index [assets.cambridge.org]...index abduction abuse of process, 101 eichmann exception, 101...

Index

abductionabuse of process, 101Eichmann exception, 101extradition alternative, 100–2

abortion, 257absentia proceedings, 455abuse of process, abduction, 101accountability, 36–9, 133, 582–4Achille Lauro, 340act of state doctrine, 514, 534ad hoc tribunals

accountability trend, 582–3catalyst, 579criticism, 579end of era, 587human rights law and, 13ICTR. See ICTRICTY. See ICTYjurisdiction, natural persons, 587sources of law, 9

administration of justice, offences against, 475admissibility, procedures, 441–3aerial bombings, 279Afghanistan, 332, 337African Union

Hissene Habré and, 57, 543ICC challenges, 177, 529, 580, 582universal jurisdiction and, 59

aggressionacts of aggression, 320–7

customary law, 321ICC definition, 325–7

historical development, 312–18humanitarian interventions, 324–5ICC and

definition of aggression, 325–7jurisdiction, 328–32

mental elements, 328negotiations, 316–17, 1–322start of jurisdiction, 150, 312, 587

material elements, 318–27acts, 320–7perpetrators, 318–19planning, initiating and waging, 319–20

mental elements, 327–8Nuremberg IMT, 113, 114, 312–13, 317,

320, 321relation to other crimes, 317–18self-defence, 322state actors, 312

aiding and abetting, 374–7, 382Akayesu, Jean-Paul, 137, 138, 140, 205al-Khasawneh, Judge, 56Al-Qaeda, 337Alexander I, King of Yugoslavia, 338Algeria, 68, 74, 301alibis, 403Allied Control Council Law No.10aggression, 320, 321crimes against humanity

list, 232, 245model, 232no armed conflict nexus, 234rape, 253

death penalty, 494, 495imprisonment, 250national prosecutions under, 119–20procedures, 427torture, 251

alternativesamnesties, 563–71local justice mechanisms, 576–7lustration, 575reparations, 576

591

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alternatives (cont.)transitional societies, 562–3truth commissions, 571–5

amici curiae, 438, 441, 489amnesties

assessment, 568–71blackmail, 568blanket amnesties, 563, 569civil proceedings and, 576conditional amnesties, 564, 569deterrence and, 569domestic jurisdictions and, 567–8extradition and, 93forgetfulness and, 570ICC jurisdiction and, 158–9, 566–7incapacitation and, 28international law and, 564–6justice and, 33, 569Latin America, 33, 563, 570overview, 563–71reconciliation and, 569–70universal jurisdiction and, 61

Amnesty International, 539, 582Annan, Kofi, 18, 123, 182, 185, 187, 346anti-personnel mines, 305apartheid, 264–5, 334appeals

interlocutory appeals, 473–4judgment and sentence, 471proceedings, 471–4reformatio in peius, 471standards of review, 471–3victims, 489

Arafat, Yasser, 55Arendt, Hannah, 37Argentina

amnesties, 568crimes against humanity, 57national prosecutions, limitations, 78

armed conflictscivil wars. See internal armed conflictscrimes against humanity and, 234–5internal v international conflicts

assimilation, 586distinguishing, 280–2liberation wars, 280proxy forces, 282UN forces, 281

termination, 280war crimes and, 279–82

nexus, 285–6

perpetrators, 286–7victims/objects, 287–8

Armenia, 46–7Armenian genocide (1915), 230arrests

cooperationarrest and surrender, 520–2by international organizations, 516

legality, 44, 451–4male captus bene detentus, 45, 101

asymmetric warfare, 271attacks, crimes against humanity, 237attempts, liability, 382–3Australia

Aboriginals, genocide, 217ICC and, 75, 301, 585jurisdiction, irregular arrests, 101prosecutions, 66, 73, 79

Austria, prosecutions, 65, 67autrefois acquit, autrefois convict, 80, 91

Ba’ath Party, 575Bangladesh, Pakistan war (1971), 66Barayagwiza, Jean-Bosco, 138Barbie, Klaus, 65, 68, 83Bashir, Omar Hassan Ahmad al-, 178, 179,

550, 556, 558, 582, 588Bassiouni, Cherif, 4, 123Bassiouni/Van Boven Principles, 479, 481, 490Beijing Declaration (1995), 257Belgium

