistent teaching approaches in all classes. In addition, these principals found ways to increase teaching time. Teachers in these schools taught subjects separately but were successful in making links across subjects, reinforced the relevance and coherence of the curriculum, helped students to apply knowledge from one subject in other subjects, organized the curriculum in longer blocks to enable students to perform longer meaningful tasks, used published resource materials efficiently, made good use of computers, and enriched the curriculum with first-hand experiences.

In a comprehensive report on the status of science education in England and Wales, Millar and Osborne (1998) suggest that the national curriculum gave science more significance as evidenced by the fact that it now occupies an equal status to that of numeracy and literacy in the primary curriculum and is a core subject at all other levels of pre-college education. Moreover, this curriculum reinforced the notion that learning science involves more than acquiring information about the natural world; it involves providing students with opportunities to develop as active learners and inquirers. Millar and Osborne go on to suggest that internal and external evidence indicates that this curriculum is succeeding as evidenced in internal reports by Ofsted29 and TIMSS reports (see the introduction to this section on England).

More recently, the Annual Report of Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools 2005/0630 showed that there was continuing improvement in achievement in primary schools that reflected better teaching of English, math, and ICT. However, there were little signs of improvement in science. Teachers’ weak subject matter knowledge in science and the lack of professional development were key reasons for the lack of improvement in science. Alternatively, the report showed that secondary schools improved their ability to identify strengths and weaknesses by using self-evaluation. However, barriers to continued improvement included weaknesses in assessment and in meeting the needs of individual pupils. Finally, according to the Department of Children, Schools, and Families, 90 percent of inspected schools in 2005-2006 were providing satisfactory education while around 60 percent were providing good to outstanding education.

Assessment and Evaluation SystemThe National Assessment Agency (NAA), a subdivision of the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority

in England, was established in 2004 to supervise the development and delivery of national curriculum tests at the pre-college level, organize grading of students’ tests, and submit results to schools. It is also responsible for updating the examination system and is planned to play a leading role in research on assessment.

28 Refer to http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/assets/303.pdf 29 Refer to http://www.ofsted.gov.uk/assets/303.pdf30 Refer to http://live.ofsted.gov.uk/publications/annualreport0506/


There are exams and other types of assessment at the different levels of the education system in England. At the primary level (Ages 4-5, Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2), there are no required national certificates or exams. However, there is a system of statutory national assessment, within the framework of the National Curriculum. Results from the national curriculum tests and teacher assessment are not used for selecting students for entry into secondary school. They rather provide important information for parents and the public to help them judge the quality of the education being provided. Most importantly, the results are used to improve the quality of teaching and learning. Finally, besides the statutory exams, there are optional world class tests at age 9 (and 13). These tests measure performance in math and problem solving in math, science, and design technology, and require students to apply creative and logical thinking. The purpose of these tests is to identify and recognize the achievements of the 10 percent of 9 and 13 year old students. Table 8 below presents a description of the different statutory assessments at the primary level31.

After five years of secondary education, students in England take examinations in a range of subjects at the level of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The GCSE is a single-subject examination set and marked by independent examination boards. Students usually take up to ten (there is no upper or lower limit) GCSE examinations in different subjects, including math and English language. After taking GCSEs, students may leave secondary schooling; alternatively, they may choose to continue their education at vocational or technical colleges, or they may take a higher level of secondary school examinations known as AS-Levels after an additional year of study. Following two years of study, students may take Advanced Level (A-Level) examinations, which are required for university entrance in the UK.

Table 8: Statutory National Curriculum Assessment Arrangements at the Primary School Level in England

Age of assessment Details of assessment

School entry assessment, children aged 4/5 years

Statutory ‘baseline assessment’ in language skills, math skills, and personal and social skills was compulsory till 2002. This has now been replaced by a statutory national scheme of teacher observation known as the ‘Foundation Stage Profile’.

Key stage 1 assessment towards the end of the key stage, children aged around 7 years

Statutory assessment in English, math and science, which combines externally-provided written tests and tasks in reading comprehension (English), spelling (English) and math, with continuous teacher assessment. Changes implemented in the 2004/05 school year increased the emphasis on the teacher assessment aspect of this process. Reporting to parents is now based on overall teacher assessment - combining test results with the child’s overall performance.

Key stage 2 assessment at the end of the key stage, students aged around 11 years

Statutory assessment in English, math and science involves externally provided and marked written tests in English (four tests – one in reading, two in writing [a short piece and a longer piece], and one in spelling); math (three tests – one without calculator, one with calculator, and a mental math test); and science (two tests). In addition, there are teacher assessments against the attainment targets in English, math and science.

Educational OutcomesAs indicated above, results of the TIMSS 2003 indicate that England ranked 5th in science at the

grade 4 level32. In the previous TIMSS administrations, England ranked 8th in science in 1995 and 1999,

31 Adapted from http://www.nfer.ac.uk/Eurydice/pdfs/Statutory%20assessment%20tables%202004.pdf32 England did not participate in TIMSS 2003 at the Grade 8 level.


consistently above the international average. Moreover, the percentage of UK students achieving at least 5 GCSEs increased from 46.3% in 1997-1998 to 58.8% in 2005-200633; the percentage of 11 year olds (Key Stage 2) who achieved level 4 in math increased from 59% in 1997-1998 to 76% in 2005-2006; and the percentage of 14 year olds who achieved level 5 in science increased from 56% in 1997-1998 to 72% in 2005-2006. Finally, the percentage of schools where 30% of pupils achieved at least 5 GCSEs increased from 86.8% in 2002-2003 to 95.6% in 2005-2006. Similar trends were established for A-Level examinations. Statistics from the Joint Council for Qualifications34 showed that an increasing number of students got higher scores on their A-level exams (24.1% in 2005-2006 and 25.3% in 2006-2007). However, results show that improvement was much higher in private than in state schools. The two most popular A-level subjects were English and math, with students taking A-level math increasing 7.3% during 2007. There was also a small increase in the numbers of students taking chemistry and physics but a slight fall in biology.

Issues Facing Education/Science EducationOne of the major issues facing Europe in general and England more specifically is the alarming

decline in young peoples’ interest in careers in science and math (Association for Science Education, 2006; European Commission, 2007). Even in European countries in which students are interested in science, there is a lack of interest in school science. These issues are evident in reports on the results of the Relevance of Science Education Project (ROSE project) in England. According to Jenkins and Nelson (2005), Jenkins (2006), and Jenkins and Pell (2006), most students in England agree that science and technology are important for society because of their possible contribution to curing diseases, addressing environmental issues, and improving the quality of life. However, students see that science does not have the potential to solve all problems and has harmful effects. The positive attitude towards science, however, is not accompanied by a similar positive attitude towards school science. Most students do not like school science and find it boring even though they do not think that it is a difficult subject. These students do not believe that school science prepares them to be more critical and skeptical, opens their eyes to new and exciting job opportunities, and increase their appreciation for nature. What is most troubling is that most students do not find a career in science as appealing.

Another important issue in science education in the UK is the decrease in the number of students taking A Level physics and chemistry and the corresponding shortage in specialist teachers of these two subjects (Association for Science Education, 2007; Royal Society, 2005, 2006,). Associated with this issue is the debate on whether all students should be required to follow the same science curriculum or the curriculum should allow for students who plan to major in a science area to follow a special curriculum. Scientists, for example, criticize the new GCSEs for their focus on discussing topical issues and not focusing enough on specific subjects such as physics, chemistry, and biology. These scientists contend that students who do not focus on these subjects will not be able to pursue university studies in these subjects (BBC, 2007).

Another debate that is taking place in England regards assessment (Eurydice, 2006). The issue relates to the descriptors that provide the basis for making judgments about student performance in science. The questions being debated are the following: Should descriptors focus on specific topics or on big ideas? What is the role of formative assessment in judgments made by teachers? What should the balance be between inquiry skills and knowledge recall/understanding? What should the balance be between teacher assessment and externally graded exams?

33 Refer to http://www.fti.neighbourhood.gov.uk/34 Refer to http://www.jcq.org.uk/press_releases/news/


Yet another issue that science educators in England are facing relates to the fact that students enjoy and are engaged in science outside school in such places as museums, hands-on centers, zoos, and botanical gardens and seem to enjoy reading about science in magazines and newspapers while they find school science boring and not challenging (Association for Science Education , 2006). This lack of interest in school science could be attributed to the type of teaching taking place in schools, especially in secondary classes where the focus is on dissemination of information rather than on inquiry (Association for Science Education, 2006; Millar and Osborne, 1998). According to Millar and Osborne (1998), the current National Curriculum “retains its past, mid-twentieth century emphasis, presenting science as a body of knowledge which is value-free, objective and detached – a succession of ‘facts’ to be learnt, with insufficient indication of any overarching coherence and lack of contextual relevance to the future needs of young people”. Millar and Osborne identify other problems with science in the National Curriculum. Specifically the science curriculum overemphasizes content and appears as a catalogue of facts lacking coherence and relevance; assessment relies heavily on memorization and recall, lacks authenticity, and is detached from the context in which science is used; and there is little diversity in teaching methods and labs are often routine exercises that do not require students to think critically and creatively. Often innovative teaching approaches advocated in the curriculum are not implemented because of the perceived assessment requirements.


Japan

Japan has been a highly education-oriented country. Education is esteemed, and achievement is often the prerequisite for success. In Japanese society, there is very high appreciation of the role education plays in achieving well rewarded and respected employment and status in society. Parents push their children to achieve higher in school which is a vital aspect to getting a higher income job. Students in Japan study harder and do not have as much leisure time since most of their time is spent studying, doing school work, and participating in club activities.

Results of the TIMSS 2003 indicate that Japan ranked 5th in both science and math for 13 year-old students35. Earlier results indicated that Japanese students consistently ranked at or near the top in science and math international tests (TIMSS 1999, TIMSS 1995 and PISA 200536). This part of the report will try to analyze the educational system in Japan in order to identify the factors that might have contributed to these good results on international tests.

Access to Education/Science EducationApproximately 9.8% of Japanese Government spending or 3.6% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is

invested in formal education in Japan37, most of which goes to primary and secondary education compared to 3.2% of GDP expenditure on research and development (R&D) (2004) and for Higher Education38. The responsibility for financial support of public education is shared by the national, prefectural, and municipal governments. Each level of government provides for its own educational activities with funds derived from its own taxes and other income. Expenditure for compulsory education is provided by the national government and local public bodies.

According to 1989 figures, around 94% of all 5-year-olds received educational care, with kindergarten enrolment at 63.7% for children aged 4 and 5 years, and with day nurseries enrolment 30.4% of children in the same age range39. In 2004 the net enrollment in pre-primary schools was 85% of children, 100% in primary and secondary schools, and 55% in tertiary education40.

The maximum number of students per class for local public schools, as prescribed by law, is 40. However, the average number of children per class is around 20 as shown in Table 9. In 199241 the student/teacher ratio for kindergarten and primary schools was 21 and 19.1 respectively. The student/teacher ratio for secondary schools was around 16 during 1994. In 2004, the pupil/teacher ratio was 18 in pre-primary, 20 in primary and 14 in secondary schools.

35 Refer to http://nces.ed.gov/timss/results.asp 36 Refer to http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar05/scores.html.37 Refer to http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=289&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=3920&BR_Region=40515 38 Refer to http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=147&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=3920&BR_Region=4051539 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/jappan-sources-mainstream.html#6240 Refer to http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=289&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=3920&BR_Region=4051541 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/jappan-sources-mainstream.html#42


Table 9: Student /Teacher Ratio in Schools in Japan42

Pre-Primary Primary Secondary1990’s 21 19.1 162004 18 20 14

Inputs into the Educational SystemThe following paragraphs provide a description of the education system in Japan, along with the


The Education System in Japan43. The Fundamental Law of Education (1947) is the basic educational law which sets out the aims and principles of education in Japan. It defines the essential characteristics of the Japanese education system as:

• Equality of access and co-education

• Nine years of compulsory education

• The '6-3-3-4' system (six years of compulsory elementary school, three years of compulsory junior high school, three years of post-compulsory upper secondary education (in senior high schools or similar) and four years of higher education)

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) is in charge of the national education policy. MEXT is in charge of prescribing curricula, standards and requirements, approving textbooks and providing guidance and financial assistance to prefectures and municipalities. There are four basic phases in the educational structure in Japan:

• Pre-compulsory kindergarten education for children aged 3 - 6

• Compulsory elementary school, students aged 6 - 12

• Compulsory junior high school education, students aged 12 - 15 years

• Post-compulsory upper secondary (senior high school or similar), students aged 15+ - 18+.

Compulsory education is, in principle, free of charge for all even though parents contribute partially to the education of their children. There is no selection procedure for public elementary schools or junior high schools while private schools, available at all levels throughout Japan, have selection procedures. Secondary education is divided into three compulsory years in junior high school and three optional years in senior high school, with examinations required for transition from one level to the other. Table 10 shows the structure of education in Japan, the possible paths students may take through it and the principal qualifications available.

Many kindergartens and nurseries are private sector establishments which charge fees. Private kindergartens and nurseries do, however, receive some state funds. At compulsory education level, 99.3% of all primary schools and 94.1% of all junior high schools are public-sector schools. In 1997, 23.9% of upper secondary schools were private. Private schools in Japan generally have the same curriculum as public schools, although they may include religious education in their curriculum.

42 Refer to http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/international/IntlIndicators/index.asp?SectionNumber=1&SubSectionNumber=4&IndicatorNumber=10043 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/japan.html


Classes in Japanese primary schools are organized, as determined by the government, by age and are of mixed ability. As a result, in every classroom, slow learners have been integrated with the more gifted. Recently, some Designated Schools for Curriculum Development (DSCD) have experimented with grouping by ability beyond Year groups.

Home schooling is a relatively unusual concept in Japan. However, there are around 2,000 to 3,000 children receiving their education at home and this number is rising. The most significant drawback to home schooling in Japan is that children who are taught at home do not receive school diplomas, which can present a serious obstacle should they seek to pursue higher education.

The Japanese school year begins on April 1st and ends on March 31st of the following year. It adopts a three-term school year, as follows:

• Term 1: April to July (followed by a long summer (August) vacation)

• Term 2: September to December (followed by a shorter, winter vacation)

• Term 3: January to March (followed by a short spring vacation)


Table 10: Structure of the Education System in Japan44

Phase of Education

Types of Institution/Courses Year/Grade

Typical Age

Pre-compulsory pre-school education

Kindergarten 3-44-55-6

Compulsory primary education

Elementary School 1 6-72 7-83 8-94 9-105 10-116 11-12

Secondary education

•Compulsory lower secondary school (junior high school) 7 12-138 13-149 14-15

The majority of Japanese school children pass automatically from their neighborhood elementary school to their neighborhood junior high school•On completion of compulsory lower secondary school (junior

high school), some students progress to general/academic upper secondary school – senior high school (others proceed to colleges of technology, special training colleges or miscellaneous schools – which are usually regarded as further/higher education). Students may take upper secondary courses full-time, part- time, or by correspondence. When courses in senior high schools are taken full-time, these normally last for three years.

10 15-1611 16 – 1712 17 – 18

•There are no national tests at the end of compulsory secondary education in the junior high school, but local prefectures set achievement tests. There are also individual entrance examinations for post-compulsory upper secondary senior high schools.

•On completion of post-compulsory upper secondary education in senior high school, students receive a Certificate of Graduation from Upper Secondary Education (general, vocational, or integrated, depending on the course followed). This is required for access to higher/further education in a junior college or university. However, holding the Certificate of Upper Secondary Education does not guarantee admission to a college or university because institutions determine their own admissions requirements.

Higher education

Universities or junior colleges (entry usually from age 18+), miscellaneous schools, colleges of technology and special training schools (entry can be from age 15+).

13 18-1914 19-2016 20-2116 21-2217 22-2318 23-24

Japanese children attend the elementary school (and the junior high school) in their local area, before proceeding to the entrance examination to gain a place in a “good” senior high school; some sit an entrance examination at 6 for private elementary school education. Some private elementary schools, where a

44 Refer to http://www.mext.go.jp/english/org/formal/05a.htm


place is gained at 6, entitle a child to a place all the way through to 18 without any further examination. These are called “escalator schools”. Pre-compulsory children prepare for the entrance examination for such schools in pre-compulsory evening juku schools (sometimes called cram schools). Jukus are private institutions offering tutoring in Japanese language and math and also often in English and science. Attendance at juku is high, with 17 percent of elementary school students and 45 percent of junior high school students attending them. Senior high school students who consider entering a university spend two to three hours a day or more studying after school at a juku, three or four times a week.

