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INDEX

�Abbas I (Shah), 496–500�Abbasid Caliphs, 94, 127, 217–218�Abbasid Empire, 91–104, 105–113, 126–140

Arabic literature, 131–134Baghdad, 91–93Caliphate and, 87–90, 126–131central government, 93–97culture, legitimacy and state, 139–140decline of central government, 105–108Hellenistic literature, and philosophy,

136–139local government, 99–102Persian literature, 134–136provincial autonomy and rise of

independent states, 109–113provincial government, 97–99resistance and rebellion, 102–104

�abd, 659�Abd al-�Aziz b. Sa�ud (Ibn Sa�ud), 488�Abd al-Malik (Caliph 685–705), 70, 86–87, 116�Abd al-Mu´min, 378–379�Abd al-Qadir (1776–1806), 609�Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid (1786/87–1800/01),

622�Abd al-Rahman I, 383�Abd al-Rahman II, 383�Abd al-Rahman III, 383–384�Abdallah b. Yasin, 377�Abdallah ibn Abi Bakr, 39Abu al-�Ala´ al-Ma�rri (poet), 254Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, 440Abu Bakr al-Khallal, 165–166Abu Bakr (Caliph 632–634), 55, 58, 59, 80–81Abu Hafs al-Naysaburi, 169Abu Hanifa, 165Abu Hashim, 169

Abu Madyan al-Andalusi, 380Abu Muslim, 103Abu Sa�id b. Abi Khayr, 282Abu Sa�id Kharraz, 170Abu Talib, 40–41, 49, 94Abu Yusuf, 158, 196Aceh, 568, 574–576Achaemenid Empire, 10adab

defined, 659literature, 276, 386

adab al-qadi, 303adat, 659�adl, 659administration

�Abbasid Empire, 93–97Algiers, 413Arab-Muslim Empire, 61–65comparison of Islamic states, 366Hafsid dynasty, 408Marwanid Caliphs, Egypt, 71Marwanid Caliphs, Mesopotamia, 70Mataram, Java, 571Ottoman Empire, 438–441, 442Sokoto Caliphate, 611–613

AfghanistanBritain and, 508–509India and, 507–509language, 508Pashtun tribes, 508Russia and, 508–509

Africa, 581–587. See also East Africa; NorthAfrica; West Africa; specific countries byname

Central, 628–630colonialism, 586–587, 631

731

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732 Index

Africa (cont.)diffusion of Islam, 352Islam, 581–585slavery, 585–586South Africa, 630Sub-Saharan, 350–353, 589, 594

agha, 659Aghlabid dynasty, 370–374, 379agnatic clan, 183–184agriculture 35. See also economy; trade

Brazil and the West Indies, 653Spanish-Islamic civilization, 383Syria and Mesopotamia, 68West Africa, 585Yemen, 35

�ahdath, 272ahi, 659ahi al-bayt, 659ahi al-hadith, 659ahl al-dhimma (Peoples of the Book), 63,

659ahl i-hadith, 659ahl-khurasan military units, 95Ahmad al-Jazzar, 485Ahmad b. Hanbal, 219Ahmad b. Taymiyya (Ibn Taymiyya), 295Ahmad b.Tulun (r. 868–884), 109Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 129, 162, 165, 196Ahmadiyya Sufi order, 628Ahreman, 15Ahura Mazda, 15�A´isha (wife of the Prophet), 184Akbar (1556–1605), 522, 525Akbar, marriage of, 523akhbari school, 178, 502–504akhi, 659akhlaq, 659al-�amma (common people), 129al-Aqraba, battle of (633), 59alaras, 578�Alawi dynasty, 417–420Aleppo

under Ottoman Rule, 484–485spread of Catholicism, 458–459

Alexander the Great, 10Alexandrian school, 137al-fitra, 307–309, 329Alfonso X, 399Algeria, 412–414

�Alawi dynasty to French protectorate,417–420

states and Islam, 422al-Hadi (the Guide), 127Alhambra, 393–394�Ali (Caliph 656–661), 55, 58, 81–82

�Ali b. Dunama (1476–1503), 595�Ali Mughayat Shah (Sultan), 574�Ali Qapu palace (Sublime Porte), Isfahan,

497�Alids, 326–329, 660�alim (pl. �ulama´), 364–368, 660. See also

�ulama´ (scholars)�aljamiado, 393Al-Karkhi, 165al-khass (intellectuals and theologians),

129al-Khayzuran, 149al-Mahdi (the Savior), 127Almohads, 375–379, 389–390Almoravids, 375–379

conquests in North Africa, Spain, andMediterranean in late eleventh century,376

countering Christian advance in Spain,389

West Africa, 591Alptigin, 228al-Rashid (the Rightly Guided), 127alternative Islam, 315–319American revolution, 656Amharic language, 626amin, 660al-Amin (son of Harun al-Rashid), 105amir, 660amir al-mu´minin (commander of the

believers), 80, 83, 123, 660amir al-umara´ (general-in-chief), 111, 660Amirids, 387Ammar al-Basri, 200analytic and comparative historical approach,

1–2Anatolia

conquests and conversion to Islam,347–350

local dynasties, 474Sufi-led resistance against state domination,

461–462Andalusian immigration to Tunisia, 411anjuman, 660annulment, marriage, 269ansar, 142, 660apostasy (Ridda) wars, 80–81�aql (rational judgment), 307–309, 329, 660�aql al-kull (universal intelligence), 175–176,

274al-Aqsa, 148Aqsa mosque, 121–122Arab conquests

effect on language, 255–256Mediterranean, 644–645






Index 733

Arab provinceslocal dynasties, 474under Ottoman rule, 482–486

Arab Shi�is, 495Arabia,

clans and kingdoms, 34–16conversion to Islam, 346Judeo-Christianity and, 33, 36–37language, poetry and gods, 37–38Mecca, 36–37origin of political and religious identities

for Middle Eastern societies, 330–331slavery and, 586Wahhabi movement, 360

Arabian kingdoms, 31Arabian Peninsula, 486–489

Gulf, 488–489Saudi Arabia, 488Yemen, 487

Arabic languageduring Arab-Muslim Empire, 78–79Christian literature in, 199–200in Ghana and Mali, 592

Arabic literature, �Abbasids, 131–134Arab-Islamic renaissance phase, 212–213Arabization, resistance to in Spain. See also

Arab conquestsArab-Muslim Empire

to 750 CE, 62Arabic and other Middle Eastern languages,

78–79conquests, 58–61conversions to Islam, 75–78economic and social change in Egypt,

70–71economic and social change in Iran, 71–72economic and social change in Iraq, 66–68economic and social change in Syria and

Mesopotamia, 68–70elite’s resistance to mass conversions, 75integration of conquering and conquered

peoples, 72–75overview, 55–57socioeconomic bases of, 61–65

Arabsresistance and rebellion under �Abbasid

rule, 102–103Spanish-Islamic civilization, 382–383

architecture�Abbasids, 130–131comparing to Ottoman Empire, Safavid

Empire, and, Mughal Empire, 539Delhi Sultanate period, 526development (transformation) of Islam

and, 213–214

Fatimid dynasty, 241Hafsid dynasty, 409Hispano-Arabic civilization in Mudejar and

Christian Eras, 393–395Mamluk period, 249Middle Eastern states, 254Ottoman, 446Ottoman, European influence on, 476Spain, Caliphal era, 386tombs and mosques, 258–259Umayyads, 118–122

Archons, 457�arif, 358–368Aristotelianism, 200, 397–398Aristotle, 136

Organon of Aristotle, 163–164philosophy in Spain, 386

Armenian Christians, 455–457art

comparing Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughalempires, 540

Indian, Mughal Empire, 526Ottoman, European influence on,

477representation of people and animals,

124–125Timurid-period paintings, 260–261Umayyad, 123, 124

�asabiyya (group solidarity), 34, 660�asabiyyat, 279–280Asawira, 73asceticism, 167–173, 380Ash�aris

defined, 326–329theology, 313–314

Ash�arism, 153–154ashraf, 358–368, 660�ashura´, 274, 328–329, 660Asia. See also Inner Asia; Southeast Asia

Asian empires as Islamic states, 540–542empires and societies, 425–426

Askiya Muhammad Ture, 593Assyria Empire, 10, 22Astarabadi, Fadlallah, 491–492Astrakhanid dynasty (1599–1785), 552atabeg (tutor; regent), 231, 660Auliya, Nizam al-Din, 517Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), 527–531authority

Caliph, 83religious, 286scholarly, 286

autopragia (independent estates), 71Avesta (Zoroastrian scripture), 21�awan (helpers), �Abbasid, 101






734 Index

awqaf (trusts), 236medieval colleges, 276nonroyal elite women, 266royal women, 266

al-Awza�i, 165Awza�i school of law, 165a�yan, 660ayatollah, 364–368, 660�Ayn Jalut, battle of, 247�ayyarun (gangs), 190, 272, 287, 660Ayyubids, 246–247, 248–249, 291Azarbayjan, 257Azariqa, 326–329

Baba Farid (Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr),514–515

babas, 427, 660Babur, 521–522Babylonian yeshivas, 208Babylonians, 204Baghdad

�Abbasid Empire, 91–93architecture and court ceremony,

131in early �Abbasid era, 92madrasa, 275–276post-�Abbasid era, 254–255transformations in legal education,

165Baghdadi Shi�is, 174–179Baghdadi tendency, Sufis, 171Bahmanid regime, 513Baisunghur, 260Bakr tribe, 59Balkans

conversion to Islam in, 347–350local dynasties, 474–475movement toward national independence,

478–479Ottoman conquests, 431trade during Ottoman Empire, 471–472weakening Ottoman Empire and, 470

Banten, Java, 569Banu Furat faction, 107–108Banu Hashim, 39, 49, 88Banu Hilal Arabs, 374–375Banu Jarrah faction, 107–108Banu Nadir, 50–51Banu Nawbakht, 176–177Banu Qaynuqa, 50–51Banu Umayya, 84baqa´ (persistence in the self), 170, 307–329,

660al-Baqillani, 323–324al-Baqir, Muhammad b. �Ali, 178

baraka (power of blessing), 276, 356,358–368, 415–416, 514–515, 661

Barani, 512barbarians, 9barid (messenger and information service),

96Barmakid family, 97Basra, 63

recapturing Arabic of the Quran,146

stimulating agricultural output, 68Sufis, 169

batin (inner, esoteric truth)defined, 661Isma�ili Shi�is, 179

bay�a, 661Bayazid I (Sultan 1389–1402), 438–439Bayazid II (Sultan 1481–1512), 439Baybars (Sultan 1260–1277), 249, 291Bedouins, 34

misr (pl. amsar) (garrison city), 63under Ottoman Rule, 484poetry, 34

Bedreddin, 461Bektash, Hajji, 428, 461Bektashis, 461Bello, Muhammad, 611benefices, European feudal system, 251–252Bengal