ICC and, 301, 410immunities, Yerodia case, 547–9prosecutions, 67universal jurisdiction, 55–7

Butare four, 60neo-colonialism, 61Yerodia case, 56

Bernard, Judge Henri, 116–17, 313, 367bias, 431–3bin Laden, Osama, 341blackmail, 412Blair, Tony, 514blood diamonds, 589Boer Wars, 65Bormann, Martin, 328Bosnia-Herzegovina

concentration camps, 122ethnic cleansing, 215international conflict, 288jurisdiction, nationality, 47

592 Index






prosecutions, 67transfers from ICTY, 132

Srebenica massacre, 31, 130, 222,224–5

War Crimes Chamber, 47cooperation, 193, 198creation, 192international element, 181judges, 193overview, 192–3

Botha, P.W., 572Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 384, 430Brazil, ICC jurisdiction and, 175Buergenthal, Judge, 56Bula-Bula, Judge, 56, 61Burundi, 181Bush, George W., 57, 176, 337

Cambodiaamnesty, 187civil war, 181EEC. See Cambodia Extraordinary ChambersKhmer Rouge prosecutions, 66killing fields, 197

Cambodia Extraordinary Chamberscases, 186–7creation, 185funding issues, 198international element, 198judges, 186jurisdiction, 185–6

amnesty, 187legal status, 185overview, 185–7victims, 480

camouflage, 306Canada

command responsibility, 398defences, superior orders, 419denaturalization and extradition, 67ICC and, war crimes, 301immunities, 536, 546legislation on international crimes, 75, 79prosecutions

Finta case, 66retroactivity, 79

sexual violence against children, 310universal jurisdiction, 58

capital punishment. See death penaltyCapotorti, F., 211Caroline incident, 323

Cassese, Antonio, 241, 409, 413, 414, 420,430, 431

Castro, Fidel, 55causationcommand responsibility, 396–7duress defence, 413

Cavallo, Ricardo, 57, 58Central African Republic, ICC proceedings, 158charges. See indictmentsCharles VII, King of France, 387–8chemical weapons, 304–5Cheney, Dick, 57child soldiersconsent, 421Conventions, 268drunkenness, 406Sierra Leone, 182, 184, 199, 309, 310use of, war crimes, 309–11

childrenforcible transfer to other groups, 217–18ICC jurisdiction and, 169liability, perpetration, 364soldiers. See child soldiersvictims, 479

Chile, 541, 563, 568China, 387chivalry, 306Churchill, Winston, 111civil proceedings, 576civiliansAP I definition, 243command responsibility, 391crimes against humanity and, 241–3, 261persecution, 261targeting, 295–7terrorism and, 346war crimes against, 290–7

Clinton, Bill, 172cluster bombs, 305coercive measurescooperation, 526detention, 448–54legality, 451–4overview, 447–54

Cohen, Stanley, 570Cold War, 119Colombia, ICC Statute and, 159, 168comity, 95, 102command responsibilitycausation, 396–7charges, hierarchy, 459

Index 593






command responsibility (cont.)civilian command, 391criminal negligence, 384failure to take measures, 394–6legal history, 387–9liability principles, 387–400mental element, 392–4nature, 397–400superior/subordinate relation, 390–2Tokyo IMT, 116, 117, 118, 388WWI Germany, 110Yamashita trial, 120, 388, 392

commission. See perpetrationCommission on the Responsibility of the

Authors of the War (1919), 109–10,312–13, 388

commissions rogatory, 102complementarity principle

cooperation and, 519fundamental principle, 5future, 580–1hybrid courts, 197incentive to legislate, 75–6, 162International Criminal Court, 153–4national courts as 1st resort, 64national proceedings relating to the case,

154–5concentration camps, 122, 406concursus delictorum, 459confidentiality, cooperation and, 523–5confirmation hearings, 460–1Congo (DRC)

ICC proceedingsadmissibility, 158cooperation, 516deterrence and, 34

Yerodia case, 547–9consent

defence, 420–2sexual violence, 421, 466state consent to ICC jurisdiction, 167

conspiracy, 367–8, 383–4consular immunities, 535contempt of court, 475, 513Control Council Law No.10. See Allied