Since April 1999, there have been a very few new experimental secondary schools across Japan. These combine junior high school and senior high school and consequently cater for the 12 to 18+ age range. Their principal aim is to decrease the level of competition for entry to senior high school education. In 2002, 26 Japanese schools were given special science status and awarded extra annual funding because they were linked with universities to create opportunities for students to participate in research experiments.

The majority of Japanese students who plan to attend university attend academic senior high schools, while their peers who have other plans tend to attend colleges of technology, special training colleges or miscellaneous schools. In Japan, participation in vocational education is relatively low. As compulsory education ends at age 15, parents are expected to meet all expenses for post-compulsory education, including the purchasing of textbooks.

Teachers45. Most of the teaching in pre-compulsory kindergartens or compulsory elementary schools is undertaken by generalist class teachers, with a few who are specialists, e.g. in art or science. Teachers with a Kindergarten or Elementary School Teacher Certificate are qualified to teach all subjects. Specialist teaching commences from Year four of elementary school (age 9+), initially in certain subjects, such as art and craft or music. Team teaching has recently been introduced in some elementary schools in an attempt to organize teaching staff effectively so that they can teach students in accordance with their individual abilities, interests and differences. Team teaching is used particularly in subjects in which students’ abilities can vary widely such as math, science and English. Junior high school students are generally taught in mixed ability classes, with subject specialist teachers.

Initial teacher training is provided in higher education institutions in two types of universities that provide teacher certification courses. The first are those which were previously teacher training colleges and became state universities and the second are those universities in the private and municipal sectors. Initial teacher training courses in universities last for four years and students are usually admitted based on results of the National Entrance Examination, which consists of five areas: Japanese language, Foreign language, mathematics, sciences, and social studies. Most national universities also administer their own entrance examinations. Performance on both examinations is considered when determining whether or not to accept an applicant. In some cases, interviews are also an entrance requirement. In schools, student-teachers are supervised and evaluated by an experienced teacher under the approval of the school principal. In addition, a committee of members of the teacher training program formally examines these evaluations. Secondary school teachers are mainly subject-trained. The subjects for which a student must obtain credits to obtain a teacher certificate for upper secondary school are broadly divided into three categories:

• Subjects related to curricula

• Subjects related to the teaching profession

• Subjects related to curricula

45 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/japan.html


The general certificate is valid in all prefectures and is valid for life46. Special certificates are granted to working people who do not have a general teacher certificate, but do have professional knowledge, experience and skills from their careers, to enter into teaching positions. However, as a general rule, teacher training should take place in the university setting. The special certificate is currently valid for life, but only within the prefecture that conferred it. The temporary certificate is a teacher certificate that is conferred only when it is impossible to recruit someone with a regular teacher certificate. This certificate is valid for three years, and only within the prefecture that conferred it.

All newly employed teachers in national and public elementary, lower secondary, upper secondary and special schools are regarded as trainee teachers and undergo one year of induction training to “cultivate practical leadership and a sense of mission as a teacher”. After the initial induction year, continuing professional development is compulsory. Various programs are provided at all levels (national, prefectural, municipal and school) and teachers are expected to attend for a required minimum number of hours each year.

Japanese science teacher preparation emphasizes the development of science content understanding more than the development of pedagogical understanding or pedagogical content knowledge. Having this knowledge is preparatory for a teacher to cover the junior and senior high school level courses of study for each of the science disciplines.

Japanese teachers seem to engage in continuous professional development activities. One of the characteristics of professional development in Japan is the use of “Lesson study” or “Research lesson” which is a practice in which Japanese teachers engage in order to reflect on their lesson planning and implementation. The “Lesson study” approach involves teachers working together on planning, teaching, observing, and critiquing a small number of lessons to gain insights for improving teaching. Typically, teachers start the “lesson study” process by formulating a research question on a topic or area they want to investigate. Consequently, teachers write a detailed lesson plan together which one of them uses to teach in a real classroom lesson while the others observe. The group members then meet to discuss their comments and observations. Usually the teachers revise the lesson based on the comments and observations and another teacher implements it in a second classroom, while group members observe. The group members then meet to discuss the observed instruction. Finally, the teachers write a report of what their study lessons have taught them, particularly with respect to their research question47.

Facilities. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) produces a “List of Items of Standard Instructional Aids and Equipment”. This list defines the items and amounts of standard instructional aids and equipment to be provided by schools for the effective implementation of the curriculum. Items on the list include, for example, audio-visual aids, maps, wood-working tools and musical instruments. This list is used for reference when municipalities make decisions concerning furnishing their schools with instructional aids and equipment, taking into account individual schools’ actual conditions and characteristics. In addition, standards for the provision of instructional aids and equipment for science and math have been established by the Law for the Promotion of Science Education. Meters, laboratory instruments, field observation tools, specimens, models, instruments for experiments and practice, etc. are listed as necessary instructional aids and equipment for science education. The national government partly funds the provision of such aids and equipment as well as the provision of computers for all schools.

46 In June 2007, the Diet (Japan’s legislature) approved a bill to revise the Education Personnel Certification Law, which introduced a new renewal system for teaching licenses. Teachers will be required to renew their license to teach every 10 years by completing 30 hours of continuing professional development activities. 47 Refer to http //www3.nsta.org/main/news/stories/education_story.php?news_story_ID=51471


Textbooks. School textbooks serve as the main instructional material in the classroom. Textbooks are of two types. The first are produced by private textbook publishers and are subject to Ministry of Education approval while other textbooks are state-produced. Although some supplementary materials are used, the textbooks determine in a very large measure the curriculum as experienced by students. Students are taken systematically through the text until its completion at the end of the year/grade. All compulsory elementary schools in Japan are required to use textbooks in the classroom teaching of each subject which have been approved or compiled by the Ministry of Education. The contents of the Course of Study (the broad guidelines for the objectives and standard content of each school subject as prescribed by the Ministry of Education) are faithfully reflected in the textbooks, teachers’ manuals in each school.

All students in compulsory primary and lower secondary education receive a complete set of new textbooks at the beginning of each school year for free. These books are the students’ own property.

Textbooks are subject to minor revisions every four years or so and to major revisions with the inception of new Courses of Study.

Curricula and School Courses48. There is a national curriculum for each of the four school levels. The Course of Study specifies the broad guidelines for the objectives and standard content of each school subject. Each school is expected to organize its own curriculum in accordance with the Course of Study taking into consideration the actual situation of the individual institution, the local community, and the characteristics of the students. The Courses of Study were first prescribed in 1947 and are revised every ten years or so. The Japanese curriculum is organized along the ‘spiral’ model, moving from the immediate and concrete to the remote and abstract.

Kindergarten curricula focus on five inter-related aspects: health; human relationships; the environment; language; and expression. The objectives of kindergarten education are to encourage49:

• basic living habits and attitudes for a healthy, safe and happy life, and to nurture the foundations for a healthy mind and body

• love and trust for people and to cultivate an attitude of independence, cooperation and mutuality

• Positive attitude towards and interest in one's surrounding nature and society and cultivate sensitivity and a capacity for appreciating of one's surroundings

• development of pleasant attitudes in talking and listening to others and to cultivate language sense

• Creativity through various experiences

The national curriculum for elementary students comprises three main strands: compulsory subjects, moral education, and special activities. The compulsory subjects are:

• Japanese language;

• arithmetic;

• social studies (Years 3-6) - taught in the life environment studies subject area in Years 1 and 2;

• science in (Years 3-6) - taught in the life environment studies subject area in Years 1 and 2;

48 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/japan.html49 Refer to http://www.mext.go.jp/english/news/2001/04/010401.htm


• moral education;

• music;

• arts and handicrafts;

• physical education (PE) (including health education); and in Years 5 and 6, homemaking (home economics and family life)50.

The elementary school year consists of at least 35 weeks. Minimum hours of instruction vary from 17 to 20 hours per week depending on the age of the children. Table 11 shows the prescribed Course of Study for Elementary schools and time allocated to each subject.

Table 11: Time Allocation Prescribed by the Course of Study for Elementary Schools (per year in hours, 1 hour = 60 minutes) (April 2002)51

Grade 1 2 3 4 5 6

Age 6-7 years

7-8 years

8-9 years

9-10 years

10-11 years

11-12 years

Compulsory Subjects• Common/core subjects

o Japanese 204 210 176 176 135 131o Social studies - - 53 64 68 75o Mathematics 86 116 113 113 113 113o Science - - 53 68 71 71o Life environment studies 77 79 - - - -o Music 51 53 45 45 38 38o Art and handicrafts 51 53 45 45 38 38o Homemaking - - - - 45 41o Physical education 68 68 68 68 68 68

• Total core subjects 536 578 552 578 574 574• Other compulsory activities/study

areaso Moral education 26 26 26 26 26 26o Homeroom activities 26 26 26 26 26 26o Integrated study - - 79 79 83 83

• Total other compulsory activities/study areas 51 53 131 131 135 135

GRAND TOTAL 587 630 683 709 709 709

Note: In private schools, part or all of the time for moral education may be replaced by religious education. Religious education is not taught in state-funded schools.

50 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/japan-sources-mainstream.html#20 and http://www.inca.org.uk/japan-sources-mainstream.html#4751 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/jappan-sources-mainstream.html#81


There is a statutory national curriculum for students during the Lower Secondary phase52, which follow a similar statutory national curriculum to that in elementary schools, comprising:

• Japanese (modern Japanese language and literature, Japanese and Chinese classics),

• social studies,

• mathematics,

• science,

• music,

• fine art,

• health and physical education,

• industrial arts and homemaking (which includes domestic science, that is cooking, sewing and nutrition),

• foreign languages (see below)

• moral education (or religious education in certain private schools),

• special activities, and

• elective/optional subjects.

The prescribed Course of Study for Junior High Schools and time allocated to each subject is shown in Table 12 below.

The curriculum framework in post-compulsory upper secondary education (students aged 15-18, in senior high schools or similar) is prescribed in a Course of Study by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), but post-compulsory education institutions have more control over course content than elementary and junior high schools. Prior to April 2003, students had to acquire 80 or more credits over three years. A student enrolled in a specialist post-compulsory upper secondary course (that is, a vocational or technical course as compared with a general, academic one) had to acquire 30 or more of the 80 credits in vocational or other specialist subjects. The statutory curriculum for all students in post-compulsory upper secondary education (that is, senior high schools or similar) included

• Japanese language,

• geography and history,

• civics (includes contemporary society, politics and economics and ethics),

• mathematics,

• science (a selected combination of science subjects),

• health and physical education,

• art (one subject selected from art or music options), and

• home economics (or living skills).

Students have to obtain a certain number of credits in each of the compulsory subject areas as prescribed in Table 13 below.

52 Refer to http://www.mext.go.jp/english/shotou/030301.htm


Table 12: Time Allocation Prescribed by the Course of Study for Junior High Schools (per year in hours, 1 hour = 60 minutes) (April 2002)53

Grade 7 8 9Age 12-13 years 13-14 years 14-15 yearsCompulsory Subjects

• Common/core subjectso Japanese 117 88 88o Social studies 88 88 71o Mathematics 88 88 88o Science 88 88 67o Music 38 29 29o Fine art 38 29 29o Industrial arts and homemaking 58 58 29o Health and physical education 75 75 75o Foreign languages 88 88 88

• Total core subjects 675 630 563• Electives 0-25 42-71 88-138

Sub-total 675-700 671-700 650-700Other compulsory activities/study areas

• Moral education 29 29 29• Special activities/homeroom activities 29 29 29• Integrated study 58-83 58-88 58-108• Total other compulsory activities/study areas 117-142 117-146 117-167

Grand Total 817 817 817

Table 13: Compulsory Credits - Curriculum up to April 2003

Subject Number of CreditsJapanese language 4 credits

Geography and history 4 credits from two selected subjects. One subject must be world history; the other can be selected from Japanese history or geography.

Civics 4 credits from ‘the study of contemporary society’, or 2 credits each from ‘ethics’ and ‘politics and economics’

Mathematics 4 credits from Math I

Science 4 credits from two selected subjects (biology, chemistry, physics, comprehensive science or earth science)

Health and physical education 9 credits from PE and health

Art 3 credits from music, fine arts, crafts or calligraphyHome economics 4 credits from general home economics, living skills or general living skills.

53 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/jappan-sources-mainstream.html#81


The remaining credits are acquired, either by obtaining additional credits in the compulsory subjects, or by credits achieved from specialist subjects, such as vocational or technical subjects.

With the introduction of the revised curriculum (April 2003), the total number of credits required to complete upper secondary education has been reduced from 80 to 74. The subjects of the statutory curriculum remain the same as those detailed above with the addition of a foreign language (English) and information technology as required subjects. In the specialist education course, the vocational subject areas of welfare study and information technology are added. The subject ‘Man and Industrialized Society’ has also been added to the integrated education course.

In general, the key aims of the revisions for each stage of education (2002 -2003) are:

• Kindergarten: will provide children with opportunities to have rich experiences in pleasant playful circumstances. It will also enhance moral education suitable for children in early childhood.

• Elementary: educational content will be limited to the very basics necessary for daily life, such as reading, writing and arithmetic. Children will practice repeatedly until they acquire these skills.

• Lower secondary: will aim to help students to acquire the basic abilities and skills necessary for life in society. More elective subjects will be provided to enable students to develop their individuality and become independent.

• Upper secondary: the total number of credits for compulsory subjects will be minimized to provide each school and each student with more freedom to choose subjects, and to enable students to further develop their individuality and become independent.

The percentage of curriculum time loss as a result of the new curriculum which started in April 2002, compared with the old one, across the six years of primary school or the three years of junior high school as a whole, is shown in Table 14.

Table 14: Percentage of Curriculum Time Loss54

Primary Middle SchoolJapanese -14% -23%Mathematics -14% -18%Social Studies -18% -23%Science -17% -17%English Not applicable -25%Art & Craft/Art -14% -34%Music -14% -34%

Teaching Methods. In Japan, there is a strong orientation towards equality in education and a strong demand for all children to receive the same education. As a result, teachers tend to teach the same content at the same speed and tend to use uniform teaching methods. In Japanese schools students stay in the same room all day and the teacher moves from room to room. Teachers acknowledge that children learn at different rates, but lessons are planned according to Courses of Study so that all children are working

54 Cave, ‘Japanese Education Reform: developments and prospects at primary and secondary level’


towards a common goal. Teachers often teach “to the middle”, with the result that the faster children spend much time “off task” and slower students are usually told the correct answer(s) by the teacher.

Although the whole-class teaching is the most common practice in compulsory schooling in Japan, individualized teaching, small group instruction and other teaching methods are also encouraged in order to deal with the diversified learning abilities and aptitudes of students. Recent Courses of Study for all levels of education recommend the introduction of more group study, grouping by ability where appropriate, and individual learning practices with a view to providing an education which is tailored to individual student needs and interests. The introduction of team teaching aims to enable schools to teach by ability for some subjects and, consequently, to teach more to the needs of the individual student.

Results from TIMSS video study55 revealed that Japanese science and math teachers practice what the international education research community recommends and that they focus primarily on understanding, problem solving, and thinking rather than on the acquisition and application of skills. TIMSS video study56 also revealed that Japanese science lessons kept lesson time focused largely on instruction with a larger percentage of instruction time spent on the development of new content and more time was devoted to independent practical activities than to seatwork activities. Science lessons emphasized conceptual development of a few ideas using data generated during practical work to support the building of main ideas. Furthermore, the results suggest that the content was organized to support making connections between ideas and evidence, and was presented coherently with strong conceptual connections.

Assessment and Evaluation SystemThroughout the nine years of compulsory education, there are no formal national or local systems

of assessment57. Automatic promotion from year to year is the norm, regardless of students’ academic performance. The most gifted students are not allowed to skip a year and those falling behind are not provided with extra programs after school, but usually they attend jukus or similar establishments. The majority of Japanese students attending elementary school proceed directly to their neighborhood junior high school. They are given, on completion of elementary school, a certificate confirming that they have completed the full elementary education course58.