British power in, 536conversion to Islam, 514Fara´idi movement, 360Mughal Empire, 530

Berbers, 370Almohads, 378–379Almoravids, 375–378Kitama, 239Lamtuna and Sanhaja, 597Marinids, 414–415Morocco, 374Spanish-Islamic civilization, 382–383Western and Central Sudan, 588–590

beylerbeyliks, Ottoman Empire, 443beys, 410, 427

Algiers, 412–413defined, 661

Bihafarid rebellion, 103Bihzad, 498Bijapur, 513bilateral kinship system, 466bishops, 14al-Bistami, Abu Yazid, 170, 321Bofo Abba Gomol, 627Bohras, 533, 661Bornu, 595, 613






Index 735

BritainAfghanistan and, 508–509assumption of Niger Company’s territories,

633colonialism and defeat of Muslim

expansion, 630–632expansion into Inner Asia, 555facilitating Iran’s entry into international

commerce, 498–499Gulf region, 489imports, 471Industrial Revolution, 656partitioning East Africa, 634trade in India, 652–653trade in Southeast Asia, 569trade with Ottoman Empire, 470–471Zanzibar and, 633

British East India Company, 470–471, 536British Indian Empire, 536–537brotherhoods, Sufi, 355, 358–368, 418, 516–517Bukhara, 553–555Bulgaria, 478–479Bursa, 447–448Buwayhid dynasty, 111, 227–228

defined, 225efforts to maintain authority, 263iqta� (land tax allotment), 250

Byzantine Empire (Late Roman), 10. See alsoRoman Empire

Arab-Islamic conquests and, 60Chalcedonian creed, 14influence in North Arabia, 31religion, 13, 18religious authority of emperors, 127religious policies, 18

cadenza, Quran, 45Cairo, 362Caliphate, 80–90, 217–220. See also �Abbasid

empire; Imperial Islam�Abbasids and, 87–90, 126–131Caliph, defined, 364–368disintegration of, 273formation of, 331–332integration of state and community, 638judge appointments, 96Marwanids (685–750), 86–87Muslim landowning class, 67opposition to under �Abbasid rule, 103–104post-�Abbasid era, 262–263Rightly Guided Caliphs, 55–56, 58, 80–83,

126, 217, 668Sokoto, 610–613Spanish, 384Umayyad dynasty (661–750), 55–56

Umayyad monarchy (661–685), 83–86women and family in Caliphal era, 185–187

Caspian region, 99, 102Catherine the Great, 549–550Catholicism, spread of, 458–460Central Africa, 628–630central government, �Abbasid Empire, 93–97,

105–108Chaghatay heritage, 525Chagri Beg, 231Chaldiran, battle of, 434China

from Mongol conquests to nineteenthcentury, 555–560

role in Java, 573–574Ch�ing dynasty (1644–1911), 558–559Chinggis Khan, 233–234, 648Chist, Mu�in al-Din Hasan, 517Chisti Sufi order, 517, 520, 532–533Christians and Christianity, 197–203

in Arabia, 33Banu Jarrah faction and, 107Christian literature in Arabic, 199–200Crusades, 200–201divorce, 21early history of, 14–15early Islamic era to ninth century, 197–199Egyptian copts, 201–203Ethiopia, 626Greek Orthodox and Armenian, 455–457Hispano-Arabic society in Christian era,

393–395Islam, 195Muslims under Christian rule in Spain,

390–393in North Africa, 203in Ottoman Near East, 458–460reconquista, Spain, 389–390resistance to Arabization, in Spain, 385seclusion, 23sexual morality, 21similarities to Zoroastrianism, 13similarities to Judaism, 13treatment of Jews, 203–204veiling, 23wars with Muslims in Mediterranean,

645city-state, Mediterranean region, 69–70civilization, effect of Islam on, 2clans and kingdoms

agnatic clan, 183–184Arabia, 34–36Funj kingdom, 619–622Ghassanid kingdom, 31Gonja kingdom, 602






736 Index

clans and kingdoms (cont.)Himyarite kingdom, 36Innarya kingdom, 627Kunta clan, 599–601Lakhmid kingdom, 31Nabatean kingdom, 35Parthian clans, 12, 16Sudan, 588–591

class distinctions, development of, 73classical Islam, 302clientage (mawla; pl. mawali), 74, 666clienteles, under �Abbasid rule, 102colleges, 440. See also �ulama´ (scholars)

madrasa, 275–277, 289–290, 665colonialism, Africa, 586–587commercialization, Ottoman Empire, 470–472communal authority, Isma�ili Shi�is, 179communal independence, 287–288communities

dhimma (protected communities), 196, 202formation of Islamic legal traditions, 157hunting and gathering, 7Muhammad and, 39, 43ummah (community), 141

concubinage, 21concubines, 265Congress of Berlin (1884–1885), 586–587, 633,

653–654conquests. See Arab conquests; Arab-Muslim

empire; Inner AsiaConstantine (306–337 CE), 10, 17–18Constantinople, 10, 539, 644. See also IstanbulConstitution of Medina, 49–50conversion to Christianity, Spain, 404–405conversion to Islam, 343–353. See also

diffusion of Islam (Islamization)during Arab-Muslim Empire, 75–78Christianity, 198clientele and, 102jihads and, 617–618Mamluk era (1250–1517), 202–203mass conversions, 284–285Muslim communities in India, 513–516non-Arabian peoples, 346–347in North Africa and Middle East, 343–347in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa,

350–353Turkish conquests and conversions in

Anatolia, the Balkans, Middle East,Inner Asia, and India, 347–350

convivenciabreakdown of, 400–401defined, 390–392

Coptic church, 199

Copts, 201–203, 456–457court (royal) protocol

�Abbasids, 130–131Fatimid dynasty, 239–241Umayyads, 332–333

court, legalwomen and family in Ottoman era

(1400–1800), 464–465women’s access to in medieval times,

270–271Created Quran theological position,

162crown lands, �Abbasid government, 99crusades

Christians and Christianity, 200–201Syria and, 243–247

culture�Abbasids, 139–140continuity and change in historic cultures

of Middle East, 211–221Jewish, in Islamic context, 209–210Middle Eastern states, 254Ottoman Empire, 444–446regional, post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern

state system, 254–262Cyrenaica, 407–408

Daendels, Marshal, 573Dagomba kingdom, 602da´is (missionaries). See also missionaries

defined, 364–368, 661Isma�ili Shi�is, 179

Dakhni language, 518Damascus, 484, 485Damascus mosque mosaics, 121damin (guarantor), Egypt, 98Daqiqi (poet), 256dar al-hadith, 289dar al-hadith al-kamiliyya, 290dar al-harb, 661Darfur, 622–623dargah, 358–368, 661Dari (language), 255–256Darqawa Sufi Brotherhood, 418darughas (representatives), 236da�wa (da�wah), 661. See also missionariesdawla, 661Daylam, 99

independence of Caliphate, 111resistance and rebellion under �Abbasid

rule, 102decentralization of Ottoman Empire, 479–481dehqan, 12Delhi Sultanates, 510






Index 737

conversion and Muslim communities,513–516

Muslim conquests and, 509–513Muslim holy men and political authority,

519–521varieties of Indian Islam, 516–519

desert palaces (royal court), 122–123development projects, Sasanian Empire, 11devshirme, 438–439, 661Deys

Algiers, 412–413Tunisia, 410

dhawq, 307–329dhikr (Sufi ceremony), 172, 661dhimma (protected communities), 202, 452

defined, 661non-Muslims, 196

Dhu´l Nun al-Misri, 170diffusion of Islam (Islamization). See also

conversion to IslamJava, 564–565Kano, 596Katsina, 596–597South Africa, 630West Africa, 582–583

dihqans, 101, 661Dipanegara (Prince), 574divan bagi, 495divine reality, Sufi concept of, 171–172divorce, 187

medieval Muslim jurists, 270Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

20–21women, Ottoman Empire, 464

diwan al-azimma (controller’s office),96

diwan al-jaysh (army bureau), 96diwan al-kharaj (tax collection bureau), 96diwan al-marafiq, 108diwan al-musadarat, 108diwan al-rasa´il (chancery bureau), 96diwan al-tawqi� (drafting agency), 96diwans (bureaus). See also administration

�Abbasid government, 96defined, 661

Dome of the Rock, 118–119, 120Donme, 455Dost Muhammad, 508Dutch

Indian Ocean area, 652return of Java to, 573–574Southeast Asia and, 566–569

Dutch East India company, 499Dyula lineage, 603–604

East Africa, 619–634. See also specific countriesby name

coastal cities and Swahili Islam, 623–625Darfur, 622–623diffusion of Islam (Islamization), 351–352,

581–582Ethiopia and Somalia, 625–628European colonial empires and defeat of

Muslim expansion, 630–634map, 620slavery and, 585–586Sudan, 588–591, 595, 619–622

Eastern Turkestan, 555–560Ebu´s-su�ud, 441economic status. See also women and family

nonroyal elite women, 266royal women, 266working women, 267–268

economyArabia, 33Bornu, 595commercialization in post-classical

Ottoman Empire, 470–472Funj kingdom, 621–622India, 536–537India, seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries, 529–530international, India and, 536–537Mali, 592Morocco, 418–419Ottoman empire, 446–450Sokoto Caliphate, 613Tunisia, 411–412Zanzibar, 625

education. See also madrasa; schools of lawakhbari school, 178, 502–504Alexandrian school, 137colleges, 440nonroyal elite women, 266–267theological schools, 328–329working women, 267

Egypt. See also taxation�Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110under �Abbasid rule, 98under �Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99under �Abbasid rule, resistance and

rebellion, 102administration, Marwanid Caliphs, 71Arab-Islamic conquests, 59–60Copts, 201–203Crusader states in the twelfth century, 245damin (guarantor), 98economic and social change under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 70–71






738 Index

Egypt (cont.)economic prosperity, 113establishment of system of state control,

249Jews and Judaism, 206–207Mamluk period, 248mass conversion to Islam, 284–285under Ottoman Rule, 482–484post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,