Control Council Law No.10conventions. See treatiescooperation (inter-state)

bilateral treaties, 6double criminality, 89–90, 523enforcement of penalties, 105

EU. See European Arrest Warrantextradition. See extraditionextraterritorial jurisdiction, 88features, 87–93forms, 86future, 581horizontal model, 509, 528human rights and, 91–3international treaties, 86–7mutual assistance, 102–4mutual recognition, 88ne bis in idem, 90–1non-inquiry rule, 92, 95–6public order grounds, 93, 99specialty rule, 90, 100, 522state sovereignty, 87, 89statutory limitations, 90terminology, 86, 93traditional assistance, 88transfer of proceedings, 104

cooperation (international tribunal regime)arrest and surrender, 520–2assessment, 528–9characteristics, 509–10coercive measures, 526confidentiality and, 523–5defence rights, 519–20domestic implementation, 526–8fair trial rights, 519–20forms, 522–3grounds for refusal, 523–5immunities and, UNSC decisions, 556–8national security and, 523–5non-compliance, 517obligations, 510–18

individuals, 513–15international organizations, 516–17states, 510–13

conflicting international obligations,512–13

non-UN members, 515–16on-site investigations, 525–6vertical model, 509, 528

core crimes, meaning, 4See also specific crimes

corporate liability, 587corruption, 335Côte d’Ivoire, 168Crane, David, 437crimes against humanity

attacks, 236–41

594 Index






links to accused, 243–4meaning, 237policy and planning, 237–41widespread or systematic, 236–7

civilian population, against, 241–3common elements, 234–45context, 230, 234–45defences, superior orders, 419denunciations, 245historical development, 230–3mental element, 244–5no armed conflict nexus, 234–5no discriminatory animus, 235Nuremberg Charter, 231–2origins, 230overlap with other crimes, 233–4

genocide, 206, 234, 247war crimes, 233, 586–7

prohibited acts, 230apartheid, 264–5deportation, 249–50enforced disappearance, 262–4, 334enslavement, 248ethnic cleansing, 249extermination, 246–7forced marriage, 266forcible transfer, 249–50imprisonment, 250–1lists, 245–6miscellaneous acts, 265–6murder, 246overview, 245–66persecution, 259–62sexual violence, 253–8terrorism, 351–2torture, 251–3

SCSL definition, 184sentencing practice, 499

criminal investigations. See investigationscriminal liability. See liabilitycriminal procedures. See proceduresCroatia

ICTY and, 132, 523–4prosecutions, 67, 132

cultural property, 268, 296customary international law

aggression, 113, 312, 321crimes against humanity, civilians, 241death penalty and, 20GenevaConventionAdditional Protocols, 186Geneva Conventions, 269

genocide, 208, 220Hague Regulations and, 113, 269ICC jurisdiction and, 151–2immunities, 544, 547jurisdiction, 46–50nullum crimen sine lege and, 18–19opinio juris, 11perpetration, 363, 365persecution, 260prosecution or extradition obligations, 71–3reprisals, 422source of law, 11state immunity, 536statutory limitations and, 78–9submarine warfare, 114terrorism, 350torture, 251, 353war crimes, chemical weapons, 304

Darfur. See Sudandata protection, 93Dayton Peace Agreement (1995), 67, 128,

192, 510death penaltycustomary law, 20extradition and, 98human rights standards and, 495ICTR and, 136Iraqi High Tribunal, 195Nuremberg and Tokyo IMTs, 494

decoys, 306defencesconsent, 420–2diminished responsibility, 406duress, 410–14failure of proof defences, 403forgotten subject, 402ICC Statute, 404–5intoxication, 406–8justifications and, 403mental incapacity, 405–6military necessity, 423mistakes, 414–15necessity, 410–14reprisals, 422–3self-defence, 408–10superior orders, 415–20terminology, 402–3types, 402–3

defendants, 437–8delay, 435–6

Index 595






Demjanuk, John, 66Denmark

extradition, 89immunities, 547prosecutions, Rwandan and Balkan

crimes, 67denunciations, 245deportation

crimes against humanity, 249–50humanitarian law, 250legality of subsequent proceedings, 100–2war crimes, 294

detentioncomportment, 501legality, 451–4male captus bene detentus, 45, 101procedures, 448–54voluntary surrender, 501

deterrence, 26–8, 34, 38, 569diminished responsibility, 406diplomatic immunities, 534–5, 537–8disappearance, enforced, 262–4, 334disclosures, 462–4domestic prosecutions.Seenational prosecutionsDönitz, Karl, 114double criminality, 89–90, 523double jeopardy. See ne bis in idemdrug trafficking