There is also no external examination scheme in Japan. Promotion and certification of completion are made on the basis of internal teacher assessment. However, from time to time, the Ministry of Education does conduct a nationwide scholastic achievement survey for using the results in the improvement of curriculum standards.

Teachers conduct informal continuous classroom assessment using either teacher-devised or ready-made tests, particularly in Japanese and arithmetic. They generally engage in three kinds of assessment:

• On-going assessment of day-to-day work

• Criterion-referenced assessment relating to standards embodied in the Course of Study

• Norm-referenced assessment involving a comparison of the performance of individuals with that of their peers and reported to parents in terms of grades

In addition, students are encouraged to assess their own work, as well as that of their peers.

55 Refer to http://www.wmich.edu/cpmp/parentresource/timss.html56 Refer to http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/c7/70.pdf57 Attempts to introduce national achievement testing in the early 1960s foundered, chiefly due to opposition from the teachers' unions.58 Refer to http://www.inca.org.uk/jappan-sources-mainstream.html#33


Although there are no national tests at the end of compulsory secondary education, local prefectures set achievement tests which cover Japanese, social studies, mathematics, science, and English. There are also individual entrance examinations (the ‘fourteen plus’ exam) for post-compulsory upper secondary education. Normally schools set their own entrance examinations and control their own admissions, although in some cities, the public authorities may set the exams and allocate children to public senior high schools on the basis of their results. Furthermore, promotion to the next class or phase and certification of completion of a particular phase are made on the basis of internal teacher assessment. Admission to post-compulsory upper secondary education is granted on the basis of credentials from junior high school: internal teacher assessment, prefecture achievement tests and entrance examination.

National and private post-compulsory upper secondary schools conduct their own entrance examinations. The entrance examinations for private ‘escalator’ elementary schools take place just prior to commencement of the school year when the student is six years old. This entrance examination relies on memory, oral communication, logical thought and concentration. The entrance examinations for senior high school and higher education are not necessarily matched closely to students’ curricula in the previous phase. A grading scale of 1 to 5 is used for the assessment of all students, with grade 1 being a fail. The final certificate of graduation (The Certificate of Upper Secondary Education) which has no grades is either pass or fail, is accepted by employers, but does not grant access to higher education. Universities set their own entrance examinations. A standard nationwide test called the NCUEE (National Centre for University Entrance examination) is conducted in January each year. All national and local public universities, not including junior colleges, as well as some private universities make use of this examination. In addition, each university administers its own tests during the month of February and thereafter. The NCUEE provides tests for 18 subjects in five subject areas: Japanese language, social studies, mathematics, science and foreign languages. Every applicant is not required to take all the five subject areas, but each university designates, at its discretion, the subject areas and/or subjects to be used in the selection of entrants and assigns respective score allocations. Consequently, applicants take tests in the subject areas or subjects designated by the universities they wish to enter.

In April 2007, the Japanese Government conducted the first national standardized tests since 1964. All pupils in Year 6 (ages 11 to 12) and Year 9 (ages 14 to 15) took tests in Japanese and mathematics. Results are not to be made publicly available, but local authorities and schools will be informed of the test results to allow them to compare their performance against national averages. This test is intended to help improve reading comprehension and writing, and will take place in April each year.

Educational OutcomesAs indicated above, Japan always ranked high on international tests. TIMSS 2003 results indicate that

Japan ranked 5th in both science and math. What is disturbing is the fact that many Japanese students have negative attitudes towards school and many are drifting away from science and technology. However, on completion of compulsory lower secondary education, approximately 97 percent of 15-year-olds progress to post-compulsory upper secondary education in schools offering full-time, part-time, or correspondence courses. Approximately 75 percent of these follow academically oriented courses. The drop-out rate during senior high school education is also very low. Table 15 presents the percentage of students completing lower secondary education and the percentage of the total number of upper secondary graduates advancing to university or junior college.


Table 15: Percentage of Japanese Students Completing Lower Secondary Education and Advancing to University Education

Year Lower Secondary Education (%) Upper Secondary Education (%)1985 94.1 30.51990 95.1 30.61995 96.7 37.62000 97.0 45.1

Factors Contributing to Japan’s Success in EducationJapan is characterized by a firm and demanding educational system and a rigorous curriculum which,

in addition to the striving of parents to help their children achieve better jobs, contribute to success in education. An important factor that also contributes to the success of education in Japan is the dedication of practitioners at all levels to providing quality educational experience for all students. Teachers spend many hours in school working with their colleagues, individual students, and student groups to ensure that a quality education is provided to all. This attitude is also observed at the university level among those professors active in improving K-12 education, either through providing teacher education programs at their institutions or by working with MEXT and local prefecture education offices to develop curriculum guidelines and operational procedures and manuals. Another factor is the uniformity of quality of equipment and facilities in all schools. Schools serving less economically advantaged students have the same quality of facilities and equipment as those serving the brightest university bound students. Furthermore, highly trained teachers are assigned to schools with the most difficult students and educational problems in contrast to schools in many other countries (e.g. USA) in which new inexperienced teachers are destined to go to the toughest and most demanding schools.

Issues Facing Education/Science EducationAlthough Japan has succeeded in graduating many motivated students, Japanese schools are facing

many problems. Since the introduction of the new curriculum in primary and junior high schools in 2002, there has been much serious debate about education in Japan in many newspapers and among teachers, university professors, parents, and employers. The many problems facing schools in Japan include increasing violence, bullying, classroom lack of discipline, and absenteeism. Other problems are refusal to attend school and not wanting to learn which starts at the higher grades of primary school and accelerates as students move towards entrance examination at the final grade of junior high school. The pressure placed on students may be one cause for such problems. Japanese children have no time to relax; they spend long hours studying for entrance examinations. The common image of Japanese students is that they are conscientious, hard working and industrious; always studying, going to jukus (cram schools) and pressurized by examinations. There is also a great deal of concern among educational leaders and governmental organizations about the lack of creativity and individuality that seems to result from a combination of traditional societal values and an educational system derived in large part from those values. There is considerable pressure on conformity and emphasis in schools upon the group. This type of social attitude enforced in school is felt to limit the creativity and individual effort. Ministry policy is to change the educational system to incorporate a balance between group cooperation and individual effort, as evidenced by the decrease in the number of units required at the junior and secondary school levels.

Interest in school and in science is also on the decline, another possible effect of the pressure placed on high achievement and the resulting nature of instruction. TIMSS 1999 findings indicated that low percentages of Japanese students reported an interest in science or saw science as important to their daily lives. The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology is concerned about the “drift away from science and technology” among school children and is attempting to improve science education programs. The actions taken by the Ministry include expanding elective subjects in the lower


secondary schools and the establishment of thirteen science courses at the upper secondary level. It has launched efforts to provide a more flexible approach to science education at the upper secondary level with an emphasis on hands-on and problem solving approaches to learning. To improve science teaching, the Ministry believes it is necessary to review the approach to teaching, which tends towards the transfer of knowledge, and to adopt methods that give priority to children’s autonomous exploratory activities and instill the willingness to learn independently. Recent reforms reduced the content of the curriculum by about 30% and the length of the school week from six to five days in order to make the educational experience at school less stressful. Current reform movements also call for increased emphasis on connecting science to real-life issues to make science more meaningful and interesting for students. What is of great concern is that many schools have not welcomed the reforms and, in practice, are trying to maintain the number of teaching hours as before by adding extra daily lessons, or by extending lessons hours and cutting back on recesses. Consequently, students are not experiencing a relaxed learning environment. It seems that these schools, and many parents are moving back to traditional teaching because of their belief that the new approaches lower academic standards.


franCe

France has a strong and centralized administrative tradition. The State assumes overall responsibility for educational policy. The Ministry of Education is responsible for education -from nursery to university level - as well as for teacher training. It lays down guidelines for teaching, draws up the school curriculum and administers staff recruitment, training and management. It also determines the status and regulations of schools, allocating them their appropriate quotas of teachers and administrative staff59.

The French education system has always been centralized. However, in 1982, a law was passed transferring certain powers and responsibilities from the central government to the local authorities, starting the process of decentralization60. As a result of the 1982 law and a further decentralization law of 1983, the role in education of the regions, departments and communes has significantly increased61. This has brought greater diversity and more flexible organization to what was once an extremely uniform educational system. Greater power is now given to regional and other local authorities placed under the authority of the National Education Minister. Since 1999, decentralization of the management of teachers’ careers has given the educational administrators the new and important responsibility of assigning new teaching positions and promoting and moving teachers between schools.

During the academic year 2002 to 2003, the Ministry of Education prepared proposals for further decentralization of educational administration. The proposals included giving schools greater autonomy. However, the State remains responsible for establishing the curriculum, for the recruitment and management of teaching staff, qualifications and inspection of the education system62. The communes, departments and regions have powers in three main areas: educational planning, responsibility for capital expenditure, the actual operation of schools, and organization of relations between local authorities and the education community63. The system is supervised by several inspectorates. General inspectorates are assigned broad responsibilities for evaluation. Furthermore, national education inspectors visit primary schools and monitor the performance of teachers, while regional inspectors are responsible for assessing secondary school teachers in their particular subject64.

The educational system in France has a general structure (primary schools, collèges, and lycées) that was gradually put in place during the 1960s and 1970s. Since 1967, school attendance has been compulsory for those from 6 to 16 years of age. Since the 1970s, France has also had an outstanding record with respect to the development of pre-school education; all 3- to 5-year-olds can go to nursery classes.

Private-sector education also exists in France. In this sector, families must pay school fees, which vary from school to school. In schools that have entered into a contract with the State, the fees are not usually very high. Parents may freely register their children in this type of school, providing that places are available. The private sector is mainly composed of Catholic establishments that have contracts with the State. Accordingly, the State provides these schools with significant financial support, including teachers’ salaries and of their initial and in-service training. Private-sector institutions under contract must adhere

59 http://www.education.gouv.fr/syst/organb.htm60 France is divided into 22 regions, each containing between two and eight departments, which means that the country currently has 101 departments, 96 of which belong to metropolitan France and five of which are overseas. Departments are further divided into communes (local authorities, administered by the municipal council) 61 http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Education/DF_education.shtml62 Refer to http://www.education.gouv.fr/thema/decentralisation/default.htm63 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#8264 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#112


to the timetables and curricula applied in public-sector education and are subject to state supervision/inspection.

Access to Education/Science Education In 2004, France’s expenditure on education was 10.9% of government spending65 comprising 5.9%

of France’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)66 while expenditure on Research and Development for higher education was 1.9% of GDP (2003). As far as school education spending is concerned, France is in a middle position, behind the Nordic countries (Sweden and Denmark), but significantly ahead of Italy and Japan67.

Almost all students attend schools. According to UNESCO Institute for Statistics68, the gross enrollment ratios (GER) in preprimary education have increased from 84% in 1991 to 118% in 2005 while these ratios for tertiary education have increased from 40% to 56%. The net enrollment ratios (NER) in primary and secondary education were 99% in 2005 and 56% respectively with the primary to secondary transition rate 99%. The majority of the school population receives education financed by the State. Public sector institutions provide schooling for approximately 86% of children in compulsory primary education (ages 6-11), and 79% of those in secondary education. These percentages have remained stable over the past decade. Nearly all private schools have entered into a contract with the State69 leaving families of fewer than 50,000 students in private schools without such contracts; thus paying high school fees.

The last few decades have seen huge changes in the number of students in the French education system. In the 1960s the sudden opening-up of access to secondary education for all children led to an explosion of the numbers of students in collèges. In 1985, the announcement of the goal of 80% of young people obtaining the baccalaureate by the end of the century, reaffirmed in the Outline Act of July 1989, led to a second influx of students. The 1989 Outline Act also included another major goal that “before leaving the education system and regardless of their level of achievement, all young people must be offered vocational training”.

These developments have successively opened the doors of collèges and then lycées to the vast majority of children in France. They have allowed new categories of students, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, to reach levels of education and training from which they were formerly excluded70. But this democratization is posing a new challenge: to ensure a common education and the same chances of academic success to all young people regardless of their circumstances at home.

To ensure genuine equality of access to collèges and lycées and an equal chance of achieving success at each level, more support is given to children experiencing learning difficulties. Alongside the ordinary school education system, specialists or adapted classes, integrated into primary and secondary schools, were developed. Such programs include the CLIS (classes which act as bridges to bring children back into the mainstream system), and the SEGPA (adapted general and vocational education sections designed particularly for children and adolescents having difficulty at school due to psychological, emotional or

65 The distribution of public expenditure per level was: preprimary (12%), primary (20%), secondary (48%) and tertiary (21%). Central government contributes the largest proportion of this expenditure (around 60 per cent), followed by local government (20 per cent), parents/ households (7%) and industry (6%). See http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#160

66 In 2001, around 7% of France's GDP was spent on the education system.67 http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Education/DF_education.shtml68 http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/document.aspx?ReportId=289&IF_Language=eng&BR_Country=2500&BR_Region=4050069 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#2570 http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Education/DF_education.shtml


behavioral problems, and for slow learners). France has also developed within its education system a policy of positive discrimination, which takes the form of allocating additional funds to schools in so-called “priority education areas” (ZEPs) where a disadvantaged social and cultural environment makes educating the students especially difficult (18% of all primary-school children and 21% of collège students attend schools in ZEPs).

Inputs into the Educational System The following paragraphs provide a description of the educational system in France along with the


Education System in France. There are four phases of education in France:

• Pre-compulsory pre-elementary, ages 2 - 6

• Primary (elementary), ages 6 - 11

• Lower secondary, ages 11 - 15

• Upper secondary, ages 15 - 18

Pre-compulsory education (known as pre-elementary education) is optional between the ages of 2 and 6. However, Article 2 of the 1989 Framework Law on Education ensures that “a place must be made available for any 3-year-old child whose family requests it, either in a nursery school (école maternelle) or an infant class (classe enfantine) attached to an elementary school, as near as possible to his/her home”71. Attendance at public-sector nursery schools is free of charge, and funded by central government, through the commune while in private-sector nursery schools, parents pay school fees.

Compulsory education starts at age 6 and ends at age 16 on completion of the first year of upper secondary education. Elementary Education comprises 5 years of schooling. The first three years, CP (cours préparatoire) and CE1 and CE2 (cours élementaire 1 and 2), constitutes the basic learning cycle (children aged 6-8), provide grounding in the basic skills. The next two years, CM1 and CM2 (cours moyen 1 and 2), constitutes the consolidation cycle (children aged 8-11), take children up to the end of primary school. Lower secondary education caters for students aged 11 to 15. They study in the collège, a comprehensive institution admitting all students for the first four years of compulsory lower secondary education, the sixième, cinquième, quatrième and troisième classes72. The upper secondary phase caters for the final year of compulsory education (students aged 15+) and for the post-compulsory phase, age 16 - 18+. The classes are named seconde, première, and terminale. The seconde is a class for undifferentiated general and technological education at the end of which students choose between several branches and specialize in some subjects. The première and terminale prepare students for the Baccalaureate (required for entry to higher education). In the première and terminale, students are divided among different classes according to the type of Baccalaureate, or the subjects, they have chosen to specialize in. General and

71 The Framework Law on Education of 1989 also states that priority should be given to providing school places for 2-year-olds living in socially underprivileged places such as inner city, rural, or mountainous areas. The Ministry of Education has designated certain geographical areas 'education priority zones' (zones d›éducation prioritaires or ZEPs). Children in these zones are offered, where possible, education from age 2 for social reasons, e.g. to learn French in preparation for the school system. Children with special educational needs and foreign children are also offered places in pre-elementary education at age 2, where conditions allow, in order to facilitating their integration as quickly as possible. 84.7 per cent of 2-year-olds in education priority zones attend écoles maternelles compared with around 35 per cent in the rest of France. 72 In the French system, in secondary education (lower and upper), classes are numbered downwards from six (sixième) up to one (première) and the final year of Baccalaureate studies is called terminale.


technological lycées (LEGT)7 and vocational lycées (lycée professionnel, LP)73 offer upper secondary education. General lycée offers three series: the “serie scientifique” (S) concerned with natural sciences, physics and mathematics, “serie economique et sociale” (SE) concerned with economics and social sciences and “serie literaire” (L) with a focus on French, foreign languages, and philosophy74. Teaching is no longer common to all students, but adapted and strengthened in the subjects which are specific to each Baccalaureate type75 (Table 16). The phases of education are further organized into specific learning “cycles”, as shown in Table 17.