238–243during Roman Empire, 11slavery and, 586Sufi orders, 283Tulunid dynasty, 109, 238

Elias of Nisibis, 200elites. See also �ulama´ (scholars)

Archons, 457Caliphate and court versus scholars and

Sufis, 333–334changing balance of power, Ottoman

Empire, 474–475collaboration of military and local religious

elites, 291, 292European versus Muslim in nineteenth and

twentieth centuries, 657–658Funj kingdom, 621Hausaland, 596Iranian, Ilkhans alliance with, 236Jewish merchants, 204–205, 206–207Mataram, Java, 570–572Mughal Empire, 522non-Muslim women, 268Ottoman empire, 451–453persistence of, despite decentralization of

Ottoman Empire, 477Phanariots, 456Qarakhanid, 230religious, 379–381religious scholars, 285–286religious teachers, 190–191Shaybanid dynasty, 551–552slave regiments, 247, 249–250slave regiments under Shah �Abbas, 496Spanish-Islamic civilization, 385tax farming, 474Timbuktu, 597–599transformation of relation to state, under

Ottoman Empire, 479–480�ulama´, 272–273Yemen, 35

emirs, Timurid dynasty, 236emperors

religious authority of, Byzantine Empire(Late Roman), 127

Roman, 10Sasanian, 11

empires. See also Caliphate; clans andkingdoms; specific empires by name

Asia, 425–426religion and, 217–220

English East India Company, 499Ethiopia, 625–628Euphrates River, 66–67Eur-Asian Empires, 426Europe. See also specific countries by name

colonialism and defeat of Muslimexpansion, 630–634

colonialism in Africa, 586–587domination over Muslim and other lands

(1815), 655effect on Ottoman culture, 476–477European colonial empires and defeat of

Muslim expansion, 630–634feudalism, 251–252imperialism and beginning of modern era,

654–658rise of, world economy and, 649–651role in Java, 573–574trade, naval power and empire, 651–654war with Ottomans, 435–436

evliadi, 356–357, 358–368, 661Exilarchs, 13, 205

Fakhr al-Din, 485falasifa, 661. See also philosophyfamily. See women and familyfana´ (annihilation of self), 170, 307–329, 661faqih (pl. fuqaha´), 364–368, 662faqis, 621, 662al-Farabi, 138–139, 298, 326–329Fara´idi movement, 360Farghana, 99

from Mongol conquests to nineteenthcentury, 550–555

resistance and rebellion under �Abbasidrule, 102

Farid al-Din �Attar, 257–258al-Fashir, 622al-Fasi, Issac, 395fata (pl. fityan), 662Fatimid Empire, 111, 202, 374–375

celebration of mawlids, 149Egypt, post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state

system, 238–243Sitt al-Mulk, 265Syria and, 243treatment of Jews, 209

fatwa (pl. fatawa), 277, 303–329, 662






Index 739

fay´ (conquered property), 63, 67–68felt-cap industry, Tunisia, 411feudalism

Europe, 251–252Middle Eastern, 250–254

fiefs, European feudal system, 251–252fiqh (law), 156, 303–329, 662. See also lawFirdawsi, 256firmans, 441–442, 662fitra, 662fityan, 287France

colonialism and defeat of Muslimexpansion, 632–633

imports, 471Java and, 573trade with Ottoman Empire, 470–471

free will, Ash�arism view of, 153French East India Company, 499French protectorate, 417–420French revolution, 656French-Ottoman treaty of 1604, 458Friday mid-day prayer, 328–329Fulani, 610, 617Funj kingdom, 619–622Fustat, 63Futa Jallon, jihads, 608Futa Toro, jihads, 609futuwwa, 662

Gabirol, Solomon bin, 396Galen, 386Galla (Oromo) peoples, 626gangs, 272, 287Gao, 593gaons

Babylonian yeshivas, 208Palestinian yeshiva, 207–208

garrison city (misr; pl. amsar), 63, 666Geniza Era, Judaism, 206–207Gerard of Cremona, 398–399Germany

Congress of Berlin (1884–1885), xxiii,586–587, 633, 653–654

East Africa and, 634imports, 471

ghadir khumm, 274Ghana, 591Ghassanid kingdom, 31, 36ghazal (lyric), 254, 257, 662. See also poetryal-Ghazali, 294, 297–298, 306–313, 388Ghazan (1295–1304), 234ghazis (frontier soldiers), 109, 230, 287, 427,

429

alliance of Sufism with, 283conflict with devshirme, 438–439defined, 662

Ghaznavids, 228conquest of India, 509defined, 225efforts to maintain basis for authority, 263iqta� (land tax allotment), 250–251Middle East, early eleventh century, 229

ghulam (Turkish military slave), 106concept of, 250defined, 662

Ghulam �Ali (Shah), 532ghulat (religious extremism), 175, 662Ghurid dynasty, 509Ghuzz peoples, 233gnosticism, 128, 174, 320, 327Golconda, 513Golden Horde, 544–545, 648Gonja Kingdom, 602government. See also administration

central, �Abbasid Empire, 93–97local, �Abbasid Empire, 99–102provincial, �Abbasid Empire, 97–99provincial, decline of �Abbasid Empire,

109–113provincial, Ottoman empire, 442–444

Granada, 390, 393greater occultation, 177Greece

Greek Orthodox Christians, 455–457literature and philosophy during �Abbasids

era, 136–139Philosopher-King literature, 298–301philosophic political theory, 298–301role of women, 19women and property, 22

Greek Orthodox church, 198guilds, Ottoman Empire, 450The Gulf, 488–489Gur-i amir, 260

Habib ibn Khidmah Abu Raitah,200

Habsburg dynasty, 435–436, 468hadith,

defined, 662divinity of Muhammad, 147–148humanity of Muhammad, 147influence on Muslim historiography, 133Sunni Islam, 159–161supporters’ opposition to Mu�tazili concept

of tawhid, 152–153Hadramis, 625






740 Index

Hafsid dynasty, 408–410hajib, 383, 662hajj, 328–329, 662al-Hajj �Umar, 614–615al-Hajjaj, 67–68al-Hakim (Caliph), 269hal (God’s grace), 170, 307–329, 662Halevi, Judah, 396al-Hallaj, 170–171halus, 571Hama, 68Hammurapi, 8Hamza Fansuri, 575Hanafi school of law, 157, 165

adoption of madrasa form of instruction,277

inquisition, 129origins of, 275

Hanafis, 77Hanbali school of law, 165

origins of, 275transformation to religious movement,

279–280Hanbalis, 192

attitude to worldly actualities, 337reformist mentality, 359theology, 313, 333

hanif, 662Hapsburgs. See Habsburg dynastyhaqiqa, 461, 662haram, 37, 38, 265, 463, 662haratin, 417harb, 53al-Hariri, 254–255al-Harith al-Muhasabi, 171Harun al-Rashid (Caliph 786–809), 97

Christian persecution, 198judge appointments, 156–157problems of succession, 105treatment of non-Muslims, 195–196

Hasan al-Basri, 168–169Hasdai ben Shaprut, 395Hastings, Warren, 536Hausaland, 596–597, 611Hayyuj, Judah b. David, 395–396Hellenism, 17, 216Hellenistic literature

�Abbasids, 136–139political theory, 298–301translation of literature from Greek to

Arabic, 199–200Heraclius (610–641), 10Herat, 237–238, 260–261Hijazi merchants, 61–63

hijra, 663hikma, 663hila (pl. hiyal) (manipulation of law), 162,

304, 663hilm (self-control), 663himaya (protection), 108, 663Himyarite kingdom, 36Hinduism, 350, 507

Islam and, 515–516under Mughal regime, 367

hisba, 279Hisham (Caliph, 724–743), 134Hispano-Arabic society, 384–386

Caliphal era, 386–388Mudejar and Christian era, 393–395post-Caliphal era, 388

historians and sources, 26–30historic cultures of Middle East, continuity and

change in, 211–220, 221historical literature, 132–134, 146–147Hittite empire, 10holy men, Muslim, 519–521hujja (proof). See also da´is (missionaries)

defined, 364–368, 663Isma�ili Shi�is, 179

hujjatollah, 364–368al-Hujwiri, 305hukama, 169Hunayn b. Ishaq, 200, 326–329Hungary, 435–436, 646hunting and gathering communities, 7Hurufiyya Sufi order, 461, 491–492Husayn (son of �Ali), 85Husayn Bayqara (Sultan, r. 1469–1506),

237–238�ibada (pl. �ibadat) (ritual regulations), 166,

307–310, 329, 663

Ibadism, 326–329, 489Ibn �Abd al-Wahhab, 488Ibn al- Hajj, 269Ibn al-�Abbas, 160Ibn al-�Arabi, 319–321, 388Ibn al-´Arif, Abu al-�Abbas, 388Ibn al-Mujahid (d. 935/6), 46Ibn al-Muqaffa�, 127–128Ibn al-Tabban, 380Ibn Batta, 294Ibn Battuta, 564Ibn Hazm, 388Ibn Hisham (d. 833–834), 39Ibn Ishaq, 39Ibn Jurayj, 160Ibn Khaldun, 315






Index 741

Ibn Qutayba, 135Ibn Quzman, 388Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 298–299, 326–329, 388Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 316–318, 326–329Ibn Surayj, 163, 165Ibn Tumart, Muhammad b. �Abdallah, 378Ibrahim Musa (Karamoko Alfa), 608Ibrahim Sori, 608iconoclasm, Imperial Islam, 124–125�id, 663�id al-adha, 324

inquisition, 328–329�id al-fitr, 324, 328–329�idda (divorce waiting period), 187identity

collective, 38Islamic, 285–286, 363Ottoman, 444–446, 476–479

ideology, Ottoman Empire, 476–479Idris b. �Ali (1570–1602), 595Idrisid regime, 374ijaza

defined, 663Sufis, 282

ijma�, 663ijtihad, 274, 663Ikhshidids, 238Ilkhans, 234–236, 259illustrated manuscripts, 260–261‘ilm (knowledge), 276, 303–329, 663iltizam, 663imama (theory of collective organization) law

category, 166Imami, branch of Shi�ism, 174–176, 177imams, 123, 176

defined, 83, 328–329, 364–368, 663Isma�ili, 240Shi�i view of, 175–176

imamzada, 663iman (faith), 314, 315, 663imarets, 449, 663Imperial Caliphate. See CaliphateImperial Islam, 57, 117–125

desert palaces, 122–123iconoclasm, 124–125Umayyad architecture, 118–122Umayyads and ancient empires, 123–124