conventions, 10, 334ICC jurisdiction and, 152taxonomy, 4

drunkenness, 406–8dum dum bullets, 304Dunant, Henri, 268duress, 410–14

East TimorAustralian criminal jurisdiction and, 74independence, 181, 188Special Panel, 190–2

applicable law, 191jurisdiction, 191victims, 480

UNTAET, 189, 190–2ECC. See Cambodia Extraordinary ChambersECOSOC, 479Egypt, ICC and, 301Eichmann, Adolf, 83, 101enforced disappearance, 262–4, 334equality of arms, 435, 462erga omnes obligations, 72, 204

Eser, Albin, 402Ethiopia, prosecutions, 66ethnic cleansing, 215–16, 249EULEX, 190Eurojust, 87European Arrest Warrant

double criminality and, 89extraditable offences, 97formalities, 95human rights and, 96, 99life sentences, 98nationality and, 97ne bis in idem, 91re-extradition, 100regime, 94

European Court of Human Rightsamnesties and, 564deportation and legality of subsequent

proceedings, 101judgments in absentia, 99ne bis in idem, 81universal jurisdiction and, 59

European Unionarrest warrants. See European ArrestWarrantcooperation

See also European Arrest Warrantdouble criminality, 89enforcement of financial penalties, 105ICC Agreement, 517mutual assistance, 102–3mutual recognition, 88, 91need for safeguards, 92specialty rule and, 90

terrorism conventions, 341Europol, 87evidence

disclosures, 462–4extradition rules, 521flexibility, 465–6hearsay evidence, 466new evidence, 474–5rules, 464–7sexual violence, 466written witness statements, 466

extermination, 246–7extradition

abduction alternative, 100–2cooperation with tribunals, 520–2death penalty and, 98evidence, 95–6extraditable offences, 96–7

596 Index






freedom fighters, 97habeas corpus, 95human rights and, 98–100life imprisonment and, 98military offences, 97national restrictions, 93–4, 521non-extradition of nationals, 97–8, 521non-inquiry rule, 95–6overview, 93–102political offences, 96–7, 100procedures, 95–6prosecution or extradition

erga omnes obligations, 72human rights law, 70–1jus cogens, 71–3state obligations, 69–73terrorist conventions, 347torture, 356treaty obligations, 69–70

re-extradition, 100terminology, 93

extraterritoriality, 88, 537

fair trialaccused’s rights, 446–7aggression, 331appeal right, 471cooperation with international tribunals and,

519–20delay and, 435–6equality of arms, 435, 462funding issues, 198humanitarian law, 273ICC. See International Criminal CourtICTR, 433–4, 435–6ICTY, 135, 433–4, 435–6independence and impartiality, 431–3international criminal procedures,

430–6, 476legal cooperation and, 92legal representation, 438–9national prosecutions, 83no undue delay, 435–6political propaganda and, 33presumption of innocence, 433–4public hearings, 434right to silence, 446–7, 463standards, 430–1Tokyo Tribunal, 117trials in absentia and, 469

Finland, extradition, 89, 99

first appearances, 460flags, perfidious use, 307Fletcher, Yvonne, 546forced disappearance, 262–4, 334forced labour, 248, 295forced marriage, 266forced pregnancy, 257forced prostitution, 256–7forced sterilization, 216–17, 257–8forgetfulness, 570forum shopping, 60–1FranceAlgerian war, 68, 74command responsibility, 387–8Declaration on Armenia (1915), 230extradition, Rwandans, 99ICC jurisdiction, 168, 175, 528immunities, 546indictment of Rwandan officials, 59Indochinese War, 74juges d’instruction, 149Nuremberg IMT and, 111prosecutions

arrests, 83Barbie, 68, 73, 74, 78, 79, 83crimes against humanity, 73, 74immunities, 545political embarassment, 68retroactivity, 79statutory limitations, 78WWII cases, 65

terminology, 6victims, 481

freedom fighters, 97freezing assets, 490–1, 522Fritzsche, Hans, 112funding issues, 198Fur people, 212, 225futureaccountability, 582–4development of international criminal law,

585–7international tribunals, 579–80national prosecutions, 580–2path forward, 587–90

gacaca trials, 47, 577Geneva ConventionsSee also humanitarian law1949 Conventions, 268customary law, 269