Table 16: Summary of the Structure of the Pre-College Educational System in France

Year Age range Known as Provided inYear 1 6-7 CP Elementary SchoolYear 2 7-8 CE1 Elementary SchoolYear 3 8-9 CE2 Elementary SchoolYear 4 9-10 CM1 Elementary SchoolYear 5 10-11 CM2 Elementary SchoolYear 6 11-12 Sixième Collège (Lower Secondary)Year 7 12-13 Cinquième CollègeYear 8 13-14 Quatrième CollègeYear 9 14-15 Troisième CollègeYear 10 15-16 Seconde Lycée (Upper Secondary)Year 11 16-17 Première LycéeYear 12 17-18 Terminale Lycée

The education provided in elementary schools, colleges and lycées is free, co-educational, and secular. The control and management of pre-compulsory schools is divided between the Ministry of Education (central government) and local government, specifically the commune for pre-compulsory education. The Ministry takes care of training, recruitment, and teachers’ pay and defines curricula. The commune looks after school premises and employs auxiliary staff like specialist infant teaching assistants76. Elementary schools are organized and administered by the communes, which have particular responsibility for building and maintenance while collèges are organized and administered, at the local level, by departments, which have particular responsibility for school transport and for maintenance and building77. General and technological lycées (LEGT)vii and vocational lycées, which are public-sector schools with legal responsibility and financial autonomy, are the responsibility, at the local level, of the regions, which take care of building and maintenance and have considerable powers with respect

73 The vocational lycée provides young people with general technological and vocational training. It leads, after two years, to the vocational aptitude certificate (certificat d'aptitude professionnelle, (CAP) or the vocational studies certificate (brevet d'études professionnelles, BEP), and, after two additional years, to the vocational Baccalaureate. The vocational baccalaureate usually leads to employment rather than higher education74 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#2375 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#2676 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#6177 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#23


to vocational training. In addition, the Ministry of Labor and the regions supervise vocational training outside the school system and regional councils organize annual apprenticeship programs78.

Teachers. Primary school teachers and teachers in lower and upper secondary schools (collèges and lycées) in France are trained in university teacher education institutes (IUFMs, Instituts universitaires de formation des maîtres). Primary school teachers are trained as generalists or class teachers to teach almost all subjects (French, mathematics, history, and geography, science, modern languages, art and sports). Secondary school teachers are trained as specialists and may teach in collèges, general and technological lycées (LEGT), or in vocational lycées (lycée professionnel, LP). Many teachers at this level are qualified as professeurs agrégés79. These teachers may choose among five routes of initial teacher training:

• The Certificate of Aptitude for Teaching at Secondary Level (CAPES, Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement du second degré)

• The Certificate of Aptitude for Teaching Physical Education and Sport (CAPEPS, Certificat d’aptitude à l’enseignement de l’éducation physique et sportive)

• The Certificate of Aptitude for Teaching Technical Subjects (CAPET, Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement technique)

• The Certificate of Aptitude for Teaching in a Vocational Lycée (CAPLP, Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de lycée professionnel)

• The advanced secondary level teaching qualification, known as agrégation.

IUFMs are state-run higher education institutions that were established in 1991. Each is attached to a university. IUFMs provide two years of training. The first year of study is spent in preparation for the state teacher recruitment examination (concours) and the second year of study is spent acquiring the practical knowledge necessary for teaching. Roughly one third of the two years’ study is devoted to work experience (preparation, analysis and a practical in-school placement); the other two thirds are dedicated to subject training. The second-year curriculum, which is evaluated for the award of the CAPES, CAPET, CAPEPS or CAPLP certificates, is divided into three parts a long practical training period (eight weeks) carried out in a class, a paper on a situation encountered in real life, and more in-depth pursuit of theoretical training

Evaluation is based on continuous assessment during the course and takes the following three points into account: the ability to maintain discipline and manage student behavior, the ability to analyze and reflect on a topic related to practical teaching, and the teaching modules. Table 18 shows how training is typically organized:

78 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#7779 Teachers who are aggregés hold the highest level of professional teaching qualifications, achieved through success in a competitive high level examination for teachers.


Table 17: Learning Cycles in the Pre-College Educational System in France

Cycle Age range School typeFirst learning cycle 2-5 Pre-compulsory (pre-elementary)Basic learning cycle 5-8 Pre-compulsory, ages 5-6

Primary (elementary), ages 6-8Compulsory education starts at age 6Elementary school consolidation cycle

8-11 Primary (elementary)

Observation and adaptation cycle

11-12 Lower secondary (collège) sixième (first class of lower secondary education)

Secondary consolidation cycle 12-14 Lower secondary (collège) cinquième and quatrième (second and third classes of lower secondary education)

Orientation cycle 14-15 Lower secondary (collège) troisième (fourth and final class of lower secondary education)

15-18 Upper secondary, (normally) general and technological or vocational lycée

Note: Compulsory education ends at age 16 (on completion of the first year of upper secondary education)

Table 18: Organization and Content of Training for Teacher Certification

First year Second year

Subject training60 per cent compulsory and optional subjects for the teacher recruitment examination and one language

50 per cent French, mathematics, physical education and sport, disciplines not chosen in the teacher recruitment examination and one language

General training 40 per cent 50 per cent, including professional dissertation

A candidate must pass the state teacher training recruitment examination to become a trainee (and salaried) civil servant. To be eligible for the second part of the examination candidates must pass written French and math tests. The second admissions section of the recruitment examination consists of a series of oral tests including:

• a presentation and interview about the teaching profession used principally to judge a candidate’s suitability for the teaching profession

• an oral test covering either technology and science, or history and geography

• an oral test covering foreign or regional languages, or visual arts or music; and a sports and physical education test.

In March 2003, measures to improve the system of initial training and professional development of teachers were announced by the French Ministry of Education80. They include measures to:

• refocus training on priorities such as the teaching of literacy

• ensure closer links between theory and practice, with increased teaching practice in the classroom

80 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#174


• overhaul the professional recruitment examination for potential primary and nursery school teachers to ensure that this corresponds with the subjects candidates are expected to teach

• reinforce the links between universities and IUFMs

• increase the importance and relevance of continuing professional development

In May 2005, the Ministry of Education announced changes to the teacher recruitment examinations. In accordance with the changes, in the first part of the recruitment tests, candidates take three written examinations instead of the previous two. The three examinations are in French, mathematics, and in a combined history, geography and science paper. In the second part of the tests, an oral foreign language test is also compulsory. Moreover, at the end of 2006, the Education Minister outlined a number of reforms to initial teacher training. Beginning of the 2008/2009 academic year, all teacher education institutions (IUFMs) will be merged into universities. Student teachers will also have to master the following practical skills during their training recognizing student diversity, the ability to control a class, working in multidisciplinary teams, coping with parents and difficult situations, and acting ethically

Student-teachers who intend to teach in private schools are trained in Centres de Formation Pédagogique Privés (CFPPs) which provide similar training to an IUFM. Those who are unable to study in an IUFM may follow courses provided by the National Centre for Distance Learning (CNED, Centre National d’Enseignement à Distance). These cover most of the subjects studied in an IUFM and all the teacher recruitment examination preparation.

Usually students from IUFMs are more successful than those from other training programs in the training recruitment examination organized nationally. For example in the 2001 examination session, almost 55,000 candidates took the teacher recruitment examination for positions in nursery and elementary schools. Of these, 14,331 were admitted to the next stage of teacher training. Sixty two percent of the new trainee teachers (civil servants) had prepared for the examination in an IUFM81. Table 19 presents the number of posts, candidates, and the success rate of all candidates in the training recruitment examination in 2001.

Table 19: Number of Positions, Candidates, and the Success rate of all Candidates in the Training Recruitment Examination in 2001

Number of positions

Number of candidates

Successful candidates Success rate

CAPES 7680 44265 8813 19.9CAPEPS 1155 7280 1311 18CAPET 890 4847 1023 21.1CAPLP 2610 15321 3172 20.7Agrégation 2000 17412 1985 11.4

A Diplôme Professionnel de Professeur des Écoles is awarded after the successful completion of a course in an IUFM. It qualifies the holder to teach children aged between 2 and 11 years of age in pre-primary and primary schools. There is no requirement for further training, although teachers are expected to take advantage of continuing professional development opportunities. There is also no post-qualification probationary period although all trainees must successfully complete their in-school teacher training placements. All candidates awarded the CAPES, CAPET, CAPEPS or CAPLP and selected to



teach are awarded life tenure. They are known as Professeurs Certifiés. Candidates who have followed the agrégation route are also awarded life tenure and are known as Professeurs Agrégés.

Since the start of the 2002/2003 school year, teachers who have secured appointment on full tenure after leaving an IUFM complete a minimum of three weeks of training during the first year in service and two weeks during the second year. This training, organized by the académies, take into account the needs of new teachers and of schools, and follow on from the final year of study in an IUFM. The training may include the adapting subject knowledge to the reality of the classroom, managing a class, working with colleagues, either within a subject or across subject disciplines, and analyzing class activities.

The content of initial science teacher preparation programs, required for primary and lower secondary, include general teaching knowledge and skills, teaching knowledge and skills for science, scientific knowledge and skills and scientific experimental/investigative skills. Figure 3 presents details of these requirements as excerpted form Eurydice (2006).

Facilities. To improve science instruction in classrooms and laboratories, the French Ministry of Education perceives of a growing need to equip upper secondary schools with modern technology, such as multimedia computers connected to local networks and Internet, video recorders and players, overhead projectors and televisions that can be connected to computer and video equipment in addition to picking up stations. Beginning in 1987, facilities were installed in upper secondary schools to allow teachers and students to conduct computer-assisted experiments. Since 1997 France has been installing multimedia stations and computer peripherals in biology labs. Computers are being networked to give students that opportunity to share materials and work together. In addition, the introduction of portable equipment for computer-assisted experiments is progressing. It is worth noting that even though laboratories are being equipped with new technologies, they remain equipped for traditional experimental work. In junior secondary education, chemistry and physics share facilities: laboratories, combination collection/ preparation rooms and teacher research rooms. At the upper secondary level this is not always the case; physics and chemistry do however share laboratories for computer-assisted experiments. The Ministry of Education recommends a classical layout for science labs, one that is wide and not too deep in order for students to see teacher presentations and experiments at the front of the room. The Ministry warns that no other discipline should be taught in physics and chemistry labs for “safety reasons and in the presence of fragile and costly materials. This constraint allows major savings in the institution’s maintenance by avoiding damage.”82

82 Refer to http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/171821977/50/.pdf


Figure 3: Requirement for Initial Science Teacher Preparation Programs in France

General teaching knowledge and skills:Regulations in initial teacher education for general teaching knowledge and skills (ISCED 1 and 2), 2004/2005:

• Theories of child development• Creation and management of learning situations• Working with diverse student groups• Collaborative approaches to teaching

Teaching knowledge and skills for science:Regulations in initial teacher education for subject-specific teaching knowledge and skills (ISCED 1), 2004/2005:

• Knowledge of school science curricula and their objectives• Scope for experimental/ investigative activities• Taking account of children’s “common sense” understanding of scientific concepts and phenomena

Regulations in initial teacher education for subject-specific teaching knowledge and skills (ISCED 2), 2004/2005:

• Knowledge of different teaching approaches and their history.• Knowledge of school science curricula and their objectives• Scope for experimental/ investigative activities• Taking account of children’s “common sense” understanding of scientific concepts and phenomena• Ability to keep up to date with recent scientific developments.

Scientific knowledge and skills:Regulations in initial teacher education for scientific knowledge and (ISCED 1), 2004/2005:

• Knowledge of and competence in scientific experimentation/ investigation• Knowledge of history and epistemology of science

Regulations in initial teacher education for scientific knowledge and skills (ISCED 2), 2004/2005:• Knowledge of scientific concepts and theories• Knowledge of and competence in scientific experimentation/ investigation• Knowledge of history and epistemology of science

Scientific experimental/investigative skillsRegulations in initial teacher education for scientific experimental/investigative skills (ISCED 1), 2004/2005:

• Types of activities not specifiedRegulations in initial teacher education for scientific experimental/investigative skills (ISCED 2), 2004/2005:

• Laboratory-based work

It is important to note that the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in Europe has established the “Programme on Educational Building (PEB)” which aims to promote “the exchange and analysis of policy, research and experience in all matters related to educational building. The planning and design of educational facilities – schools, colleges and universities – has an impact on educational outcomes which is significant but hard to quantify. Building and running those facilities accounts for a substantial part of public educational expenditure in OECD countries.”83 France, being one of the OECD countries follows the guidelines provided by PEB and consequently, provides its students with quality school buildings that are equipped with all the necessary materials and equipment. However, a word of caution is needed here, as research cited below indicates not all teachers make use of the available facilities and equipment to promote student learning in science and other subjects.

Textbooks84. Textbooks intended for use in school must be approved by the national Minister of Education. Under French law, the textbooks produced by private- or public-sector educational publishers for the various levels of school education are based on the curricula and official recommendations of the

83 Refer to http://www.oecd.org/department/0,3355,en_2649_35961311_1_1_1_1_1,00.html84 Information in this section was acquired from http://www.inca.org.uk/france


Ministry of Education. They must comply with the agreed curriculum, and the cover or title page must state which class and level of teaching the textbook is intended for. Textbook publishers also produce teachers’ manuals to accompany the relevant student text- and work-books. These manuals are written under the sole responsibility of the author and, consequently, do not replace official texts.

Teachers usually decide on the textbooks to be used in their schools depending on the syllabus/course selected by the student. They are expected to develop clear criteria for the selection of the Ministry-approved school textbooks. One of the criteria for selection is usually expected to be that the textbook stands alone, i.e. it does not depend on the provision of support documents. Head teachers use their own judgment to select the publishing house/ bookseller from whom to acquire the approved textbooks chosen by subject teachers. There are no prescribed textbooks at the nursery level.

There is also an approved school’s list of recommended textbooks which is generally expected not to be changed too often. In fact, the recommended replacement period for textbooks is four years, during which any change of textbook or purchase of supplementary textbooks is prohibited. Teachers are also expected to use the same textbooks for classes of the same level.

Textbooks are loaned free of charge to students in compulsory education, in both public and private sectors. These books must be returned at the end of the year. As upper secondary education in the première and terminale classes of the lycée is not included in compulsory education, families pay for supplies and textbooks. Teachers usually receive the teacher’s textbook free of charge and can keep it for their own use.

Teaching materials are usually published for national use. Local or regional associations and documentation centers in the regions or departments also produce teaching materials to supplement those published nationally. Teachers in each school usually agree on the particular materials they wish to use from the approved range available from private-sector educational publishers. Teaching materials such as video cassettes are used widely in the teaching of modern foreign languages at all levels. At the nursery level, all materials, such as books, pictures, games, toys, etc., used for group teaching are selected by the teaching staff concerned85.

Curriculum86. The national Government, through the Ministry of Education, is responsible for defining and implementing educational policy, including educational guidelines and curricula. The general inspectorate of national education is responsible for annual monitoring and evaluating of the curriculum. Curricula that were introduced gradually during the period 1996 to 1999/2000 emphasized simplification with priority given to the fundamentals of learning such as literacy and numeracy. In 2002, the Ministry of Education announced the gradual introduction of reforms, which aimed to “provide students with the tools they need for life and future learning”. The curriculum is usually expressed in terms of subjects and number of hours. The central statutory national curriculum which differs for different age groups includes: French, mathematics, science (physics, chemistry, biology and geology), history/geography, civics, technology, modern foreign languages, physical education and sport, and art (includes art and music). It applies to elementary school, collège and the compulsory initial year of upper secondary (lycée) education.