Imru� al-Qays b. �Amr, 35India, 507–537. See also Delhi sultanates;

Mughal empireAfghanistan and, 507–509British East India Company, 652conversion and Muslim communities,

513–516

conversion to Islam in, 347–350international economy and British Indian

Empire, 536–537Mughal empire and, 521–525Muslim chronology, 511Muslim holy men and political authority,

519–521reformism, 360slavery and, 586varieties of Indian Islam, 516–519

Indian Ocean, 644–647Indonesia, 350–351, 353. See also Java;

Sumatra; other regions by nameIndustrial Revolution, Britain, 656inheritance. See also property and inheritance

India, Mughal Empire, 524–525Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

21–22Innarya kingdom, 627Inner Asia, 647–649. See also Afghanistan;

specific countries by namechronology, 547–560conversion to Islam in, 347–350diffusion of Islam, 352Eastern Turkestan and China, 555–560provinces, defined, 99provinces, resistance and rebellion under

�Abbasid rule, 102scholars, 353–354Turkestan (Transoxania, Khwarizm, and

Farghana), 550–555Western and Northern Steppes, 544–550

inquisitionmihna, �Abbasids, 128–130Spanish Inquisition, 402–403, 404

insilimen, 358–368, 663institutions, Islamic, 343–368

Islamic states, 365–368Muslim elites and Islamic communities,

353–358North Africa and the Middle East, 343–347the reform movement (Tajdid), 359–361social structures of Islamic societies,

361–365institutions, Ottoman Empire, 472–475integration

Arab and non-Arab, 61of conquering and conquered peoples,

72–75intelligentsia, 203. See also elitesiqta� (land tax allotment), 108

defined, 663Middle Eastern feudalism and, 250–254

iqta� istighlal, 100






742 Index

iqta� tamlik, 100Iran. See also Safavid empire

�Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110under �Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99under �Abbasid rule, resistance and

rebellion, 103chronology, 237–263collaboration of military and local religious

elites, 291–292conversion to Shi�ism, 500–501conversions to Islam, 78, 285crown lands, 99dihqans, 101, 661under early Safavids, 493–496economic and social change under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 71–72Iranian type of Islamic society, 639–640Mithraism, 16occupational assimilation, 74–75post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,

227–230quarters, 271–272under Safavids, 503Sasanian dynasty and, 11–12scholars, 353–354Sijistan, 109state and religion under late Safavids,

501–504Sufi orders, 283tax-farming, 108transformation of schools of law to

religious movements, 279–280Turkestan and, 550–551

Iraq�Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110under �Abbasid rule, 98under �Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99crown lands, 99development of Shi�ism, 174–175dihqans, 101, 661in early �Abbasid era, 92economic and social change under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 66–68economic regression, 112–113formation of cities, 7–8Hanafi legal activity, 157Kitab al-Kharaj, 158Marcionites, 17Nestorians, 199post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,

227–230Sasanian dynasty and, 11–12Sufi orders, 283tax-farming, 108

treatment of Jews, 205–206irrigation

Persian Gulf region, 489Spain, 383

Isfahan, 496–498ishan, 358–368, 663�ishq, 307–329Iskandar Muda (Sultan 1607–1636), 564,

574–575islah, 664Islam. See also conversion to Islam; diffusion

of Islam (Islamization)Africa, 581–585alternative, 315–319beginning of modern era, xxii–xxvbeginnings of in Middle East, xviii–xxichanging view of, during Ottoman Empire,

477–478chronology of, 56defined, 307–329, 664development of, 141–145dialogues within, 324–329global diffusion of to nineteenth century,

xxi–xxiinormative, 302–304view of Judaism and Christianity, 195

Islamic societies, comparison of, 635–643Islamic titles, 364–368Islamization. See diffusion of Islam

(Islamization)Isma�il (Shah)

authority of, 492–493conquests, 493coping with Quizilbash enthusiasm, 494overview, 176

Isma�il, Maulay (1672–1727), 417Isma�ili Shi�ism, 104, 179–180, 364–368. See

also Shi�ism (Shi�a; Shi�i Islam)defined, 326–329, 664imams, 240

Isma�ilism, 109–111. See also Isma�ili Shi�ismisnads (chains of transmission), 160, 302, 664Israel, 147–148, 626Istanbul, 362

reconstruction of, 449–450Sultan Ahmed (Blue) Mosque, 447, 448

istislah (public interest), 162Italy, xxiii, 634ithna �ashari (“twelver”), Shi�ism, 177–178,

273–274, 364–368, 494–495defined, 326–329, 664imposition of by Safavids, 495madhhab school of law, 178–179

iugum, 69






Index 743

Jacobites, 458Ja�far al-Sadiq, 169–170, 175, 178jagirs, Mughal Empire, 522, 664Jahan (Shah 1628–1657), 526–527Jahangir (1605–1628), 526al-Jahiz, 135jahl (passion, ignorance, and thoughtlessness),

48Jakhanke lineage, 604–605jama�a, 664jamatbandis (collective associations), 362, 664jami�, 664janissaries, 412, 469

defined, 664Ottoman Empire, 438–441Patrona Halil revolt, 475

jarib, 67Jats, 514Java, 573–580

Aceh, 574–576Malaya, 576–577Minangkabau, 578–580pesentren, 566pre-Islamic culture, 562state, �ulama´, and peasants, 569–573

Jelali rebellions, 469–470Jenne, 592Jerusalem, Crusades and, 244–246Jews and Judaism, 203–210

in Arabia, 33divorce, 21early history of, 13–14Egypt and North Africa, 206–207Islam view of, 195Jewish culture in Islamic context, 209–210marriage, 20Nagid, 209in North Africa, 403–404Ottoman Empire, 453–455role of women, 19seclusion, 22–23sexual morality, 21similarities to Zoroastrianism, 13in Spain, 384, 395–398veiling, 23women and inheritance, 22women and property, 22yeshivot, 207–209

Jibril b. �Umar, 609jihad (holy struggle), 53

Africa, 584–585conversion and, 617–618defined, 664of al-Hajj �Umar, 614–615

inner, 377jihad states, nineteenth century, 616late nineteenth century, 615–617Senegambian, 608–613�Uthman don Fodio, 610–613

Jilan, 99jinn, 584, 664Jirga, 508jizya (tribute; poll tax), 51, 67, 195, 197, 664Jogyakarta, 570John of Damascus, 199Jordan, 68, 653Josephus, Flavius, 19Judeo-Christianity, 33, 36–37judges, 96, 156–157, 191, 278, 441Julianites, 33al-Junayd, 171Junayd (Shaykh), 492Jundishapur, 136al-Juvayni, 259

Ka�ba, 36, 38defined, 664pilgrimage to, 36

Kabul, 99, 102Kadizadeli movement, 477–478kafir, 664kalam (Muslim theology), 215, 313–314,

324–325, 664Kanem, Sudan, 595al-Kanemi, 613Kano, 596kanun code, 441–442, 664kapikullari, 439Karaite Jews, 205al-Karaki, �Ali, 495karamat, 358–368karamoko, 664Karim Khan, 506Karlowitz treaty, 476Karrami movement, 169, 191–192, 275kasar, 571kasb, 665kashf, 307–312, 329, 665Kassite empire, 10Katip Chelebi, 476Katsina, 596–597Kay Ka´us, 296–297Kazakhs, 545–546al-Kazaruni, Shaykh Abu Ishaq Ibrahim,

281–282, 285Kazaruniyya Sufi order, 517Keira lineage, 622Keita dynasty, Mali, 592






744 Index

Khadija (wife of the Prophet), 184Khalaf, Dawud b., 165khalifa, 282, 358–368, 492, 665khalifat Allah (God’s deputy), 83, 126khalifat rasul allah (deputy of the prophet of

God), 83, 123Khalji dynasty

conquest of India, 509–511Sufis under, 520

khanaqa (residences; retreats), 191–192, 237,280–282, 283, 290–291, 309

Chisti, 517–518defined, 358–368, 665

khans, 275, 545, 665kharaj (land tax), 67, 665Kharijis, 86, 149–150, 191, 218, 370, 379Kharijism, 326–329, 665khatam (keeper of the seal), 96khatib, 364–368, 665khawajas, 556–557Khazars, 89khirqa

defined, 358–368, 665Sufis, 282

Khojas, 665Khokand, 555Khurasan, 72

�Abbasid Empire and post-imperial era, 110�Abbasid revolution, 89–90under �Abbasid rule, 98, 99under �Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99madrasa, 275role in war between al-Amin and

al-Ma´mun, 105Khurasanian tendency, Sufis, 170–171khutba, 328–329Khwaja Ahrar, 237khwajas, 356–357, 665Khwarizm, 72, 550–555al-Kindi, 138, 326–329kingdoms. See clans and kingdomskingship. See clans and kingdoms; empiresKitab al-Kharaj, 158Kitama Berbers, 239. See also BerbersKochu Bey, Mustafa, 476koine, 37Kong, 603Koprulu, Mehmed, 473Kubrawi order, Sufi, 491Kuchuk Kaynarca treaty, 468–469Kufa, 63

stimulating agricultural output, 68Sufis, 169uprising, 174

al-Kulayni, 178, 274Kumasi (Ashanti), 603Kunta clan, 599–601al-Kunti, Sidi al-Mukhtar (1728–1811), 600kura district, 99Kurds, 231, 408, 539Kuwait, 489

Lakhmid kingdom, 31language

Afghanistan, 508�aljamiado, 393Amharic, 626Arabia, 37–38Arabic, 255–256Arabic, in Ghana and Mali, 592during Arab-Muslim Empire, 78–79Christian literature in Arabic, 199–200Christians, 199former regions of the �Abbasid Empire, 254Hebrew, 396Indian, Sufism and, 518–519Jews, 210non-Muslims in Spain, 384–385Persian, 255–257Sufism, 171Swahili, 624

Latin Crusaders, 243–244law, 324. See also schools of law

central concepts in, 303–329hila (pl. hiyal) (manipulation of law), 162,

304, 663Ottoman Empire, 441–442Sunni Islam, 156–158

laylat al qadr, 328–329laylat al-mi�raj, 328–329Lebanon

Druze religion, 242under Mamluk rule, 201under Ottoman rule, 485

lecturing and note-taking system of learning,28–29

legal schools, 165–166. See also schools of lawlegists, 167legitimization, Islamic states, 365–366lesser occultation, 176–177Levant Company, 470–471Libya, 406–408. See also North Africalineages. See also clans and kingdoms