Index 597






Geneva Conventions (cont.)Geneva Law, 268grave breaches

gravity, 10universal jurisdiction and, 53war crimes, 274–5

origins, 268sources of law, 9

genocide1st convictions, 205complicity, 374conspiracy, 384contextual elements, 218–19Convention, 205

travaux préparatoires, 208, 211, 220crime of crimes, 317crimes against humanity and, 206, 234

extermination, 247cultural genocide, 218defences, superior orders, 419definitions

Art.II definition, 204narrow circumscription, 203UNGA, 203, 205

erga omnes obligations, 204historical development of concept, 205incitement, 204, 228, 380–1intentions, 220–8, 376

destruction, 220–1destruction of groups as such, 222intent and knowledge, 226–8proof, 225–6special intent, 223–5whole or partial destruction, 221–2

jus cogens, 204material elements

birth prevention measures, 216–17causing serious harm, 214–15conditions designed to destroy, 215–16ethnic cleansing, 215–16forcible transfer of children, 217–18killing, 214overview, 213–19prohibited acts, 213–18sterilization, 216–17

nature, 206–8persecution and, 261protected groups, 208–13

identification, 211–13national, ethnical, racial and religious,

210–11

sentencing practice, 498, 499terminology debate, 30

Germanycommand responsibility, 398, 399defences, superior orders, 419extradition, Rwandans, 99Hintermann, 364Holocaust reparations, 576ICC and

aggression, 327constitutional amendment, 528jurisdiction, 167, 175war crimes, 301

legislation on international crimes, 76Night and Fog Decree, 262Norway, invasion of (1940), 331post-war allied trials

Control Council Law No.10, 119–20Nuremberg. See Nuremberg IMT

prosecutionslegislation, 74Leipzig trials (1921-3), 65, 110post-WWII, 65, 68Rwandan and Balkan crimes, 67statutory limitations, 78terrorism, 349

Tadic transfer, 126terminology, 6universal jurisdiction, 55, 58

Ghana, 550Gillon, Carmi, 547good character, 501Green, Leslie, 586Greenawalt, Alexander, 227Grotius, Hugo, 69, 269Guantanamo Bay, 349Guillaume, Judge Gilbert, 56, 61Gulf War (1991), 57, 325

habeas corpus, 95, 451–2, 521Habré, Hissene, 57, 543, 570, 582Hadzic, Goran, 132Hagenbach, Peter von, 109, 274Hague law, 268Hague Regulations

customary law and, 113war crimes

Nuremberg Tribunal, 274property crimes, 302–3

Hariri, Rafiq, 187Harun, Ahmed, 588

598 Index






hearsay evidence, 466Hess, Rudolf, 112Higgins, Judge Rosalyn, 56hijacking, 10, 340Hirohito, Emperor, 116, 119Hiroshima, 117, 118Hirota, Koki, 117historic monuments, 296historical records, 31–3, 427, 461Hohenstaufen, Conradin von, 312, 313Holbrooke, Richard, 553Holder, Eric, 355Holocaust, 114, 123, 205, 231, 576hospitals, 296hostage taking, 294human rights

amnesties and, 564–5death penalty and, 495extradition and, 96, 98–100fair trial. See fair trialimmunities and, 538international criminal law and, 13–15jus cogens, 93legal cooperation and, 91–3lustration and, 575procedures and, 430–6, 476prosecution or extradition obligations, 70–1terrorism and, 343–4, 347–8, 349

human security, 3human shields, 307–8human trafficking, 334humanitarian assistance, attacks on, 296–7humanitarian interventions, 324–5humanitarian law

challenge of regulating warfare, 270–1development, 267–9, 288fair trial, 273Geneva Law, 268Hague law, 268international criminal law and, 15jus ad bellum and jus in bello, 269–70non-combatants, 290principles, 269–70war crimes and, 267, 271–3

Hunt, Judge, 131

ICC. See International Criminal CourtICTR

amici curiae, 441appeals, 471–2

interlocutory appeals, 473–4

assessment, 140–2case law, impact, 76coercive measures, 448–9

legality of detention, 451–3completion strategy, 139–40consent defence, 421cooperation with, 440