The main educational activities in nursery schools contribute to the children’s general development and prepare them for elementary school. They cover physical, scientific, and technical activities and activities promoting communication and oral and written expression. Curricula for nursery schools, prior

85 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#5986 Information about this section was acquired from http://www.inca.org.uk/france


to 2002, included the following six main areas of activity with special emphasis on spoken language activities87: living together, speaking and developing language, learning about the written word, taking action/acting in the world, discovering the world, and imagining, feeling and creating. The reforms of the curriculum which began in September 2002 redefined the areas of activities in nursery school88 into five89: language at the center of learning, living together (‘vivre ensemble’, movement and expression with the body, discovering the world (‘découvrir le monde’), and imagining, feeling and creating. The language at the center of learning activity area includes an introduction to a foreign or regional language in the final year of nursery school which is taught by teachers from the elementary school to ensure continuity in children’s learning.

The principal aim of elementary school education is to provide students with the basic elements and tools of knowledge: oral and written expression, reading and mathematics. It also allows students to make use of and develop their intelligence, sensitivity and manual, physical and artistic abilities. Elementary school education should permit students to extend their awareness of time, space, the objects of the modern world and their own body; facilitate the gradual acquisition of methodological skills and provide students with a solid preparation for further schooling at a collège. The national Ministry of Education defines three groups of competencies to be achieved by elementary school students: cross-curricular skills e.g. competencies relevant to the student’s attitudes, his/her ability to develop fundamental concepts of time and space, and methodologies for working, competencies in mastering the mother tongue/language skills, and subject specific/disciplinary skills and competencies.

In addition, a list of attainment targets is also established which indicates the levels of attainment to be reached by students leaving the elementary school90. The elementary school curriculum (6- to 11-year-olds) prior to the September 2002 curriculum reform is shown in the Figure 4.

In 2002, the Ministry of Education announced the gradual introduction of reforms to the primary level curriculum aiming to “provide students with the tools they need for life and future learning”. Subjects covered by the reformed curriculum at the elementary level are provided in Figure 591.

87 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#2688 Full details of the revised curriculum for nursery schools, including the knowledge and understanding children are expected to have acquired by the end of the phase, are available online at http://www.education.gouv.fr/bo/2002/hs1/maternelle.htm89 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#15090 Full details of the levels of attainment in terms of the knowledge and understanding children are expected to acquire by the end of the primary phase of education are available at http://www.education.gouv.fr/bo/2002/hs1/annexe.htm91 Full details of the revised primary level curriculum are available at http://www.education.gouv.fr/bo/2002/hs1/annexe.htm


Figure 4: Elementary Curriculum Prior to 2002 in France92

Age Description of Requirements

6- to 8-year-olds

Includes most subjects of the compulsory curriculum, but the sciences, technology, history and geography were combined in one subject entitled ‘discovering the world’ (découverte du monde). Modern foreign languages were also studied by many children during this phase even if only for very short weekly sessions. Their introduction into the elementary school curriculum commenced in 1989, on an experimental basis. English was generally the language studied. When studied, a foreign language was usually studied during what would normally have been French lessons.

8- to 11-year-olds

Includes all subjects of the compulsory curriculum, but modern foreign languages was an optional subject for 8- to 9-year-old students (studied for a maximum of 1.5 hours per week during what would normally have been French teaching), and all the sciences and technology were combined into one subject (science and technology). History and geography were also studied jointly. For students in the final year of elementary school education (age 10-11), the study of a modern foreign language became compulsory in September 1998.

Figure 5: Elementary Curriculum Since 2002 in France

Age Description of Requirements

6- to 8-year-olds (basic learning cycle

• literacy and French• ‘living together’ (‘vivre ensemble’/civics)• Mathematics• ‘discovering the world’ (‘découvrir le monde’ - which combines science, technology,

history and geography)• foreign or regional languages• art (including both art and music• sport and physical education

Improving literacy through all subject areas is emphasized throughout this cycle.

8- to 11-year-olds (primary consolidation cycle)

Four main subject areas, covering the statutory national curriculum:• French language, literature and humanities: literature (reading, writing and speaking),

language (grammar, conjugation, spelling and vocabulary), a foreign or regional language, history-geography and a weekly debate on ‘living together’ (civics/citizenship)

• Science education: science, technology and mathematics.• Artistic education: music and art• Sport and physical education

In addition, children also have civics education lessons and the theme of literacy

In elementary school, 26 hours of lessons per week are usually taught over four-and-a-half days (schools usually close on Wednesdays and on Saturday afternoons as well as on Sundays). Central government defines the overall time allocations per subject area for each of the compulsory subject areas of the statutory curriculum.

The main aim of lower secondary education in the collège is to consolidate learning gained in the elementary school and perfect the use of the mother tongue. There are three main objectives which permeate the curriculum during this phase. These are: mastery of language (in terms of the mother tongue), the successful acquisition of working methods - that is, learning how to learn (explained within the framework of each subject, but extending from one subject to the others), and successful civics and cultural education aimed at forming the educated person and citizen for the modern world..



In general, the compulsory national curriculum during lower secondary education in France comprises French, mathematics, modern foreign languages, history/geography, civic education, life and earth sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, geology), economics, technology, art education (includes music and art), PE, and sports. Health education, environmental education and information technology are also taught in compulsory school education in France. Health education is generally taught in science and civics lessons; environmental education is often included in geography, but may also be studied in other subject areas such as science; and information technology is intended to be used as a tool for the teaching of all subjects.

Time allocation for subjects varies depending on the specific year or, in the final year of lower secondary education (troisième, students aged 14-15), on the branch of study selected (general or technological). All students receive general education during the first three years, and then choose between the language or technology branch of education for their final year (troisième).

Reforms of lower secondary education announced in 2001 called for a return to vocational streams in collèges to suit the wide-ranging abilities of students, aged 11 to 15 and to fight school failure. It was decided that subject options would introduce a vocational element93. The changes incorporated:

• improvements to the integration of students arriving from elementary school; • multi-disciplinary studies for the two middle years of the collège (the cinquième

and the quatrième, students aged 12-14) around the themes of nature and the human body, arts and humanities, languages and civilizations, and design and technical studies;

• final year collège students (aged 14-15, in the troisième) being offered vocationally-orientated options to complement the core curriculum;

• formal assessments every year • greater value given to the end of collège examination and certificate (the Diplôme

National du Brevet)

Three main goals/key skills were selected for general education in France94. They should allow students, after the study of subjects within the national curriculum, to: 95 develop logical thought; master the three means of expression (written, oral and visual); and work independently. In secondary classes of general education, three goals/key skills are also being pursued through literary and linguistic subjects. These are: mastery of language, the acquisition of culture within the modern world, the acquisition of methods of working specific to each subject area. In secondary scientific classes, the goal/key skill is: the development of students’ skills of reasoning and logic in dealing with problems of increasing complexity. Finally, in technology education, the key skills/objectives are the same as those for general education, but the approach to knowledge differs, with students being encouraged to adopt a practical approach. Table 20 presents the required number of hours for the common core compulsory subjects for the various types of general Baccalaureate.

The position and curricular organization of science is at the heart of debate in France. The new approaches, adopted since the start of the 2005 school year in the first year of lower secondary education, seek to introduce an investigative dimension already present in syllabuses at primary level under the

93 http://www.education.gouv.fr/presse/2002/europ/europdp.htm94 Schooling in France is also generally expected to develop a "taste for creating, taking part in cultural and artistic activities, participation in local life and in physical and sporting activities".95 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#26


heading of la main à la pâte (a ‘hands-on’ approach) to the curricula of life and earth sciences, physics and chemistry and to all provision at ISCED level 2 (Eurydice 2006). This gives students an important role in developing their own knowledge. Furthermore, the new curricula provides an incentive to adopt a multidisciplinary approach in so far as certain topics such as health or the sustainable environment, which incorporate several subjects, are studied throughout lower secondary education.

There are no national regulations covering the maximum number of students in a class, except in a ZEP, where they are one teacher to 25 students96. However, the average class size in regular classes never exceeds this number. For example the average class sizes in public- and private-sectors in the mid 1990s was 26 or less in pre-school classes, 23 in the primary classes, 24.5 in collèges, 29 in public-sector general and technological lycées (LEGTs) and 26 in the private sector and 22 in public- and private-sector vocational lycées. These figures have remained stable although there are considerable variations throughout the country97. The average student/teacher ratio in primary education was 19:1 in 2004. This ratio was 23:1 in collège and LEGT and 16:1 in vocational lycées in 1999. These ratios constitute average figures for all of France and they may differ considerably from region to region and school to school.

Teaching Methods. There are no prescribed teaching methods or materials for elementary school or secondary education in France. Teachers are free to choose their teaching methods, course books and other materials. Teachers in each school usually agree on the particular materials they wish to use from the approved range available from private-sector educational publishers. However, Riboli-Sasco, Richard, & Taddei (2006) have found that science teaching is generally still traditional with emphasis on theoretical issues and neglect of laboratory practical experiences. Riboli-Sasco et al. suggest that even when students are involved in laboratory activities these are of the verification rather than the inquiry type.

However, it seems that European countries, including France, are presently suffering from a decline in interest in science that can be partially attributed to the quality of science teaching. In a report entitled “Science education now: a renewed pedagogy for the future of Europe” published by the European commission in 200798, an expert group of science educators have observed that while there is consensus that quality science education is crucial for the future of Europe, there is a declining interest in science among young people in Europe. According to the experts who produced the report one of the major causes of this situation can be found in the way science is taught. These experts indicate that science is still taught in a deductive manner with emphasis on dissemination of scientific information rather than on inquiry based science (Appy & Appy, 2007). The report continues by suggesting that there are a number of initiatives presently being implemented to remedy the situation.viii However, these initiatives are small scale and do not benefit from the availability of resources in Europe to disseminate these initiatives across the continent.

96 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#2297 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#11398 Available from http://ec.europa.eu/research/rtdinfo/index_en.html


Table 20: Weekly Timetable in Hours for Subjects in the Première and Terminale in General Lycées

Compulsory subjects BAC LLit/Arts

BAC LLit/Arts

BAC SScience

BAC SScience

BAC ESEcon

BAC ESEcon

Première Terminale Première Terminale Première TerminaleFrench (+literature in BAC L) 5+(1) 4 4 4

Philosophy 7 2+(1) 4Modern foreign language 1 2.5+(1) 2+(1) 1+(1) 1+(1) 1.5+(1) 1+(1)

History/ geography 4 4 2.5 2+(0.5) 4 4Science 1.5 * ** 1+(0.5)

Modern foreign language 2 ***

1 + (1)(or 3 hours for Latin)

1 + (1)(or 3 hours for Latin)

1 + (1) 1 + (1) 1 + (1) 1 + (1)

Physical Education and sport 2 2 2 2 2 2

Economic and social sciences 4 + (1) 4 + (1)

Physics/ Chemistry 2.5 + (2) 3+ (3)Biology * **Math (and Information technology in BAC L) 1 + (1) 4 + (1) 4.5 + (1) 2.5 + (0.5) 4

Agronomy, territory, citizenship 1 + (2.5)

Compulsory optional subject (from a pre-determined list)

2 - 5 2 - 5 2 - 3.5 2 - 3 2 - 3

Two maximum optional subjects 3 3 3 3 3 3

Civic, legal, and social education. (0.5) (0.5) (0.5) (0.5) (0.5) (0.5)

Individual study ****Artistic expression workshops *****

* Première: Earth/natural sciences 2 + (2), or Engineering 2 + (6), or Biology Ecology 2 + (3)** Terminale: Earth/natural sciences 2 + (1.5), or Engineering 2 + (6), or Biology Ecology 2 + (3)*** Modern foreign language 2 or regional language, or Latin in BAC L**** Two hours a week of individual study (known as «travaux personnels encadrés” (supervised personal work)

related to their chosen branch of study.***** 72 hours annually - an optional course allowing students to undertake workshops and courses in artistic

expression. (In agricultural lycées, students study social and cultural practices.)

Assessment and Evaluation SystemAssessment of student learning in France has traditionally been frequent and formal. Although there

is no national system of assessment for children during the pre-compulsory phase, assessment of student performance in France does occur in pre-compulsory institutions where teachers assess children using


observation, evaluation and correction. The teacher, or teachers’ council, recommends whether he/she should move up to elementary school or be kept back within pre-compulsory education.99.

Evaluation and assessment have, since 1985, been obligatory during compulsory education in France. Although there is no national examination at the end of elementary school to determine whether a student may be promoted to collège, there are various types of national assessment currently in use in France. These are:

• continuous, periodic teacher assessment to test what students have learned

• national, mass diagnostic testing (involving all students of a specific ages 8 and 11)

• orientation assessment, involving all students at specific stages of their schooling which is carried out from time to time for use in the course of national or international surveys or for international comparisons.100

Mass diagnostic testing at age 8 (on entry to the elementary school consolidation cycle) is compulsory for all students and takes the form of a formal, written national test in French and mathematics. Although national mass diagnostic testing covers only French and math at elementary school level, some cross-curricular skills such as observation, spatial awareness and temporal awareness are also included. Continuous teacher assessment and periodic end of year sampling are similarly compulsory for all students.

All collège students take a lower secondary leaving examination (Diplôme National du Brevet) which was introduced in 1987 and are also subject to continuous assessment. It comprises three written tests in each of French, math and history/geography and is designed to assess a student’s level of knowledge and ability, by reference to the national curriculum101. In addition, the first compulsory test in civics education was introduced in 2000. From 2005, the diplôme national du brevet was replaced with a new qualification which is known as the “brevet d’études fondamentales” (certificate of basic studies). The student’s overall mark on completion of lower secondary education takes into consideration his/her results in this examination, together with marks received for work completed over the last two years of collège (continuous assessment). The lower secondary (leaving) certificate (brevet) is awarded to candidates whose average mark is equal to or over 10 out of 20.102 Standardized students’ assessments in science are to be organized at the end of ISCED 1 and 2 starting 2007 and are to be repeated once every five years.

Satisfactory completion of the (general, technological or vocational) Baccalaureate is the key to higher education. The Baccalaureate examinations relate to the official curricula of the terminale classes in lycées and are set nationally by the Ministry of Education. In principle, students who successfully complete Baccalaureate courses may enter higher education. Students who do not pass the Baccalaureate examination but whose average marks are equivalent to at least 8 out of 20, can obtain a secondary school leaving certificate (certificat de fin d’études secondaires). This certificate does not entitle the student to enter higher education.

Decisions about students (repeating years, moving up to a higher class, changing course) are taken through a procedure involving a dialogue between the school (teachers, administrative and ancillary staff) and the families and students. Although the teachers give their opinions in what is known as a “class council” (consisting of representatives of students, teachers and parents) parents can appeal against a

99 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#23100 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#15101 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#28102 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#28


decision and demand that the student move up rather than repeat the year, or repeat the year rather than do a course they do not wish their son or daughter to pursue. In every school, there are specialist counselors to help students, parents and teachers resolve any problems they may encounter.

Because the assessment system in French schools is compulsory throughout the country and its results are widely disseminated, it is regarded as influencing policy making at regional and national level. The pattern of national results is also seen as one of the catalysts towards changes in the organization of collèges in recent years. Performance indicators for each region of the country are also published to allow comparison across the country from year to year; these, too, have a proven effect on policy making103.

At national, regional, school and classroom levels, evaluation and assessment devices allow the Ministry to monitor the education system and its development and to make decisions based on the pedagogical evidence they provide. The information thus processed gives policy makers an overall view of education in the country from different points of view: benchmarks of successes or failures of students at different stages, evidence of attainment of curriculum objectives, and comparisons of students’ achievements over time.

Educational OutcomesResults of PISA 2003 indicate that France 15 year olds rank higher than the average of the OECD

countries. Moreover, France ranked 10th in science, 13th in math, and 10th on the problem solving scale out of the 39 countries that participated in PISA 2003.

Annual statistics on the number of young people completing their studies show progress. The proportion of youngsters leaving school without any recognized qualifications fell from around a third in the 1960s to under 10% in the 1990s. In higher education, now undertaken by over half the young people in France, the number of students has risen sevenfold in three decades, from 300,000 to 2.1 million.