Dyula, 603–604Jakhanke, 604–605Keira, 622Sufi, 358–368

literature. See also poetry






Index 745

apocalyptic, 194Arabic, 131–134Arabic, during �Abbasid era, 131–134Christian, in Arabic, 199–200comparing in Ottoman Empire, Safavid

Empire, and, Mughal Empire, 539–540development (transformation) of Islam

and, 214Hafsid dynasty, 409Hebrew poetry, 396Hellenistic, during �Abbasid era, 136–139Hellenistic, political theory, 298–301Hispano-Arabic culture, 386historical, 132–134, 146–147Indian poetry, 518–519mirrors for princes, 295–298nineteenth century, promoting Muslim

rebellion, 559Ottoman Empire, 445–446Persian, 134–136, 254–255Samanids, 256Sufi, 305Sunni shift to written literature, 145Syriac, 136translation of Hellenistic literature from

Greek to Arabic, 199–200translations into Latin and Castilian,

398–399usul al-fiqh (legal methodology), 163Zoroastrian, 194

liwans (galleries), 249Lobbo, Ahmad, 613local government, �Abbasid Empire, 99–102lords, European feudal system, 252love of God, role in Sufi teaching, 306love poetry, pre-Islamic, 132lower-class women, 189Lugard, Frederick, 633

Ma Ba (1809–1867), 615Ma Hua-lung, 559Ma Ming-hsin, 558madaris (schools). See madrasamadawaki, 596madhhab school of law, 178–179, 665madinat al-salam (City of Peace), 91Madinat al-Zahra (city), 386madrasa, 237, 275–277, 289–290

adoption of form of instruction, Hanafischool of law, 277

al-Mustansiriya, 409Baghdad, 275–276defined, 665for Kanuri students, 595

Khurasan, 275Marinids and, 414Saljuq use of, 289

maghazi, 27, 39, 147al-Maghili, 607mahalla, 665Mahdawi movement, 519al-Mahdi (Caliph 775–785), 137mahdi (messiah), 175, 665Mahmud of Ghazna, 257mahr, 665Maimonides, 396, 397majlis, 665makhzan, 665maktab, 665Malacca, 564Malamatiyya (wandering dervishes), 461Malamatiyya movement, 169Malaya, 576–577

pondoks, 566reformism, 361

Mali, 591–592Malik b. Anas, 165malikane, 473Maliki school of law, 157–158, 165, 379–380

origins of, 275Spain, 386–387

mallam, 665mamaluk, 665Mamluk Empire (1250 -1517), 202–203

office of Ra´is al-Yahud, 209post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,

247–249religious architecture, 291treatment of Jews, 209

al-Ma´mun (Caliph, 813–833), 99, 105–106Caliphate and, 218–219Created Quran theological position, 162hellenistic literature and philosophy,

137–138inquisition, 128–129resistance and rebellion, 102

Mangit dynasty (1785–1920), 552–553, 560Mani, 46–47Manicheanism, 17manor, European feudal system, 251–252mansabdar system, Mughal Empire, 522al-Mansur (the Victorious), 127al-Mansur, (Sultan 1578–1603), 416–417al-Mansur Qalawun, 248manuscripts, illustrated, 260–261maqam (efforts), 170, 307–329, 666maqama, 396Maqamat (al-Hariri), 254–255






746 Index

maraboutism, 380–381Maratha movement, 530–531Marcionites, 17Mardawij b. Ziyar, 111ma�rifa, 307–312, 329, 461Marinid state, Morocco, 414–417marja�-i taqlid, 364–368, 666market economy, 9, 271–273Maronites, 458Marrakesh, 377marriage. See also divorce; women and family

Islamic, overview, 186–187medieval Muslim jurists, 269–270Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

20–21polyandrous, in late antique Arabia, 183polygamous, in late antique Arabia, 183

Martel, Charles, 382Marwanid dynasty (685–750)

administration, Egypt, 71administration, Northern Mesopotamia, 70Caliphate, 86–87

masjid, 328–329, 666Masmuda, 370. See also Berbersmasnavi (rhyming couplet), 257, 666ma’sum, 666Mataram, Java, 569–572Mataram dynasty, Java, 562al-Maturidi, 154Maturidism, 154Mauritania, 351–352, 583, 599al-Mawardi, 294mawla (pl. mawali) (clientage), 74, 666mawlid, 148–149, 322–323, 666mawlid al-nabi, 328–329Maydan, Isfahan, 497Maydan-i Shah square, Isfahan, 497mazalim court, 96, 278Mazdakism, 16Mazdakite opposition, 194Mazhar, Mirza, 532Mecca

Arabia, 36–37muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 142, 666Muhammad’s conquest of, 51Quraysh opposition to Muhammad’s

revelations, 41Medina

Mosque of the Prophet, 121–122Muhammad’s conversion of, 49–50Muhammad’s political agreement with, 42Muhammad’s revelations and religious

differences, 42–43pre-Islamic, 49

style of Quran in Medinan period, 45Mediterranean

in late eleventh century and Almoravidconquests, 376

in ninth century, 371Ottoman expansion into, 436

Mediterranean Ocean, 644–647Mehmed I (Sultan 1413–1421), 439Mehmed II (Sultan 1444–1446, 1451–1481),

431–434, 439Mehmet II, 444Melkites, 14, 458, 459

translation of literature from Greek toArabic, 199–200

mellahs, 403–404merchants. See also economy; trade

under �Abbasid rule, 112Christianity and, 33kingship and empires, 9West Africa, 597–599, 601–604

Mesopotamia�Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110administration, Marwanid Caliphs, 70economic and social change under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 68–70economic regression, 113kingship and empires, 8–10pre-Islamic, 7–8veiling, 23

messiah (mahdi), 175, 665Mevlevis, 462Miaphysitism, 14, 15Middle East, 330–340, 482–489. See also

specific countries by nameArab provinces under Ottoman rule,

482–486Arabian Peninsula, 486–489continuity and change in historic cultures

of, 211–221conversion to Islam, 343–347conversion to Islam in, 347–350eve of Muslim era, 32feudalism, 250–254fragmented, states and communities in,

334–336Imperial Islamic society, 331–334language, during Arab-Muslim Empire,

78–79post-�Abbasid state system, 225–263state and religion in medieval Islamic

paradigm, 338–340views of worldly life, 336–338

Middle Eastern societies before Islam, 7–25religion and empires, 17–19






Index 747

religion and society, 12–17Roman Empire, 10–11Sasanian Empire, 11–12women and family, 19–23

migration, Arab-Muslim, 61Mihr, 15mihrab, 666military slavery, 249–250millets, 460, 666Minangkabau, 578–580minaret, 666minbar, 666Ming dynasty (1368–1644), 557–558minorities. See non-Muslim minoritiesMir Damad, 500–501mi�raj, 666Mirghaniyya Sufi order, 628misr (pl. amsar) (garrison city), 63, 666missionaries, 242

Catholic, during Ottoman Empire, 458–459da´is (missionaries), 242defined, 364–368, 661Indian, 533Isma�ili Shi�is, 179to Southeast Asia, 566West Africa, 601–604

Mithraism, 12, 16mobad, 666Mogadishu, 624Mongol Empire, 648

1605–1707, 528Anatolia and, 428connections between Iran and Inner Asia

and, 544Mongol conquests to nineteenth century,

544–555post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,

233–236Qarakhitay, 233role in advancement of Persian-Islamic

literature and arts, 259thirteenth century, 235

monotheism, 13, 143, 515Mori-Ule Sise, 615Morocco, 374. See also North Africa

�Alawi dynasty to French protectorate,417–420

Marinid and Sa�dian states, 414–417states and Islam, 422–424treatment of Jews, 403–404

Moshfegh, David, 203–210breakdown of convivencia, 400–401expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal,

401–404

expulsion of Muslims, 404–405Hispano-Arabic society, 384–386Jews in Spain, 395–398

Mosque of the Prophet (Medina), 121–122mosques

architectural change of, 258–259design development, 122Mosque of the Prophet, 121–122origin of, 115Umayyad mosque of Damascus, 120–121

Mozarab population, 385, 392, 398mu�amalat (rules of social relations) law

category, 166, 307–329, 666Mu�awiya (661–680), 82, 83–85, 126mudarris, 364–368Mudejars, 392–395, 400–401muezzin, 328–329, 364–368muftis (juris-consultants), 166, 277–278,

364–368, 666Mughal Empire

authority and legitimacy, 525–526compared to Safavid and Ottoman

Empires, 538–542compared to Safavid Empire, Mughal

Empire, 538–540decline of, 526–531Indian culture and, 521–525Islam under, 531–535type of Islamic society, 641–642

muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 142, 666Muhammad,

community and politics, 39, 43family of, 41Judeo-Christian and Arabian heritage, 40,

54overview, 39–43Quran, 41–43as source of law, 159–161Umma of Islam, 53–54

Muhammad b. Karram (Ibn Karram), 281Muhammad b. Masarra, 387Muhammad Rahim I (1806–1825), 555muhtasib (market and morals inspector), 272,

278–279, 364–368, 666mujaddid, 666Mujaddidiyya order, 532mujtahid, 278, 364–368, 502–504, 666al-Mukhtar, 174mukhtasar, 303Mulla Sadra, 500mullah, 666multi-religious community concept, 114muluk al-tawa´if, 387–388mu´minun (believers), 47






748 Index

muqallids, 278al-Muqanna� (the veiled one), 103muqarnas (stalactite-like projections), 259Muqatil b. Sulayman, 169muqqadam, 364–368al-Murabitun movement, 377. See also

AlmoravidsMurad I (Sultan 1360–1389), 439Murad II (Sultan 1421–1444), 439, 444Murji�a, 77, 150–151, 191, 326–329murshid, 358–368, 492, 666murshid-khalifa-murid, 358–368Musa, al-Kazim, 176Musa, Mansa, 592Muslim

defined, 47states and populations (900–1700), 344

al-Mutanabbi (poet), 254al-Mu�tasim (Caliph 833–842), 106, 137–138al-Mutawakkil (Caliph 847–861), 129–130

Christianity and, 107treatment of non-Muslims, 196, 198view of Quran, 219wazirs, 107–108