African states, 527arrest and surrender, 520–1legal basis, 510non-compliance, 518, 528on-site investigations, 525state obligations, 510–11

costs, 36, 142irregularities, 36

creation, 135–6crimes against humanity

context, 232discriminatory animus, 235list, 245no armed conflict nexus, 235persecution, 260, 262rape, 254

death penalty and, 136defendants, 437–8

legal representation, 438distance from relevant population, 141–2evidentiary rules, 464–7fair trial

no undue delay, 435–6presumption of innocence, 433–4time of trials, 141

genocide, 210, 212, 217intentions, 227proof of intent, 225–6

immunities and, 550, 553indictments, 454

amendment, 455confirmation, 461cumulative charges, 459

investigationscommencement, 443on-site, 446

judges, 436judgment procedures, 470jurisdiction, 136–7liability principles

command responsibility, 394, 400commission, 362–3conspiracy, 384incitement, 380–1

Index 599






ICTR (cont.)instigation, 379ordering, 377planning, 382superior responsibility, 385

ne bis in idem, 81nulla poena sine lege, 20offences against administrationof justice, 475overview, 135–42pleas, 467–8practice, 137–40pre-trial proceedings

disclosure of evidence, 463–4first appearances, 460preparations for trial, 461–2

procedures, 427–8adversarial, 479assessment, 476human rights standards, 431independence and impartiality, 432trials, 469, 470

public hearings, 434Rwanda and, 138

creation, 136non-compliance, 518, 528transfer of proceedings, 141

sentencingpractice, 498–502procedures, 503retribution, 24, 497standards, 495–6

sexual offences, 138, 141sexual violence, 138, 141, 292sources of law, 11–12

human rights law, 14liability, 10precedents, 12, 76

structure, 136teething troubles, 137–8universal jurisdiction and, 59victims and, 31, 479war crimes

internal conflicts, 277list, 289sexual violence, 292statutory definition, 274

witnesses, 439–40ICTY

accountability, 133amici curiae, 438, 441amnesties and, 564

appeals, 471–2interlocutory appeals, 473–4

assessment, 133–5beginnings, 125–9case law, impact, 76coercive measures, 448–9

legality of detention, 451–3review of detention, 450

completion strategy, 130–3, 192–3cooperation with, 440, 509–10

arrest and surrender, 520–1arrest warrants, 520forms, 522–3ICRC, 517international organizations, 516–17legal basis, 510national security objections, 523–4non-compliance, 517–18, 528on-site investigations, 525state obligations, 510–11

costs, 36, 135creation, 122–4crimes against humanity

armed conflict nexus, 234, 235civilians, 242–3context, 232–3deportation and forcible transfer, 249discriminatory animus, 235extermination, 247list, 245persecution, 260, 262planned attacks, 239rape, 254–5slavery, 248–9torture, 251

defencesconsent, 421duress, 411reprisals, 422–3self-defence, 409

defendants, 437–8legal representation, 438

deterrence, 26–7distance from relevant population, 135educative function, 30evidentiary rules, 464–7fair trial, 431

presumption of innocence, 433–4time of trials, 129, 135, 435–6

genocide, 207, 208, 210–11collective nature, 370

600 Index






context, 219intentions, 222, 224–5, 227–8proof of intent, 226, 370

immunities and, 544, 545, 550, 553indictments, 454

amendment, 455charges, 457confirmation, 461cumulative charges, 459discretion, 455

internal v international conflicts, 586investigations

commencement, 443on-site, 446, 525

judges, 436judgment procedures, 470jurisdiction, 124–5

national courts and, 125ne bis in idem, 81nulla poena sine lege, 20nullum crimen sine lege and, 19–20, 134refusals, 45Tadic case, 126–8transfer of proceedings, 125

liability principlesaiding and abetting, 375–6attempts, 382co-perpetration, 365command responsibility, 388, 389–90,

391–9, 400commission, 362conspiracy, 384instigation, 379–80joint criminal enterprise, 368–73mens rea, 384–5ordering, 377–9overlaps, 362planning, 382

milestones, 125–35national prosecutions and, 67objectives, 479

reconciliation, 34recording history, 31rehabilitation, 29retribution, 24, 497

offences against administration of justice, 475overview, 122–35plea bargaining, 33pleas, 467–8pre-trial proceedings

disclosure of evidence, 463–4

first appearances, 460preparations for trial, 461–2

procedures, 427–8adversarial, 479assessment, 476human rights standards, 431independence and impartiality, 432public hearings, 434rights of states, 440trials, 469, 470