During the academic year 2001-2002, 628,875 candidates were registered to take the Baccalaureate, of those 52.21% were registered for the general Baccalaureate, 29.32% for the technological Baccalaureate, and 18.48 % for the vocational Baccalaureate. There were 29,887 independent candidates (4.57% of all candidates)104. Proportions of students registered for the various types of Baccalaureate remained similar in the 2002/2003 academic year, just over 52% for the general Baccalaureate, almost 30% for the technological Baccalaureate and 18.35% for the vocational examination. In 2000, out of those leaving school with the baccalaureate, 30% had a technological baccalaureate105, 18% a vocational baccalaureate and 52% a “general series” baccalaureate.

In June 2005 Baccalaureate session, the overall pass rate was 80.2%. This represented an increase of 0.5 per cent over the 2004 session; and of 17.5% since 1995. There were 8,300 more candidates in the 2005 session than in the previous year. Table 21 presents the success rate for the different types of Baccalaureate in the 2005 session:

103 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#15104 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#154105 A technological baccalaureate involves science and tertiary or industrial or laboratory technologies, or medical and social sciences.


Table 21: Percentage of Students who Passed the Baccalaureate in 2005

Type of Baccalaureate Pass rateAll Baccalaureates 80.2%General Baccalaureate 84.1%Technological Baccalaureate 76.3%Vocational Baccalaureate 75.4%

Since 1988, the proportion of 18-year-olds successfully taking the Baccalaureate examination has risen from 36% to 62.5% of the age group. During this time, however, there have been changes in the examination itself and in the numbers of students taking the vocationally-oriented professional Baccalaureate. These figures reflect the Government’s stated target that 80% of all eligible students should take some form of the Baccalaureate examination.106

Table 22 shows the increase in the percentages of 18-year-olds successfully taking the Baccalaureate examination over the last three decades. It also breaks down the pass rate into the percentages of students achieving the general Baccalaureate, the technological Baccalaureate and the vocational Baccalaureate.

Table 22: Percentage of a Cohort Obtaining a Baccalaureate (by Baccalaureate Type)

Year General Baccalaureate

Technological Baccalaureate

Vocational Baccalaureate* Total (%)

1980 18.6 7.8 - 26.41985 19.8 10.4 - 30.21990 28.3 13.9 2.8 45.01995 36.4 17.6 8.7 62.71999 32.4 18.3 10.4 61.1

* The vocational Baccalaureate was offered starting 1989.

Of those students successfully completing all forms of the Baccalaureate in 2002, 87.6% proceeded directly to some form of higher education or training. Of those completing a general or technological Baccalaureate, 94.2% went on to some form of higher education or training. This percentage was considerably lower for the increasing numbers of students successfully completing the vocational Baccalaureate. Of these, only 44.4% went on to higher education or other training, and although this is a considerable increase of 27.1%, the vast majority proceeded directly to some form of employment107.

Issues Facing Education/Science EducationThe developments in education that have opened collèges and lycées to the vast majority of children

in France, have allowed new categories of students, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, to reach levels of education and training from which they were formerly excluded. However, this attempt at democratization is posing a new challenge: to ensure a common education and the same chances of academic success to all young people regardless of their circumstances at home.

106 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#68107 http://www.inca.org.uk/france-sources-mainstream.html#110


The huge increase in the number of successful students must not mask the persistence of children who fail at school. Under France’s education system, such children have traditionally repeated classes and labeled “slow learners”. A detailed investigation carried out in 1997 with children in the first year of college revealed that 15% were bad readers and 4% were nearly illiterate. These students will be among the cohorts of young people leaving school without any qualification. To ensure not only genuine equality of access to collèges and lycées, but also an equal chance of achieving success at each level, requires giving more support to children experiencing learning difficulties. In the collèges and lycées, two hours a week of individual tutoring in French and Math can be given to students who are struggling. Almost 60,000 students (8% of the age group) leave school each year without any qualifications before completing their compulsory education at age 16. In 1999, 57,000 students left education with no qualifications, leaving them at risk of social and professional exclusion. To address this problem the “new opportunities) program was launched to encourage such students to remain in education by creating training pathways at the end of lower secondary (collège) education, providing solutions tailored to the needs of individuals, publicizing and supporting existing work with the hope that this will inspire new ideas, and working with different partners, including enterprise, to improve the training offered at these levels108.

All the children in a given locality attend the same collège, before going their separate ways in lycées. As a result, collèges are faced with the task of providing the same standard of education for all their students. The practice of teachers standing up in front of mixed-ability classes giving standard lessons is no longer acceptable. Teaching methods capable of arousing the students’ interest and making their studies more meaningful are to be used. In order for teachers to effectively deliver knowledge to their students in a way that reflects a new style and a new culture, teachers need specialized teaching methods in science as well as in other subjects. Formerly, traditional teaching focused on the teacher and long, magisterial lessons, placing students in a secondary, passive role in which their understanding was neglected. As most current teachers were themselves taught using this method, they know firsthand that this cannot be recreated in today’s schools (Appy & Appy, 2007). Appy and Appy commend that the way science is taught in schools in France, heavily weighed down by theory and desperately lacking in practical content, urgently needs changing if it is to be made more appealing as 40% of the students living in so called “sensitive areas” leave school without any qualifications.

Riboli-Sasco, Richard, & Taddei (2006) indicated that science education in French schools is suffering from two major problems. Less and less students are enrolling in science courses and obstacles caused by unequal opportunity make it increasingly difficult for less privileged learners to obtain high standard university places and to embark on scientific careers. They added that science education in France suffers from:

1. An increasing lack of interest in scientific university studies as the number of students entering university to study science fell 32% between 1995/1996 and 1999/2000. Sciences have become increasingly unpopular amongst students at school, and in particular towards the most disadvantaged.

2. Unequal opportunities to study science at university and higher education establishments.

3. Some talented and creative teenagers do not even apply for the university best courses as they believe they will not be able to afford the cost of long studies and that these studies are reserved for social elite. These difficulties are emphasized by the dual French system, divided between universities and “grandes écoles”. Any high school student can apply for a place at university in France, without having to go through a process of selection, whereas “grandes écoles” recruit through highly selective competition, after two years of preparation.



Moreover, graduates of the “grandes écoles” have better chances of getting the high paying and prestigious jobs, leading to the feelings of discrimination among those who are not accepted in such institutions.

4. Science is not a research experience. For many children, from primary to high school, science education remains an isolated experience. Science education is often reduced to a body of theoretical knowledge. Practical experiments are rarely carried out and in any case limited to a mere demonstration of what has been already taught. It is thus impossible for the students to discover and develop skills of scientific reasoning and argumentation. If learners at school cannot discover for themselves, working on a step by step basis, it is difficult to make science and scientific careers sufficiently attractive to students to find the energy and motivation needed to succeed in long and demanding studies.

5. Lack of teachers who have had some experience in science research, thus leading them to de-emphasize research in their classrooms. This disconnect between teaching and research conveys a biased image of science and research in schools. The scientific knowledge transmitted to students is never shown as evolving knowledge, rich of a lively history and full of controversial theories.

Léna (2001) has also argued that science education is in a deep crisis. He observed that although the system continues to produce the scientific and technical elites the country needs, science is taught more and more as a technical collection of efficient recipes to the neglect of creativity. Science is also essentially absent from primary school education, as education at this level focused on the so-called fundamentals requirements of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and science teaching in secondary education was broken into three independent disciplines (physics & chemistry, life & earth sciences, technology) which barely lead to a clear understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge and its role in society. This education fails to provide those who will not become scientists, engineers or technicians a proper background to understand the evolution of science and the ability to participate in science-related decisions in a democratic society. Léna and Di Folco and Léna (2005) concluded that improving science and technology education is in the hands of teachers, but teachers, even helped by manuals, can no longer cope alone with the pace of development. Improving initial teacher training and more involvement of the scientific community is required to develop resources, create new themes based on contemporary science, and relate learning to modern brain research and cognitive science.


ConClusIons and dIsCussIon

What are the common features of the education systems, and science education systems more specifically, in the four countries described above? One of the very obvious characteristics of education in the four countries is that access to education is non-issue: Well equipped schools are available to serve the needs of all students. Moreover, compulsory education is implemented in all four countries, even though the compulsory age is not the same in all four of them. Another apparent non-issue in these countries is access of females to education and science education: While males in a few of the four countries still outnumber females currently in scientific professions, the educational systems do not seem to have any form of explicit and systematic discrimination against females in terms of access to education in general and science education more specifically. The issue of increasing the participation of women in science, however, is a serious issue that is being addressed through initiatives funded by governments and private institutions.

Because education is available to all, attention is focused on improving quality in all its forms in the four countries. Curricula or curricular frameworks in the four countries are developed to meet the needs of all students and are flexible in that they allow for innovation by the teacher within the general context of the curriculum and its guidelines. Moreover, science curricula are up-to-date, rigorous, and emphasize inquiry and hands-on minds-on experiences for students. In some of these countries, such as in Singapore and Japan, the adage “teach less to learn more”, has been used to teach less science -- and other subjects-- in more depth and make curricula student-centered and more focused on learning rather than teaching. Associated with these curricula, the four countries make available textbooks that are aligned with the curriculum and not necessarily published by ministries of education. Involving the private sector in publishing books is used in attempt to improve quality through competition. Furthermore, textbooks are not the only sources of information for teaching and learning; they rather represent one among many other available resources especially information and communication technologies.

One other characteristic of the curricula in the four countries is that they are designed to prepare students who are able to function successfully in a scientifically and technologically rich world, pursue higher education, and use science in solving everyday problems. Moreover, there is an increasing emphasis on curricula that emphasize thinking and creative skills which are needed to succeed in twenty-first century economies. More specifically, there seems to be a shift towards student-centered and inquiry teaching in the four countries described above. The shift is premised on the perceived need to prepare students who are long-life learners capable of taking decisions in matters related to real life, in addition to having the scientific background needed for higher studies. Lastly, the emphasis on inquiry and hands-on minds-on in science teaching, and possibly in other subjects, highlights the need to prepare students who base their decisions on defensible evidence rather than on opinion or the power of authority.

An additional characteristic of the education systems in the four countries is that they have demanding teacher education programs that prepare teachers to cater for the social, psychological, and academic needs of all students. Moreover, when it comes to science, these countries require teachers to have strong backgrounds in science, experiences in using laboratories, the ability to integrate science and technology in their teaching, and to focus on thinking, problem solving, and relationship to everyday life. Additionally, they have well articulated requirements for continuous professional development for teachers to insure that their scientific knowledge and their knowledge of and ability to implement effective teaching approaches are up-to-date and aligned with students changing needs.


Furthermore, these countries seem to base their decisions regarding reform in science education on research conducted by national experts as well as on results of international comparisons such as TIMSS and PISA. For Example, many countries that participated in PISA 2000 and 2003 produced a national report with recommendations for activities to be implemented to address issues identified in the reports109. These results are discussed extensively in the media thus exerting pressure on education authorities to respond to the recommendations.

Finally, formal summative assessment and evaluation systems and approaches in the four countries are elaborate, well thought-out, and aligned with the curricula and established standards. Moreover, these systems are fair but demanding and aligned with students’ needs. They are fair in that they are consistent with curricula and teaching and designed to measure student learning and are demanding in that only those who work hard, apply and are competent can pass them. They are aligned with students’ needs in that they are used to orient students to different areas of interest and careers rather than only to select students for higher studies. In addition to summative assessments, the four countries have systems for formative assessment designed to help students and teachers to identify and address possible weaknesses.

One common, although negative, characteristic in a number of the countries described above is the declining interest in science and in school among junior and secondary students. Politicians and educators in these countries are concerned that the supply of scientific talent, a necessity for continuous prosperity and competitiveness, would decrease if the trend of declining interest in science continues. This has led a number of these countries to fund programs to increase the attractiveness of science. These countries have implemented strategies and programs to alleviate this problem. Examples of these programs are “Pollen” and “Sinus-Transfer that are European programs to encourage students to pursue science-related specializations and careers funded by OECD.

Conclusions drawn from the characteristics of the educational systems in the four countries described above that might have led to the success or partial success of these systems could be interpreted in terms of the principles of education presented by Resnick (1999). Resnick (1999) identified nine principles of education derived from a synthesis of research in psychology and education that, according to her, will define the nature of education in the twenty-first century and attention to which may results in enhancing the quality of student learning. These are 1) organizing for effort, 2) clear expectations, 3) fair and credible evaluations, 4) recognition of accomplishment, 5) academic rigor in a thinking curriculum, 6) accountable talk, 7) socializing intelligence, 8) self-management of learning, and 9) learning as apprenticeship.

Schools in a number of the four countries seem to be organized to encourage effort, especially in Singapore and Japan. These schools seem to convey the message that sustained effort, not only aptitude, produces high achievement for all students. In addition, these schools have clear and high expectations of all students, as determined by their curricula and assessment practices. The assessment systems and procedures in the four countries insure that all students achieve minimum, yet high, standards in all subject areas, including science, math, and technology. Mediocrity is not accepted in schools. Associated with emphasis on effort are assessment and evaluation systems that are seen to be fair and credible by all stakeholders including students, parents, school professionals, and the business and the higher education community. In the competitive environment of the global community, society in general and the business community more specifically, cannot afford to re-teach students who have just graduated from high school. They expect high school graduates to have mastered important science and technology knowledge and skills and developed positive attitudes on which they can build. Fair and credible evaluations help members of the public and the business community to trust and support pre-college education. The issue

109 Refer to http://www.oecd.org/document/70,3343/,en_32252351_32236173_33694215_1_1_1_1,00.html for examples publications.


of fair and credible evaluations is a central issue in science and technology education. Thus it is inadequate and inappropriate to give students theoretical examinations to evaluate tasks that require manipulation of equipment, solving problems, or addressing science- and technology- related issues. Credibility of evaluation in science and technology is intimately associated with alignment between what is measured and how it is measured.

Current curricula in the four countries are rigorous and seem to focus on critical thinking, creativity, and problem solving as evidenced by the decreasing emphasis on wide coverage of topics and increasing emphasis on in-depth understanding of a relatively smaller number of topics – the teach less to learn more approach. Moreover, these curricula emphasize learning and teaching science not as merely a school subject disconnected from students’ lives and society; they rather put emphasis on content, thinking, and connection to everyday life. In addition, many of these countries have integrated the use of ICT in science to make science a more authentic and interesting experience for students. This is akin to Resnick’s (1999) suggestion that it is unacceptable to teach thinking and problem solving skills independent of content matter because thinking and a solid foundation of knowledge are inseparable. Resnick (1999) adds that curricula at all education levels and in all subject areas should be rigorous and organized around major concepts that allow students to think and solve authentic and meaningful problems. If a rigorous thinking curriculum is advisable in all subject areas, it is essential in science and technology. The rate at which scientific knowledge is produced and technological advances are developed necessitates the emphasis on mastery of core concepts, thinking and problem-solving skills, and skills for life-long learning. It also requires that students learn and apply science inquiry and investigative skills, understand the nature of science as well as the relationships between science, technology and society.

The science curricula and teaching approaches in the four countries seem to encourage teaching and learning by inquiry. Inquiry-based teaching encourages students to take the initiative to observe and question phenomena; pose explanations of what they see; devise and conduct tests to support or contradict their theories; analyze data; draw conclusions from experimental data; design and build models; or any combination of these.

Inquiry learning situations are open-ended in that they do not aim to achieve a single “right” answer. During inquiry, students learn to observe keenly and thoroughly and to pose questions that are answerable, in part or in whole, through some meaningful test or exploration. They engage in trial and error, and they learn to analyze and reason carefully. These inquiry activities succeed more if student interaction is encouraged, an interaction that allows students to discuss ideas, share solutions, build on each others ideas, and think very carefully about science content. Engaging in inquiry is similar to engaging in what Resnick (1999) calls “Accountable talk”. Accountable talk requires engagement with learning through talk, accountability to the learning community, accountability to knowledge, and accountability to rigorous thinking, all important elements of teaching and learning by inquiry.