Mu�tazila, 150, 151–153defined, 326–329theology, 313, 333

Mutesa I (King 1856–84), 629al-Muwahhidun, 378. See also Almohadsmuwalladun, 385muwashshah, 396, 667muwashshahat poetry, 386, 388Muwatta´ of Malik, 157–158mysticism, 167–173. See also Sufism (Sufis)

intellectual, Ibn Sina’s philosophy as,316–317

Jewish, 397

Nabatean kingdom, 35Nadir Shah, 505–506, 530nafs, 307–309, 329, 667nagaris, 578Naghrela, Samuel bin, 396Nagid, 209Naima, Mustafa, 476Najran, 33Nan Rincheh, Tuanku, 579Nan Tua, Tuanku, 579naqib, 667naqib al-ashraf, 364–368, 667Naqshbandi order, 359, 532, 551–552al-Nasafi, 239Nasi, Joseph, 451nasiha, 667

Nasir al-Din (Imam), 607–608Nasiriya Sufi Brotherhood, 418Nasrallah, Amir, 553nass, 667nationalism

Balkans and Arab provinces, 455European, 633–634Ottomanism displaced by, 460

natiq (prophet), 179Nava´i, Mir �Ali Shir, 260naval power, Europe, 651–654Nawruz, 324Neo-Platonism, 172, 216–217, 397Nessana (Negev), 69Nestorians, 14, 17, 199networking, Ottoman Empire, 475New Teachings (Hsin-chiao) movement, 558Ngazargamo, 595Niffari, 171Niger, 612Niger Company, 633Nigeria, 613, 630. See also HausalandNishapur

mystical-ethical movements, 169transformation of schools of law to

religious movements, 280visual arts, 258

niya, 667Nizam al-Mulk, 277, 296–297Nizami (poet), 257Nizari Isma�ilis (Assassins), 242Nizaris, 533nomads, 228–230. See also Bedouins;

pastoralismnon-Muslim minorities, 193–206

Christians and Christianity, 197–203early Islamic era, 194–195Jews and Judaism, 203–210legal rights under Ottoman Empire, 453Muslim legislation for, 195–197treatment under Iranian Shahs, 501Zoroastrianism, 206

normative Islam, 302–304North Africa, 369–381. See also Algeria;

Morocco; TunisiaAlmoravids and Almohads, 375–379Arab-Islamic civilization in, 370–374Arab-Islamic conquests, 60attacks from Europe, 375Banu Hilal Arabs, 374–375Christians and Christianity in, 203conversion to Islam, 343–347Fatimid dynasty (909), 111, 374–375fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 391






Index 749

Jews and Judaism, 206–207in late eleventh century and Almoravid

conquests, 376Libya, 406–408Muslim states to the eleventh century,

370–374in ninth century, 371outline chronology, 372–381scholars and Sufis, 379–381Zirid empire, 374–375

Northern Steppes, Inner Asia, 544–550Nur al-Din, 244–246, 249, 291Nurbaksh, 492

Oghuz peoples, 230–231Ohrmazd, 15Oman, 59, 489, 625Organon of Aristotle, 163–164orthoprax-Sufi position, 336, 358Ottoman Empire, 427–467

Arab provinces under Ottoman rule,482–486

Christians in Ottoman Near East, 458–460commercialization, 470–472compared to Safavid and Mughal Empires,

538–540, 542Cyrenaica, 407decentralization, 479–481economy, 446–450expansion of, 432Greek Orthodox and Armenian Christians,

455–457ideology and identity, 476–479Janissaries, civil and religious

administration, 438–441law, 441–442legitimacy of ruler, 365Mediterranean and, 645–646Muslim communities, 460–462networking, 475overview, 431–437patrimonial empire, 437–438political institutions, 472–475provincial government, 442–444rise of, 429–431royal authority, culture, and Ottoman

identity, 444–446rulers, 430rulers and subjects, 451–455scholars, 353–354Tripolitania, 407Tunisia, 410type of Islamic society, 640–641women and family (1400–1800), 462–467

padishah, 667Padri movement, 361, 579paganism, 13, 17, 143, 230Palestine, 68, 653Palestinian yeshiva, 207–209Palmyra, 35pancasila, 667Parsi (Pahlavi; Middle Persian), 255Parthian clans

Mithraism, 16Sasanian dynasty and, 12

Parthian Empire, 10Pasai, Shams al-Din, 575Pashtun tribes, Afghanistan, 508pastoralism

Galla (Oromo) peoples, 627–628North Africa, 375unification under Islamic religious

leadership, 363–365Patio de los Leones, Alhambra, 394Patrona Halil revolt, 475patronage, under �Abbasid rule, 102Paul of Antioch, 200peasants, Java, 569–573pengbulu (village headman), 576, 667Peoples of the Book (ahl al-dhimma), 63, 659Persian court dress, Safavid period, 505Persian Empires. See Mongol empire; Safavid

empire; Sasanian empire; Timuriddynasty

Persian literature�Abbasids, 134–136mirror literature, political theory, 295–298

pesantren, 566defined, 667Mataram, Java, 572

Peter the Great, 546Phanariots, 456philosophers (falasifa), 326–329philosophy

alternative Islam, 315–319Aristotle, in Spain, 386Hebrew culture and, 397–398Hellenistic, �Abbasids and, 136–139Hellenistic, political theory, 298–301Ibn Hazm, 388Muslim philosophers, 138–139Neo-Platonism, 172, 216–217, 397Plato, 136, 386

pilgrimage, 627, 641, 647. See also hajjpir, 358–368, 667pirzada, 532–533, 667Plato, 136, 386. See also philosophypluralism, 650–651






750 Index

poetry, 131–132Arabia, 37–38Baghdadi, post-�Abbasid era, 254bedouins, 34court, Ottoman Empire,ghazal (lyric), 257Hebrew, 396Hispano-Arabic culture, 386Indian, 518–519Mahmud of Ghazna, 257masnavi (rhyming couplet), 257new blend of Arabic literary form and oral

Iranian literature, 256qasida (panegyric), 132, 254, 256, 257romantic, Azarbayjan, 257ruba�i (quatrain), 257saz shairi (itinerant minstrel poets),

461–462Sufi, 257–258Sufi, post-�Abbasid era, 254Turkish, European influence on, 477

political institutions, Ottoman Empire, 472–475political theory, 293–301

Greek, philosophic political theory,298–301

Persian mirror literature, 295–298Sunni theory, 293–295

Polo, Marco, 564polyandrous marriage, 183polygamous marriage, 183pondoks, 566popular Islam, 327–328Porphyry, 137Portuguese

colonialism and defeat of Muslimexpansion, 630

colonialism in Africa, 586–587East Africa and, 624–625expulsion of Jews, 401–404Southeast Asia and, 566–569

post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,225–263

concept of state, 262–263Fatimid Egypt, 238–243iqta� system and Middle Eastern feudalism,

250–254Iraq and Iran, 227–230Mamluk Empire, 247–249military slavery, 249–250Mongols, 233–236royal courts and regional cultures, 254–262Saljuq Empire, 230–233Sufism in, 304–306

Syria, 243–247Timurids, 236–238

post-imperial succession regimes (late tenthcentury), 226

priyayi, 571–572, 667property and inheritance

India, Mughal Empire, 524–525medieval Muslim jurists, 270Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

21–22women, Ottoman Empire, 464women and family, 187–190

protocol, royal court�Abbasids, 130–131Fatimid dynasty, 239–241Umayyads, 332–333

provincial government�Abbasid Empire, 97–99�Abbasid Empire, decline of, 109–113Ottoman empire, 442–444

Pumbedita (Babylonian yeshivas), 208purification, Sufi, 309–313al-Qabisi, 380

qada´, 303–329Qadaris (theological school), 150, 326–329qadi (judge), 96, 156–157, 278, 364–368, 667al-Qadir (Caliph), 289Qadiriyya Sufi order

Somalia and Eritrea, 628Sufis, 283in West Africa, 600

qa´id, 667al-Qa´im (Caliph), 289Qajars, 506Qalandariyya, 461qalb, 307–309, 329, 667qanat, 667Qarakhanid Empire, 230, 258, 543–544,

647–648Qarakhitay, 233Qaramanli, Ahmad, 407Qarluq peoples, 230Qarmatian movement, 111qasaba, 667qasida (panegyric), 132, 254, 256, 257, 386,

388, 396, 667. See also poetryQasr Shirin treaty, 434qawm (lineages), 575–576, 667. See also

lineagesQayrawan, 206, 379–380qibla, 328–329, 667qital, 53






Index 751

qiyas (reasoning), 162Qizilbash, 492, 494

under Shah �Abbas, 496quarters, 271–273quda´, 487Qum, 72Quran, 29, 155

cadenza, 45defined, 667interpreting, 159, 169–170Muhammad and, 41–43preservation of following Muhammad’s

death, 141status of women and, 184Sunni Islam, 154–167translations of, 398

Quraysh, 37opposition to Muhammad, 41power struggle with Caliph �Umar,

81qurb (nearness), 170qurra� (Quran reciters),qutb doctrine, 321, 667Qutb Shah dynasty, 513

Rabbis, 13Rabi�a, 170Radhanites, 204radical-skeptical approach to early Islamic

history, 27–28Raffles, Thomas Stamford, 573ra´is (head of teaching), 164, 553, 667Ra´is al-Yahud, office of, 208–209Ramadan, 328–329, 667Rashid al-Din, 259Rashidun (Rightly-Guided Caliphs), 55–56, 58,

80–83, 126, 217, 668rationalist position, Muslim theology, 153Raymond, Francis, 398reason

Ash�arism view of, 153reasoned opinion versus traditionalism,

Sunni Islam, 162–164socio-political changes in early Muslim

societies and, 154re�aya, 460rebellion and resistance. See also resistance

and rebellionJelali rebellions, 469–470Muslims in China, 559

reconquista, Spain, 389–390reformism

India, 360

Malaya, 361Minangkabau, 578–580Southeast Asia, 361Sumatra, 361West Africa, 360

Registan of Samarqand, 550religion. See also specific religions by name

empires and, 217–220Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

12–19Muslim identity and, 114–116religious administration of Ottoman

Empire, 438–441religious movements, 288–292

religious communities, 273–284schools of law, 274–280Shi�is, 273–274Sufis, 280–284

religious diversityBaghdad, 93Sasanian Empire, 16

religious mood, Shi�ism, 180religious movements, 326–329, 585. See also

specific movements by nameresistance and rebellion

�Abbasid Empire, 102–104Christians and Christianity resistance to

Arabization, in Spain, 385elite’s resistance to mass conversions under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 75Sufi-led resistance against state domination

in Anatolia, 461–462riba (loans), 159ribats (forts), 267, 280, 290, 370, 668rida (love), 170, 307–329Rightly Guided Caliphs, 55–56, 58, 80–83, 126,