Prosecutor, coercive measures, 448–9sentencing

practice, 498–502procedures, 502–3retribution, 497standards, 495–6

sources of law, 11–12general principles of law, 11human rights law, 14liability, 10precedents, 12, 76

structure, 124Tadic case. See Tadic casetorture, 353, 354transfer of proceedings, 47, 132, 196universal jurisdiction and, 59victims and, 31, 479, 483war crimes

armed conflict nexus, 285–6, 288internal conflicts, 279, 586list, 289meaning of armed conflict, 284proxy forces, 282rape, 292statutory definition, 274terrorism, 350–1

witnesses, 135, 439–40workload, 129

Ieng Sary, 186–7, 568IFOR, 516–17immunitiescivil proceedings, 536consular immunities, 535cooperation and

individuals, 514International Criminal Court, 512–13

diplomatic immunities, 534–5examples, 534–6functional immunities

international courts and, 545limits, 534, 538

Index 601






immunities (cont.)meaning, 533purpose, 532rationale, 537, 551

functional immunities and national courts,538–45

Pinochet case, 538–42scope of exception, 542–5

future, 582jus cogens and, 532, 540legal effect, 534personal immunities

meaning, 533–4purpose, 534, 546, 549rationale, 537–8, 551spare use, 536

personal immunities and internationalcourts, 549–58

relinquishment through ICC accession,550, 554–6

Taylor Theory, 550–2UNSC cooperation decisions, 556–8UNSC relinquishment, 552–4

personal immunities and national courts,545–9

ministers, 548practice and case law, 545–7private visits, 548–9Yerodia case, 544, 547–9, 582

perverse effects, 538purpose, 531, 534rationales, 537–8state immunity, 535–6terminology, 533waivers, 534

impartiality, tribunal procedures, 431–3imprisonment

crime against humanity, 250–1life sentences and extradition, 98

impunity, politics of, 561, 569in absentia proceedings, 455incapacitation, 28incitement

genocide, 141, 204, 228, 380–1liability, 380–1

independence, tribunal procedures, 431–3India, 147, 304, 340indictments

amendment/withdrawal, 455–6charges

cumulative and alternative, 458–60

legal classification, 457–8overlapping crimes, 458requirements, 457–8

conditions, 454–5confirmation, 460–1decisions as to, 454–5defects, 457form, 456–7

Indonesia, East Timor and, 188, 191, 192innocence presumption, 433–4insanity defence, 405–6insignia, misuse, 307instigation, liability, 379–80Institut de Droit International, 52Inter-American Commission on Human Rights,

universal jurisdiction and, 59Inter-American Court of Human Rights,

amnesties and, 564–5interlocutory appeals, 473–4internal armed conflicts

internal v international conflictsassimilation, 586distinguishing, 280–2liberation wars, 280proxy forces, 282UN forces, 281

riots or, 282–5intensity threshold, 279

war crimes in, 275–9International Criminal Court

admissibilityabandoned national proceedings, 157–8amnesties, 158–9, 566–7challenges, 161–2complementary principle, 153–4national inability to proceed, 157national proceedings and, 154–5national unwillingness to proceed,

156–7ne bis in idem, 160procedures, 441–3safeguards, 164sufficient gravity, 160–1TRCs, 158–9

aggression. See aggressionamici curiae, 489amnesties and, 158–9, 566–7appeals, 471, 472–3

interlocutory appeals, 473–4applicable law, 152–3assessment, 178–9

602 Index






catalyst for domestic legislation, 75–6, 162,581

challenges, 174–7African Union, 177, 529, 580, 582non-surrender agreements, 176–7Security Council resolutions, 174–6

coercive measures, 448arrest and detention, 450–1compensation for wrongful arrest, 451legality of arrest warrants, 453–4warrants and orders, 448

complementarity. See complementarityprinciple

cooperation witharrest and surrender, 521–2assessment, 529domestic implementation, 527–8enforcement of decisions, 170–1EU agreement, 517fair trial, 520forms, 523full cooperation, 557grounds for refusal, 511, 523ICRC, 517individual obligations, 514legal basis, 510national security objections, 524–5non-compliance, 518on-site investigations, 525–6problems, 178state obligations, 511–12

conflicting international obligations,512–13

grounds of refusal, 511immunities, 512–13non-parties, 515–16trigger, 512

costs, 36creation, 144–9

negotiation methods, 148–9preparations, 149Rome Conference (1998), 146–9travaux préparatoires, 148