The role of teachers is pivotal for implementing rigorous and demanding curricula, necessitating the emphasis on preparing highly qualified teachers and keeping them up-to-date in subject matter and teaching methodologies that cater to the changing needs of students. These teachers need sufficient resources and facilities to conduct their work efficiently. The four countries seem to have realized the important role of teachers as evidenced by the rigorous requirements for entry and continuation in the teaching profession. However, Resnick (1999) contends that the above principles do not work if students depend on teachers for their learning and for evaluating their work. Students who take responsibility to think rigorously need to develop a set of self-monitoring strategies that will help them to manage their learning personally. The self-monitoring and self-correcting skills, metacognitive skills, are important characteristics of scientifically and technologically literate individuals who are constantly attempting to decide what new knowledge and skills they need to acquire in order to stay up-to-date in an ever-changing and expanding scientific and technological environment. These characteristics are also emphasized in


the curricula and teacher preparation programs in a few of the countries described above. Thus, while it is important to prepare competent teachers, it is also necessary to provide them with the skills to prepare autonomous learners rather than passive receivers of information.


reCommendaTIons

It goes without saying that improving the quality of science education cannot happen unless students have access to quality schools. However, providing access is a necessary but not sufficient condition to improve quality of science education. The following recommendations are provided in light of the current status of science education in Arab countries and lessons learned from the countries whose educational systems were described above.

• Arab states cannot afford to leave significant segments of the population with no access to education in general and science education more specifically. Consequently there is a need for a concerted effort to increase access of all students, and especially girls to education. Experiences of many countries indicate that moving toward more student-centered approaches might encourage all students to develop positive attitudes toward science and pursue science related careers.

• Improving science education requires the use of new forms of student-centered instruction that involve students in their own learning. Introduction of inquiry-based approaches in schools, providing teacher training in inquiry-based approaches, and establishment of networks of teachers to share experiences and learn from each other should be actively promoted and supported. Training in inquiry will help students become creative and critical thinkers who value the role of evidence in science as well as in everyday life.

• Encouraging teachers to use inquiry in their classrooms and training them in inquiry approaches will fail if individuals who join the teaching profession do not have the necessary depth of content knowledge in science as well as experiences in inquiry at the college level. This calls for improving the quality of preparation in the sciences at the college level, which will hopefully result in improving the quality of science teaching at the school level. It all calls for close cooperation between colleges of education and colleges of science that will ultimately lead to bridging the gap between science and science education.

• To implement student-centered approaches in classrooms, these classrooms should be equipped with the necessary materials and equipment to implement such approaches. However, these materials and equipment need not be sophisticated and some of them can come from the students’ environment. It is important to emphasize that it is not the availability of materials and equipment that will change the quality of instruction. It is rather how these are used in the classroom by teachers and students alike.

• The use of Information and Communication Technologies has become a need rather than a luxury. To prepare students to live in the modern world they need to use ICTs successfully. Consequently, there is a need to integrate ICTs in instruction, and especially in science instruction, meaningfully. Again here, it is not the availability of ICTs that will make the difference but rather how they are used by teachers and students.

• Implementing inquiry-based approaches requires the development of rigorous and demanding curricula that focus on content, thinking skills, and problem solving. While thinking and problem solving are the new basics of the twenty-first century (Resnick, 1999), there is a very close association between content and thinking and problem solving skills that requires teaching them together for the best effect on students.

• Emphasis on effort rather than only on aptitude needs to be considered by all schools. According to Resnick (1999) schools of the twenty-first century should convey the message that effort is expected, that this effort leads to improved achievement, and that difficult problems can be solved through sustained effort. However, this emphasis on effort should be accompanied


with high expectations, rigorous and demanding curricula, and credible assessments aligned with these curricula.

• The emphasis on student-centered teaching should be accompanied by teacher preparation programs that are teacher-centered and stakeholder-based decision making and thus more school-based rather than top down reform. Thus involvement of all stakeholders in decisions and providing schools and teachers with some autonomy might increase ownership of educational issues and consequently results in successful reform efforts. Associated with encouraging involvement in decision making, there needs to be a move toward more evidence-based policy decisions that take into account the local context rather than taking decisions based on opinion or on research results acquired from foreign contexts.


appendIx ITeaCher eduCaTIon In sIngapore

1. General issues1.1. Control: The Singapore MOE is responsible for the initial training of teachers. Applications

for teaching positions in initial teacher training are handled by the Ministry.

1.2. Trainers: Students are guided and assisted towards attaining teaching competencies through systematic observation, assistance and advice, both from co-operating teachers in the schools where they carry out their Practicum (teaching practice) and from National Institute of Education (NIE) supervisors.

1.3. Admissions: Those selected by MOE are required to undertake their initial teacher training at the NIE. Before gaining admission to the NIE, candidates have to pass the Entrance Proficiency Test (EPT) if they are not exempted. To be admitted into the teacher training programs at the NIE, applicants must meet the minimum admission requirements of each program (see below) and succeed in an interview held by the MOE. Once accepted, candidates are employed by the MOE. They are paid a salary, which varies depending on their entry qualifications, whilst undertaking their training at the NIE. This aims to free them from financial worries.

1.4. Post-qualification induction periods: After their NIE training, newly qualified teachers are employed to teach in a school as a ‘beginning teacher’. As such, they are given 80 percent of their normal responsibility load during their first year of service. The 20 percent off-loading is to enable them to learn from experienced teachers, co-teach, and acquire on-the-job training. They are mentored and guided throughout by senior teachers and other experienced teachers. Beginning newly qualified teachers work with their mentors and seek their guidance. Teachers benefit by sharing best practice and improving on ideas, materials, techniques, lesson plans and organizational skills.

1.5. Strategies to support the use of research and evidence in informing policy and practice: The National Institute of Education (NIE) has established a Centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice. The major objective of this Centre is to provide research that can be used as the basis for educational policy and decision making. In order to meet this goal, the Centre has approximately 30 researchers. The Centre is the largest and most extensive educational research unit in the Asia-Pacific Rim. It provides an opportunity for researchers, teachers and administrators to work together to develop and implement new ideas in schools. The goal is to develop a context for research that leads to innovative educational implementation in Singapore schools.

1.6. Qualifications and entitlement to teach: After graduating from the NIE, newly qualified teachers are posted, by MOE, to a school requiring their area of expertise. Whilst most teachers are required to teach the subject they are trained in, they may also be asked to teach other subjects. It is important for new teachers to be prepared to teach the subjects they are assigned. The principal may, for example, assign them to teach English in addition to their core teaching subjects (e.g. math and science), provided they are deemed suitable and competent.

2. Compulsory Primary Education, Ages 6–122.1. Types of training courses and institutions: The following courses are available at the

National Institute of Education (NIE) (part of Nanyang Technological University) for the initial training of teachers for this phase:


2.1.1. A one-year Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) (for teaching in all levels of schools).

2.1.2. A two-year Diploma in Education (DipEd) (for teaching in primary schools only). 2.1.3. A four-year Bachelor of Arts BA (Education) or Bachelor of Science B. Sc. (Education)

degree (for teaching in primary schools only). 2.1.4. Four-year Teacher Training Diplomas in either Art and Music, Mother Tongue

Language (MTL) or Home Economics (for teaching MTL in primary schools, and for teaching Art and Music and Home Economics in secondary schools).

(The course an individual student follows depends on the level of educational qualifications the candidate already holds.)2.2. Admission: To gain admission to courses of initial teacher training in NIE, applicants should

possess one of the following entry qualifications:

2.2.1. For the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE): A university degree. While a general degree will suffice, it is preferred if candidates have read and majored in at least one teaching subject.

2.2.2. For the Diploma in Education (DipEd): Either: A Polytechnic Diploma, plus 5 ‘O’ Level passes including English and Mathematics; or 2 ‘A’ Level and 2 ‘AO’ Level passes (including the General Paper) (taken at one or two sittings), plus 5 ‘O’ Level passes including English and mathematics.

2.2.3. For the Bachelor of Arts in Education (BA (Education))/ Bachelor of Science in Education (B. Sc. (Education)) degree: ‘A’ Level holders and Polytechnic Diploma holders who wish to pursue the four-year teaching degree may apply for the BA (Education) / B. Sc. (Education) program if they meet the following minimum criteria:

2.2.3.1. For ‘A’ level and Polytechnic Diploma holders: 5 GCE ‘O’ Level passes including a pass in English as a first language. A pass in math obtained either at GCE ‘O’ Level or GCE ‘A’ Level.

2.2.3.2. Plus, for GCE ‘A’ Level holders: 2 ‘A’ Level passes and 2 ‘AO’ Level passes including a pass in English.

2.2.3.3. In addition, to qualify for entry into NIE, candidates usually need to pass the Entrance Proficiency Test (EPT).

3. Lower secondary education, ages 12 –16The Singapore MOE is responsible for the initial training of teachers. Applications for teaching positions in initial teacher training are handled by the Ministry.

3.1. Types of training courses and institutions: The following courses for the initial training of teachers are available at the National Institute of Education (NIE):


3.1.2. Four-year Teacher Training Diplomas in either Art and Music, Mother Tongue Language (MTL) or Home Economics (for teaching MTL in primary schools, and for teaching Art and Music and Home Economics in secondary schools).

3.2. Admissions: To gain admission to courses of initial teacher training in the NIE, applicants should possess one of the following entry qualifications:

3.2.1. For the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE): A university degree.3.2.2. For secondary school teacher trainees, it is generally preferable for PGDE candidates

to have majored in two teaching subjects at university. However, candidates may still


be considered if they have only one teaching subject. For a subject to be considered a main teaching subject, it must have been studied as a main subject up to Year 3 of a candidate’s degree program. For the second teaching subject, candidates must have studied this at Year 1 level, or for at least two modules in any of the three years at university.

3.2.3. Candidates with degrees in science and humanities subjects, or in mathematics, are strongly encouraged to teach at the secondary school level. Those with general degrees teach at primary school level. If candidates have excellent grades in the General Paper at ‘AO’ Level, they may teach the English language at secondary.

3.3. Qualifications and entitlement to teach: Qualified secondary teachers possess either the PGDE or the Teacher Training Diploma (in Art and Music, Mother Tongue Language (MTL) or Home Economics) depending on the course they have followed at the NIE. After graduating from the NIE, newly qualified secondary teachers are posted, by the MOE, to a school requiring their area of expertise.

3.4. Recruitment incentives paid to encourage individuals to train as teachers for this phase: Tuition fees for all trainee teachers are fully paid by the MOE. While undergoing training at the NIE, trainee teachers receive a monthly salary. On completion of their NIE training, they serve a three-year teaching bond. A trainee teacher who fails to graduate from the NIE or whose service is terminated before fully discharging the three-year bond has to pay liquidated damages to the Ministry.

4. Upper secondary education (in schools), ages 16 –18+The Singapore MOE is responsible for the initial training of teachers. Applications for teaching positions in initial teacher training are handled by the Ministry.

4.1. Types of training courses and institutions: The following courses for the initial training of teachers are available at the National Institute of Education (NIE):


4.1.2. Four-year Teacher Training Diplomas in either Art and Music, Mother Tongue Language (MTL) or Home Economics (for teaching MTL in primary schools, and for teaching Art and Music and Home Economics in secondary schools). (Courses that candidates apply for depend on the level of educational qualification they hold.)

4.2. Admissions: To gain admission to courses of initial teacher training in the NIE, applicants should possess one of the following entry qualifications:

4.2.1. For the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE): A university degree. 4.2.2. For secondary level teacher trainees, it is preferable for candidates to have majored

in two teaching subjects at university. However, candidates may still be considered if they have only one teaching subject. For a subject to be considered a main teaching subject, it must have been studied as a main subject up to Year 3 of a candidate’s degree program. For the second teaching subject, candidates must have studied this at Year 1 level or at least for two modules in any of the 3 years at university. An exception to the two subject’s guideline is if candidates wish to teach any of the Mother Tongue Languages (MTLs). In such cases, candidates need to have majored


in the respective Mother Tongue Language (MTL). There is no need for a second teaching subject.

4.2.3. Candidates with degrees in science and humanities subjects, or in mathematics, are strongly encouraged to teach at the secondary school level. Those with general degrees teach at primary school level. If candidates have excellent grades in the General Paper at ‘AO’ Level, they may teach the English language at secondary level.

4.3. Qualifications and entitlement to teach: Qualified secondary teachers possess either the PGDE or the Teacher Training Diploma (in Art and Music, Mother Tongue Language (MTL) or Home Economics) depending on the course they have followed at the NIE.

4.4. Recruitment incentives paid to encourage individuals to train as teachers for this phase: Tuition fees for all trainee teachers are fully paid by the MOE. While undergoing training at the NIE, trainee teachers receive a monthly salary. On completion of their NIE training, they serve a three-year teaching bond. A trainee teacher who fails to graduate from the NIE or whose service is terminated before fully discharging the three-year bond has to pay liquidated damages to the Ministry.


appendIx IITeaCher eduCaTIon In england

1. General issues1.1. Control: Central government is responsible for ensuring that there are sufficient

facilities for training teachers for service in maintained schools110 in England and for forward planning. Central government then provides the Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) with Initial Teacher Training (ITT) intake targets, to use as the basis for its funding and allocation decisions in England. The Office for Standards in Education OFSTED has a principal role in the management of the system of school inspection. This provides for the regular inspection of all schools in England, which are wholly or mainly state-funded. However, OFSTED also inspects the quality of ITT provision.

1.2. Trainers: Teacher trainers normally have Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) and considerable teaching experience in schools. Students are supervised and assessed by both the provider of initial teacher training and teacher colleagues in the school where they are placed for teaching practice. Students are assessed against all the standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Teacher colleagues are trained to act as school-based mentors, and support course tutors from the Higher Education Institutions (HEI) by reporting on students’ competence to plan, teach and assess their specialist subject or age range.

1.3. Admissions: Access to all initial teacher training courses is restricted and subject to a preliminary selection process, including an interview, to determine the applicant’s suitability for teaching as a career. Admission is also subject to physical and mental fitness to teach. Institutions must also check that applicants do not have a criminal background which might prevent employment as a teacher with children or young people, and the applicant must meet the minimum admission requirement of each program (see below). Since 1989, it has been a requirement that experienced practicing teachers are involved in the selection process.

1.4. Post-qualification induction periods: The Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998 introduced arrangements to provide all newly qualified teachers (NQTs) with a period of monitoring and support during their first year in the profession. Since May 1999, all newly qualified teachers have been required to serve an induction period of three school terms. The induction period must be satisfactorily completed to nationally set standards. Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) is still awarded on successful completion of initial teacher training (ITT).

The induction period provides opportunities for NQTs to develop further their knowledge, skills and achievements in relation to the standards for the award of QTS, with an assessment of their performance. NQTs have an individualized program of support during their induction year from a designated induction tutor. It takes account of the NQT’s strengths and areas for development identified via the Career Entry and Development Profile. The program will usually include observation of NQTs’ teaching, a professional review of progress at least every half term and possibly watching more experienced teachers in different settings. A NQT’s teaching time should not exceed 90 percent of the average teaching time during the induction period.

110 These are state supported schools.


1.5. Strategies to support the use of research and evidence in informing policy and practice: The Effective Practices and Research Dissemination Team (EPRD) at the Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA) works with initial teacher training (ITT) providers on building a professional knowledge base in the area of ITT. The team’s activities include: Identifying effective practices and relevant research, disseminating this information effectively to stakeholders, commissioning research and development, and identifying the services and information available through the Internet to support the dissemination of effective practices in ITT. EPRD services are designed to support ITT colleagues in developing and accessing research and evidence to improve teaching and learning. The services include networks, updates and e-newsletters on ITT-related issues and activity, research into effective ITT practices, individual support, initiatives designed to stimulate the development of the ITT knowledge base, and links to professional associations, conferences, online resources and up-to-date relevant information.

1.6. Qualifications and entitlement to teach: All teachers in maintained schools are required to register with the General Teaching Council for England (GTCE). Teachers employed in maintained schools including nursery schools, must have Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) or be otherwise licensed or authorized to teach by the Secretary of State (Minister) and the Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA). QTS is not essential for teaching in independent schools.

1.7. Professional Standards for Teachers in England from September 2007: The framework of professional standards for teachers will form part of a wider framework of standards for the whole school workforce. This includes the Training and Development Agency for Schools’ (TDA) review of the national occupational standards for teaching/classroom assistants and the professional standards for higher level teaching assistants in consultation with social partners and other key stakeholders and a review of leadership standards informed by the independent review of the roles and responsibilities of head teachers and the leadership group.