217, 668Risala, 163Roman Empire, 490–506. See also Byzantine

Empire (Late Roman)Christianity, 17–18compared to Ottoman and Mughal

Empires, 538–542concubinage, 21dissolution of, 504–506divorce, 20marriage, 20Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

10–11religion and, 217role of men, 19veiling, 23women and property, 22






752 Index

royal courts, 254–262, 438, 444–446, 463. Seealso court (royal) protocol

royal women, 265–266ruba�i (quatrain), 257Rudaki (poet), 256ruh, 309, 668Rumi, 258Russia

advances during Ottoman rules, 468–469Afghanistan and, 508–509conquests, 546–550expansion into Inner Asia, 548, 555

Rustam, �Abd al-Rahman b., 370rustaq, 99, 668

Saadya Gaon, 210, 397Sabah b. Jabr, 489sabr (patience), 170, 307–329, 668sada´ (sayyids), 487sadaqa, 668Sa�dian state, Morocco, 414–417Sadozai, Ahmed Shah, 508sadr, 495Sadr al-Din, 492Safavid Empire

architecture, 539art, 540compared to Mughal and Ottoman

Empires, 538–540, 542dissolution of, 504–505imposition of ithna �ashari (“twelver”),

Shi�ism, 495Iran, state and religion under late, 501–504Iran under, early, 493–496Iran under, seventeenth century, 503literature, 539–540origins of Safavids, 490–506Persian court dress, 505Shi�ism, 506state and religion in, 501–504

Saffarids, 109Safi al-Din (Shaykh), 492Saghanughu, Muhammad al-Mustafa, 603–604Sahara Desert, 647–649Sahih of Bukhari, 161saints, veneration of, 321–324sajjada nishin, 364–368, 668Saladin, 246, 249, 290salah, 328–329, 668Salaymeh, Lena, 19–23, 154–167, 181–183,

264–271, 441–442, 462–467Salih b. Tarif, 374Salihiyya Sufi order, 628Saljuq Empire, 263, 334, 339

Anatolia under, 427–428dynasties, 233effect on relation between religious

communities and state, 289iqta� (land tax allotment), 250–251khanaqas, 290late eleventh century, 232post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,Sunni schools and, 289–290

sama�, 160, 668Samanids, 99, 228

defined, 225literature, 256

Samarqand, 237, 258Samarra´, 106–107Samori Ture (1879–1898), 615–617Sanhaja, 370. See also BerbersSanhedrin, 207sanjak beyliks, 443santris, 572, 668al-Sanusi, Muhammad b. �Ali, 407Sanusiya order, 407saqaliba, 383Sargon of Akkad, 8sarkin, 668sarkis, 596Sasanian Empire, 10

Arabia and, 36Arab-Islamic conquests and, 60divorce, 20influence in North Arabia, 31marriage, 20Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

11–12religion and, 13, 18, 217religious authority, 127–128religious diversity, 16religious policies, 18–19women and inheritance, 22women and property, 22Zoroastrianism, 15–16

sati, 527Saudi Arabia, 488sawafi, 668Sawdah bint Zam´ah (wife of the Prophet), 184sayyid, 668Sayyid Muhammad, 519Sayyid Sa�id b. Sultan (1804–1856), 625Sayyidna al-Husayn mausoleum, 242saz shairi (itinerant minstrel poets), 461–462sbarif, 668scholars. See also elites; �ulama´ (scholars)

attitude to worldly actualities, 337faqis, 621






Index 753

in India under Mughal Empire, 530Inner Asia, 353–354Iran, 353–354Mataram, Java, 572North Africa, 379–381relationships of different Islamic states to,

366–367scholar-bureaucrats, Persian, 494

scholars-cum-Sufis, 358School of Athens, 136School of Baghdad, 326–329School of Edessa, 136School of Khurasan, 326–329School of Nasibin, 136schools of law, 274–280, 286, 336, 344. See

also Hanafi school of law; Hanbalischool of law; Maliki school of law;Shafi�i school of law

Sunni Islam, 164–167, 326–329transformation to religious movements,

279–280women and family, 269–271

science, Islamic era, 139scripturalism, Sufism, 325scripturalism, Sunni Islam

Hadith, 159–161law, 156–158Quran, 154–167reasoned opinion versus traditionalism,

162–164schools of law (Madhahib), 164–167

seclusionMiddle Eastern societies before Islam,

22–23for women, during lifetime of the Prophet,

185sectarianism

Jews, 204Muslim, 326–329

secularization, 650, 656sedentarization, 36, 72Selim I (Sultan), 435Selim III (Sultan), 475Senegambia, 604–606

jihads, 608–613late nineteenth century jihads, 615slavery and, 585

separation of church and state, 637–643sexual morality, Middle Eastern societies

before Islam, 20–21Shabbatai Zvi, 455al-Shadhili, 409–410Shadhili order, Sufi, 283al-Shafi�i, 165

theory of Risala, 163treatment of non-Muslims, 196

Shafi�i school of law, 165origins of, 275transformation to religious movement,

279–280shahada (testimonial), 77, 328–329, 668Shah-en-shah, 668shahid, 668Shahrukh (r. 1405–1447), 237Shahs, declining power of, 502–504. See also

specific shahs by nameShailendra dynasty, Java, 562Shajar ad-Durr, 265shakiriyya (military units), 73, 106shamanists, 230Shaqiq al-Balkhi, 170Shari�a, 303–329, 461, 668sharifs, 356–357shashiya, 411Shattari order, Sufi, 517Shaybanid Empire (1500–1598), 551–552, 648shaykh (bedouin clan chief), 34, 358–368, 668shaykh al-Islam, 364–368, 441, 668shaykh al-shuyukh, 364–368shaytaniyya, 309Sher Shah (1540–1545), 512Sherley, Anthony, 498–499Sherley, Robert, 498–499Shi�ism (Shi�a; Shi�i Islam), 82, 145, 174–180,

215–216, 273–274, 326–329. See alsoIsma�ili Shi�ism; ithna �ashari(“twelver”), Shi�ism

Caliphate, attitude toward, 88, 128Caliphate and, 218conversion of Iran to, 500–501defined, 668Imami branch of, 174–176, 177influence in India, 533Isma�ili Shi�ism, 179–180partitions of, 328–329resistance and rebellion under �Abbasid

rule, 103–104, 109Safavid-period, 506veneration of the Prophet, 321–322Yemen, 487Zaydis branch of, 174

Shikuh, Dara, 526–527shirk, 668Shrine-Sufism, 356shukr (gratitude), 170, 307–329shura, 668shurafa´, 358–368shurta (governor’s police), 272






754 Index

Shu�ubiya controversy, 135, 216Sibawayhi, 137, 146Sidiya al-Kabir (Shaykh), 600–601Sijilmassa, 374Sijistan, Iran, 109silsila (chain of transmission), 282, 295, 356,

358–368, 668al-Simnani, 283Sinan, Koja, 446al-Singkeli, �Abd al-Ra´uf, 575sipahi (Ottoman cavalry), 468, 668Sira, 27, 39, 668Sirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad (1564–1624), 534Sitt al-Mulk, 265, 269slametan village ritual, 573slavery

Africa, 585–586military slavery, 247, 249–250women and, 185women and family in Ottoman era

(1400–1800), 249–250social (sociopolitical movements), Spain, 387social activity, women, 268social change

development (transformation) of Islamand, 213

in Egypt under Arab-Muslim Empire, 70–71in Iran under Arab-Muslim Empire, 71–72in Iraq under Arab-Muslim Empire, 66–68in Syria and Mesopotamia under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 68–70upper-class versus lower-class women,

188–189Sokoto Caliphate, 610–613Somalia, 351–352, 625–628Songhay, 592–595soul

al-Ghazali’s view of, 309Ibn Sina’s view of, 316–317in Sufism, 307–329

South Africa, 630Southeast Asia, 561–580. See also specific

countries by namearrival of Islam, 562–566conversion to Islam in, 350–353Java, 573–580Muslim states to 1800, 563Portuguese, Dutch, and British empires

(1500–1914), 567Portuguese, Dutch, and Muslim States,

566–569pre-Islamic, 561–562reformism, 361

Srivijaya dynasty, 562trade, 568–569type of Islamic society, 642–643

soyurghal, 495Spain, 382–405. See also North Africa

breakdown of convivencia, 400–401expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal,

401–404expulsion of Muslims, 404–405fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 391Hispano-Arabic society, 384–388, 393–395Jews in Spain, 395–398in late eleventh century and Almoravid

conquests, 376Muslims under Christian rule, 390–393in ninth century, 371reconquista, 389–390translations into Latin and Castilian,

398–399Spanish Caliphate, 384Spanish Inquisition, 402–403, 404Srivijaya dynasty, Southeast Asia, 562state. See also specific empires and countries by

nameformation of, Muhammad and, 363Islam-North African variations and, 421–424Java, 569–573Muslim community connection to

formation of, 635–636religion and, Iran under late Safavids,

501–504separation of church and, 637–643

Sub-Saharan Africaconversion to Islam in, 350–353eleventh to fourteenth centuries, 589sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, 594

Sudan, 588–590, 619–622Kanem and Bornu, 595Kingdoms of Western and Central, 588–591

sufigare, 493Sufism (Sufis), 167–173, 280–284, 326–329. See

also mysticism; philosophy; specificorders or brotherhoods by name

asceticism, 380attitude to worldly actualities, 337Bektashis, 461Darqawa Sufi Brotherhood, 418defined, 668emergence of, 354–358maraboutism, 380–381Morocco, 415–416Nasiriyya Sufi Brotherhood, 418North Africa, 379–381






Index 755

Sufism (Sufis) (cont.)orders, 281in post-�Abbasid era, 304–306post-Caliphal Hispano-Arabic civilization,

388relationships of different Islamic states to,

367scripturalism, 325scripture and theology, 302–304social organization of, 358–368Spanish form of, 380spiritual goal, 148suppression of by Shah �Abbas, 501terminology, 307–329veneration of saints, 321–324in West Africa, 601women’s role, 267

Sufyanid dynasty, 83–85Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din, 318–319Suhrawardi Sufi order, 282–283, 517, 519–520Suleyman I (Sultan 1520–1566), 438, 439, 444Sultan Ahmed (Blue) Mosque, Istanbul, 447,

448Sultanate (sultans)