1.8. Types of training courses and institutions: There are various courses/routes available for students interested in training to be teachers in England. The main routes to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) are via the concurrent or the consecutive route.

1.8.1. Concurrent programs:1.8.1.1. These usually take three or four years full-time leading to the Bachelor of Education

degree (BEd) or similar. 1.8.1.2. For mature students, who have already completed at least one year of relevant higher

education, some two-year, full-time concurrent programs are available. 1.8.1.3. In addition, there are some part-time concurrent programs. Most programs following

the concurrent model are for primary teaching, but there are also some programs aimed at secondary teaching. The concurrent degree is generally organized in an integrated pattern, comprising a mixture of higher education subject studies, theoretical classes and practical teaching activities throughout the period of study. The program normally leads to an education degree and to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). The qualifications awarded on successful completion of the course include the Bachelor of Education (BEd) and the Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science in Education (BA(Ed) or B.Sc. (Ed)). The course includes curriculum, pedagogical and educational studies; university-level study of one or more main subject(s); and the application of the students’ main subject(s) in primary or secondary schools, as appropriate.

The standards and requirements for initial teacher training (ITT) require ITT providers to ensure that trainee teachers spend at least the following length of time being trained


in schools, recognizing that a trainee’s former experience of working with pupils may count towards these totals:

• 32 weeks for all four-year undergraduate programs; • 24 weeks for all two- and three-year undergraduate programs.

Each trainee teacher must have experience in at least two schools. Teaching in settings other than schools may also count towards these totals, provided that this enables trainee teachers to work towards the achievement of the standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). 1.8.2. Consecutive programs:1.8.2.1. These usually involve one year of full-time postgraduate study leading to the award

of the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). 1.8.2.2. There are some part-time PGCE courses which take longer than one year to complete.

Traditionally, programs following the consecutive model are for secondary teaching, but consecutive programs for primary teaching are increasingly popular. The consecutive training model involves three or four years of study leading to a subject-based first degree, followed by one year of professional training leading to the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). The PGCE focuses on curriculum, pedagogical and educational studies, practical teaching skills and the application of the student’s degree subject(s) to school teaching.

The standards and requirements for initial teacher training require providers of PGCE courses to ensure that trainee teachers spend at least the following length of time being trained in schools, recognizing that a trainee’s former experience of working with children may count towards these totals:• 24 weeks for all secondary and key stage two or three postgraduate programs.• 18 weeks for all primary postgraduate programs.

Similarly to the concurrent route, trainee teachers must have experience in at least two schools. Teaching in settings other than schools may also count towards the totals, provided that this enables trainee teachers to work towards the achievement of the standards for the award of Qualified Teacher Status.

1.8.3. Employment-based programs. These include:1.8.3.1. The Graduate Teacher Program (GTP). 1.8.3.2. The Registered Teacher Program (RTP). 1.8.3.3. The Overseas Trained Teacher Program (OTTP).The programs enable schools to

employ teachers who are not yet qualified and to support them through an individual training program leading to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). Trainees must first find employment in a school and are paid as unqualified teachers. The school is responsible for assessing training needs and devising and overseeing the training plan, which is approved by the Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA), and may include off-site training.

1.9. Admission conditions to the different programs: All prospective teachers must be able to demonstrate that they have attained the standard required to achieve a Grade C in the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (or equivalent) examination in English language, math and, for primary courses, science.

1.9.1. Applicants for training according to concurrent training schemes must normally satisfy the criteria for university entrance.

1.9.2. Applicants for consecutive training schemes must hold a recognized university degree or the equivalent.


1.9.3. Applicants for employment-based routes must have successfully completed either a first degree (for the Graduate Teacher Program) or at least two years of relevant higher education (for the Registered Teacher Program).

1.9.4. Applications for entry to Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses, the consecutive route, are made through the Graduate Teacher Training Registry (GTTR), which is a central admissions service acting on behalf of universities, colleges of higher education and certain groups of schools in England.

1.9.5. Applications for undergraduate teacher training programs (the concurrent route) are made through the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for the UK (UCAS).

2. Compulsory Primary Education, Ages 4 or 5–11Most programs following the concurrent model are for primary teaching, but consecutive programs for primary teaching are increasingly popular with a minimum requirement of 18 weeks of training in schools for all primary postgraduate programs.

3. Compulsory lower secondary education, ages 11 –16 and Upper secondary education, ages 16 –18+

Traditionally, programs following the consecutive model are for secondary teaching, but there are also some concurrent programs aimed at secondary teaching.

PGCEs for teachers specializing in the 14-19 age range: Some HEIs are developing PGCEs designed to equip newly qualified teachers for the 14-19 age range. It is intended that such courses will give trainees the flexibility to work in both schools and colleges of further education (for 16+-year-olds). These courses, of two academic years’ duration, provide tutoring in certain subjects, as well as professional training. The courses are designed to enable graduates in a wide range of disciplines to train to be specialist teachers in the secondary age range, particularly in the subjects of design and technology, mathematics, modern foreign languages and science. For these courses, the content of the applicant’s initial degree must normally include at least one year of full-time higher education study or equivalent relevant to the appropriate subject specialization.


appendIx IIIThe four aTTaInmenT TargeTs In The sCIenCe CurrICulum of england

Scientific inquiry This attainment target reflects pupils’ progress in:

•understanding the connections between empirical questions, evidence and scientific explanations

•planning investigative work using a range of approaches •obtaining and recording valid and reliable evidence • interpreting evidence, drawing conclusions and evaluating their own work •presenting and communicating findings using a range of appropriate scientific terminology.

Life processes and living things This attainment target reflects pupils’ progress in describing and explaining:

• life processes in animals and plants •similarities and differences in living things •causes and variations in animals and plants •ways in which animals and plants are suited to the environment in which they live •ways in which animals and plants depend on each other •how relationships between living things affect populations of organisms.

Materials and their propertiesThis attainment target reflects pupils’ progress in describing and explaining:

•a range of materials and their properties • the nature of different materials •how simple mixtures can be separated •ways in which materials can be changed and patterns in these changes •how the properties of materials relate to the nature and organization of the particles they

contain.

Physical processesThis attainment target reflects pupils’ progress in:

•describing and explaining physical phenomena related to electricity, force and motion, light and sound and energy resources and energy transfer

• relating understanding of physical phenomena to observations of the behavior of bodies in the solar system

•using abstract ideas about physical phenomena in explanations • recognizing and using quantitative relationships between physical quantities.

Excerpted from: http://www.ncaction.org.uk/subjects/science/


appendIx IVleVels of one of The aTTaInmenT TargeTs In england: sCIenTIfIC InquIry

Attainment target 1: Scientific inquiryThere are five aspects of attainment in this attainment target:

1. Ideas and evidence 2. Planning 3. Carrying out 4. Interpreting and evaluating 5. Recording and presenting data

Level 1Pupils describe or respond appropriately to simple features of objects, living things and events they observe, communicating their findings in simple ways for example, talking about their work, through drawings, simple charts.Level 2Pupils respond to suggestions about how to find things out and, with help, make their own suggestions about how to collect data to answer questions. They use simple texts, with help, to find information. They use simple equipment provided and make observations related to their task. They observe and compare objects, living things and events. They describe their observations using scientific vocabulary and record them, using simple tables when appropriate. They say whether what happened was what they expected.Level 3Pupils respond to suggestions and put forward their own ideas about how to find the answer to a question. They recognize why it is important to collect data to answer questions They use simple texts to find information. They make relevant observations and measure quantities, such as length or mass, using a range of simple equipment. Where appropriate, they carry out a fair test with some help, recognizing and explaining why it is fair. They record their observations in a variety of ways. They provide explanations for observations and for simple patterns in recorded measurements. They communicate in a scientific way what they have found out and suggest improvements in their work.Level 4Pupils recognize that scientific ideas are based on evidence. In their own investigative work, they decide on an appropriate approach for example, using a fair test to answer a question. Where appropriate, they describe, or show in the way they perform their task, how to vary one factor while keeping others the same. Where appropriate, they make predictions. They select information from sources provided for them. They select suitable equipment and make a series of observations and measurements that are adequate for the task. They record their observations, comparisons and measurements using tables and bar charts. They begin to plot points to form simple graphs, and use these graphs to point out and interpret patterns in their data. They begin to relate their conclusions to these patterns and to scientific knowledge and understanding, and to communicate them with appropriate scientific language. They suggest improvements in their work, giving reasons.Level 5Pupils describe how experimental evidence and creative thinking have been combined to provide a scientific explanation for example, Jenner’s work on vaccination at key stage 2, Lavoisier’s work on burning at key stage 3. When they try to answer a scientific question, they identify an appropriate approach. They select from a range of sources of information. When the investigation involves a fair test, they identify key factors to be considered. Where appropriate, they make predictions based on their scientific knowledge and understanding. They select apparatus for a range of tasks and plan to use it effectively. They make a series of observations, comparisons or measurements with precision appropriate to the task. They begin to repeat observations and measurements and to offer simple explanations for any differences they encounter. They record observations and measurements systematically and, where appropriate, present data as line graphs. They draw conclusions that are consistent with the evidence and begin to relate these to scientific knowledge and understanding. They make practical suggestions about how their working methods could be improved. They use appropriate scientific language and conventions to communicate quantitative and qualitative data.


Level 6Pupils describe evidence for some accepted scientific ideas and explain how the interpretation of evidence by scientists leads to the development and acceptance of new ideas. In their own investigative work, they use scientific knowledge and understanding to identify an appropriate approach. They select and use sources of information effectively. They make enough measurements, comparisons and observations for the task. They measure a variety of quantities with precision, using instruments with fine-scale divisions. They choose scales for graphs and diagrams that enable them to show data and features effectively. They identify measurements and observations that do not fit the main pattern shown. They draw conclusions that are consistent with the evidence and use scientific knowledge and understanding to explain them. They make reasoned suggestions about how their working methods could be improved. They select and use appropriate methods for communicating qualitative and quantitative data using scientific language and conventions.Level 7Pupils describe some predictions based on scientific theories and give examples of the evidence collected to test these predictions. In their own work, they use scientific knowledge and understanding to decide on appropriate approaches to questions. They identify the key factors in complex contexts and in contexts in which variables cannot readily be controlled, and plan appropriate procedures. They synthesize information from a range of sources, and identify possible limitations in secondary data. They make systematic observations and measurements with precision, using a wide range of apparatus. They identify when they need to repeat measurements, comparisons and observations in order to obtain reliable data. Where appropriate, they represent data in graphs, using lines of best fit. They draw conclusions that are consistent with the evidence and explain these using scientific knowledge and understanding. They begin to consider whether the data they have collected are sufficient for the conclusions they have drawn. They communicate what they have done using a wide range of scientific and technical language and conventions, including symbols and flow diagrams.Level 8Pupils give examples of scientific explanations or models that have had to be changed in the light of additional scientific evidence. They evaluate and synthesize data from a range of sources. They recognize that investigating different kinds of scientific questions requires different strategies, and use scientific knowledge and understanding to select an appropriate strategy in their own work. They decide which observations are relevant in qualitative work and include suitable detail in their records. They decide the level of precision needed in comparisons or measurements, and collect data enabling them to test relationships between variables. They identify and begin to explain anomalous observations and measurements and allow for these when they draw graphs. They use scientific knowledge and understanding to draw conclusions from their evidence. They consider graphs and tables of results critically. They communicate findings and arguments using appropriate scientific language and conventions, showing awareness of a range of views.

Exceptional performancePupils give examples of scientific explanations and models that have been challenged by subsequent experiments and explain the significance of the evidence in modifying scientific theories. They evaluate and synthesize data from a range of sources. They recognize that investigating different kinds of scientific questions requires different strategies, and use scientific knowledge and understanding to select an appropriate strategy in their own work. They make records of relevant observations and comparisons, clearly identifying points of particular significance. They decide the level of precision needed in measurements and collect data that satisfy these requirements. They use their data to test relationships between variables. They identify and explain anomalous observations and measurements, allowing for these when they draw graphs. They use scientific knowledge and understanding to interpret trends and patterns and to draw conclusions from their evidence. They consider graphs and tables of results critically and give reasoned accounts of how they could collect additional evidence. They communicate findings and arguments using appropriate scientific language and conventions, showing their awareness of the degree of uncertainty and a range of alternative views.

Excerpted from: http://www.ncaction.org.uk/subjects/science/


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i According to Singapore MOE, educational policies in Singapore ensure that every child fulfills his potentials through education even if he/she does not have the financial means that allow him to attend school. This is because public schools are subsidized by the state to ensure equal opportunities for all. ii Information about the Singapore education system was collected from several documents available at the Singapore MOE Website (http://www.moe.gov.sg/).iii The academic year in Singapore comprises four 10 week terms beginning January 2. There is a one-week vacation after the first and third term, a 4-week vacation mid-year and 6 weeks at year end.iv Based on the Compulsory Education Act (Singapore), all children should receive compulsory full-time primary education for 6 years, except for those who are exempted: children with special needs, children attending a designated school or children receiving home-schooling. Parents who fail to register their children in compulsory primary education will have to pay a $5,000 penalty charge and/or be imprisoned for a term of 12 months.v This program also known as the “Through-Train Program” is a scheme which allows the cream of secondary schools in Singapore to bypass the “O” levels and take the “A” levels, International Baccalaureate or an equivalent examination directly at the age of 18 after six years of secondary education. Time previously used to prepare students for the General Certificate of Education GCE ‘O’ Level Examination would be used to engage students in broader learning experiences and enrichment activities. By bypassing the GCE “O” level examinations, students are supposedly given more time and flexibility to immerse themselves in a more broad-based education which will eventually lead to the GCE “A” levels examination. In addition, students have more freedom in the combination of subjects between Year 1 - 4 as compared to their non-IP counterparts. Generally, only the top performers are eligible for the IP program. The Integrated Program or the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program has become an increasingly popular alternative to normal secondary education because they move away from the emphasis on mere sciences to more refined subjects such as philosophy or political science; in addition, scientific concepts are learned with more depths and are assessed through student work rather than examinations. This program will ultimately replace a gifted education program that will be phased out by 2008.vi According to the MOE, Singapore’s education system aims to nurture every child and to help all students discover their talents, realize their full potential, and develop a passion for life-long learning. National Education is part of a holistic education aiming at 1) Nurturing in the young the willingness to think in new ways, to solve problems and to create new opportunities for the future, 2) Helping them acquire sound values and develop a strong character to deal with future challenges, 3) Fostering strong bonds among students and develop in them a sense of responsibility and commitment to family, community and country, 4) Developing national cohesion, cultivating the instinct for survival as a nation and instilling in students confidence in their nation’s future, and 5) Cultivating a sense of belonging and emotional attachment to Singapore (http://www.moe.gov.sg/). vii The general Baccalaureate usually leads to higher education. The technological Baccalaureate leads to either higher education or employment. Students completing the three-year course in the general and technological lycée, but who do not succeed in receiving the general or technological Baccalaureate receive either the brevet de technicien (‘technical certificate’), which grants access to certain professions, or the secondary school leaving certificate. The latter is awarded to those students who do not pass the Baccalaureate examination but whose average marks are equivalent to at least 820/. This certificate states that the student has completed secondary education in its entirety, but it does not entitle the student to enter higher education. The CAP and BEP grant access to certain professions or to further study (usually for the vocational Baccalaureate)viii According to the expert group that produced “Science education now: a renewed pedagogy for the future of Europe”, two European initiatives for the renewal of science teaching practices are “Pollen” and “Sinus-Transfer”. Pollen targets city schools in 12 European countries, including France, to promote inquiry-based teaching techniques that have been demonstrated to work both in France (Project “la main à la pâte” – hands-on science) and, originally, in the United States. The initiative, originally focused on primary schools but is presently expanding into the secondary level. Sinus-Transfer provides secondary school teachers, through professional development, with tools to help them change their science teaching practices. It emphasizes the importance of using scientific inquiry and experimental approaches. These are proving themselves capable of increasing children’s interest and achievements in science. With some adaptation, these initiatives could be implemented effectively on a scale that would have the desired impact.

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