Baybars (1260–1277), 249, 291defined, 668Delhi, 509–510, 513–521division of power with Caliphs, 263Husayn (r. 1469–1506), 260Malaya, 577separation of church and state, 638weakening position in Ottoman Empire,

473Sumatra

reformism, 361slavery and, 586

Sumerianskingship and empires, 8–10pre-Islamic, 8

Sunjata, 592sunna, 669Sunni �Ali, 592–593Sunni Islam (Sunnis), 82, 146–173, 215, 487

asceticism and mysticism (Sufism), 167–173attitude to worldly actualities, 336–337attitude toward Caliphate, 88Caliphate and, 218defined, 669early theology, 149–154hierarchy of jurists, 166–167inheritance laws, 188Mamluk period, 248–249political theory, 293–295

schools of law, 326–329scripturalism, 154–158, 159–161, 162–167shift to written literature, 145veneration of the Prophet, 147–149, 322view of Caliph authority, 128

Sunpadh, 103sura, 669Surakarta, 570Swahili Islam, 623–625Swahili language, 624symbolism, Sufi language, 171syncretistic religious movements, 194Syria

�Abbasid empire and post-imperial era,110

under �Abbasid rule, 98Crusader states in the twelfth century, 245crusades and, 243–247economic and social change under

Arab-Muslim Empire, 68–70establishment of system of state control,

249Hellenism, 17quarters, 271Sufi orders, 283

Syriac (Jacobite; Miaphysite) church, 198Syrian Orthodox church, 198

Tabaristan, 99, 102Tabriz, 260–261tafsir, 669tafsir (exegesis), 155Tahir (820–822), 102, 105–106Tahirid family (820–873), 99Tahmasp (Shah), 494, 498tahrirs (cadastral surveys), 443Taj Mahal, 527tajalliyat (theophanies), 319–320tajdid, 669. See also reformismtalakawata, 669taljia, 108, 669Tanzimat, 669taqlid, 303, 329, 669Tariq, 382tariqa, 282, 283–284, 357, 461, 669. See also

Sufism (Sufis)tasbib (designated lands), 227tasdiq (truth), 314–315, 669tassuj district, 99Tatars, 549tawakkul (trust in God), 170, 307–311, 329,

669tawba, 307–329, 669






756 Index

tawhid, 307–329, 669ta�wil, 669taxation, 63–65

Egypt, 70–71iqta� (land tax allotment), 108, 250–254,

663jizya (tribute; poll tax), 51, 67, 195, 197,

664kharaj (land tax), 67, 665local government under �Abbasid rule,

99–101Mamluk Egypt, 248zabt system, India, 524

tax-farming, 108, 473–474ta�ziya, 669tekke, 358–368, 449, 669. See also khanaqa

(residences; retreats)temple-cities, Sumerian, 8Theodore bar Koni, 199Theodore of Abu Qurra, 78, 200Theodosian Code, 204Theological schools, 326–329theology

scriptural Islam and, 313–315Sufism, 302–304

theosophy, 315–319Tigris River, 66–67Tijaniya Sufi order, 413timar system, 429, 437, 443, 469, 473, 669timarliks, 443Timbuktu, 592, 593, 597–599Timur (Tamerlane), 236–237Timurid dynasty

emirs, 236post-�Abbasid Middle Eastern state system,

236–238role in advancement of Persian-Islamic

literature and arts, 259–261Tippu Tip, 629al-Tirmidhi, 172–173, 323Toledo, as translation center, 398–399Topkapi Saray, 437–438torodbe (Africa, leadership group), 608trade

Arabia, 33, 37Bornu, 595central Africa, 628–629East African coastal towns, 623–624Europe, 651–654forest and coastal regions of West Africa,

601–602Funj kingdom, 621–622Mali, 592Mediterranean, 645

under Ottoman Empire, 446–450, 470–472silk, under Shah �Abbas, 498Southeast Asia, 568–569Zanzibar, 625

traditionalismMuslim theology, 153versus reasoned opinion, Sunni Islam,

162–164Transoxania, 99

conversions, 76–77hukama, 169influence of Qarakhanids in recreation of

Islamic culture in Turkish, 258language, 79from Mongol conquests to nineteenth

century, 550–555Samanid victory of 900, 109Sufi orders, 283

treatiesFrench-Ottoman treaty of 1604, 458Karlowitz, treaty of, 476Kuchuk Kaynarca treaty, 468–469Qasr Shirin, treaty of, 434

tribes. See also clans and kingdoms;pastoralism

Bakr tribe, 59Pashtun tribes, Afghanistan, 508

Tripolitania, 407–408truth, concept of, 179Tu Wen-hsiu, 559tuanku, 576Tughluq dynasty

conquest of India, 512Sufis under, 520–521

Tughril Beg, 231, 263Tulunid dynasty, 109

Egypt, 109rule over Egypt, 238

Tunis, 370–374Tunisia, 370–374, 408–412. See also North

Africa�Alawi dynasty to French protectorate,

417–420pastoralism, 375states and Islam, 421–422

TurkestanEastern, 555–560from Mongol conquests to nineteenth

century, 550–555Turkey, 427–467. See also Ottoman empire

Muslim communities, 460–462rise of Ottomans (c. 1280–1453), 429–431Turkish-Islamic states in Anatolia

(1071–1243), 427–429






Index 757

Turks, conversion of, 230. See also Ottomanempire

al-Tustari, Sahl, 172tuyul (estates), Mongols, 234–236Twelver Shi�ism (Twelvers). See ithna �ashari

(“twelver”), Shi�ismtyeddo, 669

Ubadiah mosque, 577Ubaydallah, 374–375�ulama´ (scholars), 353–354

Arabian peninsula, 487defined, 669Java, 569–573Morocco, 420under Ottoman Empire, 440–441Saudi Arabia, 488Timbuktu, 597–599

uleebalang, 669Ulugh-beg, 237, 260�Umar (Caliph 634–644), 55, 58, 63–64, 81�Umar II (Caliph 717–720), 126

�Abbasids embracement of principles of,93–95

convert issue, 88Muslim equality, 77, 87, 93

Umayyad Caliphs, 84Umayyad dynasty (661–750), 55–56

adopting practices of ancient empires,123–124

architecture, 118–122Caliphate, 83–86imperialism, 117

Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, 120–121ummah (community), 141, 669Uncreated Quran theological position, 162Uniate churches, 459–460United East India Company (VOC), Dutch, 568universality of gods concept, 12–13upper-class women, 188–189Urban Islam, 57urbanization, 181–192, 331

quarters and markets, 271–273Syria and Mesopotamia, 68–69urban communities, 190–192women and family, 181–190

Urdu language, 518�urs, 358–368‘ushr, 669Ushrusana, 99, 102usul al-fiqh (legal methodology), 163,

303–325, 329usuli (rationalists) school, 178, 502–504�Uthman (Caliph r. 644–654), 55, 58, 81, 126

�Uthman don Fodio (1754–1817), 360, 610–613uymaqs, 490–491, 493–494

defined, 669dissolution of Safavid Empire and, 504–505under Shah �Abbas, 496

Uzbeksdomination of Transoxania, 551origin of, 545

Valenciabreakdown of convivencia, 400–401Jews, 401, 402Mudejars, 392–393

vassals, European feudal system, 252veiling, Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

22–23veneration of the Prophet, Sunni Islam,

147–149village societies, 363village-scale estates, 67visual arts, 258

wahdat al-shuhud, 669wahdat al-wujud doctrine, 319, 518, 540–541,

669Wahhabi movement, 149, 360, 488wahyu, 570–571wali, 358–368, 670Waliallah (Shah), 534–535al-Walid (705–715), 86–87, 121–122al-Walid, Khalid b., 59al-Walid II, 123wandering dervishes (Malamatiyya), 461waqf (trusts), 188waqf (trusts), 291–292waqf (trusts), 358–368, 670al-Waqidi, 39warfare, 53watan, 670Wattasids, 415wazir (chief minister)

�Abbasid government, 97defined, 670under reign of al-Mutawakkil (Caliph,

847–861), 107–108West Africa, 588–606, 607–618. See also specific

countries by namediffusion of Islam (Islamization), 351,

582–583Hausaland, 596–597jihad and conversion, 617–618jihad of al-Hajj �Umar, 614–615late nineteenth century jihads, 615–617Mali, 591–592






758 Index

West Africa (cont.)merchants, 597–599, 601–604missionaries, 601–604reformism, 360religious lineages, 597–599scholars, 353Senegambia, 604–606Senegambian Jihads, 608–613slavery and, 585Songhay, 592–595trade, settlements, and the diffusion of

Islam (1500–1900), 598zawayan, Kunta clan, 599–601

Western Steppes, Inner Asia, 544–550wilayat, 670wird, 670Wittfogal, Karl, 425Wolof system, Quran school, 605women and family, 181–183, 264–271

in Caliphal era, 185–187conservative Muslims view of role in

Western societies, 181in lifetime of the Prophet, 183–185Middle Eastern societies before Islam,

19–23in Ottoman era (1400–1800), 462–467property and inheritance, 187–190royal women, 265–266schools of law, 269–271Westerners view of role in Muslim society,

181women of urban notable families, 266–267working women, 267–269, 463–464

working women, 267–269, 463–464world history, Islam in, 24worldly life, differing views of, 336–338wudu´, 328–329

Yahya ibn �Adi, 200Yao peoples, 629Ya�qub Beg, 559–560

yasa (supreme law), Mongols, 234, 670Yazid (680–683), 85Yazid II (Caliph 721–724), 195Yemen, 34–35, 487

economy, 33Himyarite kingdom, 36

yeshivot (Rabbinic academies), 205, 207–209Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), 557

zabt system, India, 524zahir (external, literal truth)

defined, 670Isma�ili Shi�is, 179

Zahir al-�Umar, 485Zahiri school of law, 165zajal poetry, 388zakah (charity tax), 159, 328–329, 670zamindars, Mughal Empire, 523–524, 670zanadiqa, 127Zanata. See also Berberszandaqa, 670Zanj revolts, 68Zanzibar, 489, 623

economy, 625slavery and, 586

zawaya, 356–357, 358–368defined, 670Kunta clan, 599–601

zawiya, 358–368, 407, 410, 670Zaydis branch, Shi�ism, 174, 326–329Zenata Berbers, 370. See also BerbersZengi, 244Zirid Empire, 374–375ziyara, 358–368, 670Zoroastrianism, 206

general discussion, 15–16similarities to Christianity and Judaism,

13zu�ar, 287zuhd, 307–329Zutt rebellions, 68






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