crimes against humanityapartheid, 264–5attacks, 237definition, 233enforced disappearance, 263enforced prostitution, 256–7extermination, 247forced pregnancy, 257

forced sterilization, 257–8imprisonment, 250inhumane acts, 265list, 245–6negotiations, 238–9no armed conflict nexus, 235no discriminatory animus, 235persecution, 259–61rape, 254–5sexual violence, 253–4slavery, 248torture, 252–3widespread or systematic attacks, 238–9

crimes covered, 150–2aggression. See aggressioncore crimes, 7customary law, 151–2definitions, 150–1extending, 5, 152, 587

terrorism, 343, 349–50torture, 357

defencesconsent, 421–2duress, 410–14intoxication, 406–8mental incapacity, 405–6military necessity, 423mistakes, 414–15necessity, 410–14Rome Statute, 404–5self-defence, 408–10superior orders, 416–18, 419

defendants, 437legal representation, 439

deterrence, 27–8enforcement of decisions, 170–1evidentiary rules, 465–6fair trial

cooperation, 520equality of arms, 435presumption of innocence, 433

future, 580, 588–9genocide, 209

contextual element, 218–19incitement, 228negotiations, 206

immunities and, 536treaty surrender, 550, 554–6

indictmentsamendment, 455–6Art.16 deferral, 169–70

Index 603






International Criminal Court (cont.)classification of charges, 457–8conditions, 454confirmation, 460–1cumulative or alternative charges, 460discretion, 179, 455

initiation of proceedings, 443–5Prosecutor’s powers, 164self-referrals, 165–6, 529State parties, 163trigger mechanisms, 163–6UNSC, 163–4

investigationsaccused’s rights, 447Art.16 deferral, 169–70entire situations, 447on-site, 446, 525role of Pre-Trial Chamber, 445, 525

judges, 150, 436jurisdiction

ad hoc acceptance, 168automatic acceptance, 168children, 169natural persons, 587ne bis in idem, 82negotiations, 167non-party nationals, 172nulla poena sine lege, 21nullum crimen sine lege, 20, 153overview, 166–70procedures, 441–3state consent, 167temporality, 169

legal status, 511liability principles

aiding and abetting, 376–7attempts, 383co-perpetration, 365–6command responsibility, 390, 391, 394,

395–6, 397, 399inducement, 379joint criminal enterprise, 373–4mens rea, 385–7ordering, 377, 379perpetration, 363–4perpetration through organization

control, 366–7Lubanga trial, 178milestone, 144offences against administration of

justice, 475

opposition to, 171–7challenges, 174–7controversies, 173jurisdiction over non-party nationals, 172United States, 171–2, 174–7

peace and justice dilemma, 178–9, 583pleas, 468Pre-Trial Chamber

arrest warrants, 450, 522authorization of on-site investigations, 525review of detention, 450–1role in investigations, 445

pre-trial proceedingsdisclosure of evidence, 464first appearances, 460preparations for trial, 461–2

proceduresassessment, 476–7human rights standards, 431independence and impartiality, 432–3inquisitorial, 476–7judicial powers, 429negotiations, 428–9public hearings, 434revision of proceedings, 474–5trials, 469, 470

prosecution or extradition obligations, 72Prosecutor

accountability, 173coercive measures, 448discretion, 179, 455independence and impartiality, 432–3initiation of proceedings, 164objectivity principle, 445–6role, 437, 581

ratifications, 580relations with internationalized courts, 197reparation, 490–1, 492Review Conference 2010, 587Rome Statute, development, 585–6sentencing, 502

death penalty and, 496enforcement of penalties, 504–5options, 496procedures, 503reviews, 504

sources of law, 9general principles of law, 12

standard of proof, 434statutory limitations and, 77structure, 149–50

604 Index






UNSC role in proceedings, 441victims. See victimswar crimes

armed conflict nexus, 285, 286–7armed conflict threshold, 284–5excessive civilian damage, 297–302internal conflicts, 277–9jurisdictional threshold, 288–9list, 274–5, 289–90prisoners of war, 294prohibited targets, 296–7prohibited warfare methods, 307–8prohibited weapons, 304–5property crimes, 302, 303sexual violence, 292–3transfer of population to occupied

territories, 308–9use of child soldiers, 309–11

witnesses, 439–40international criminal law

accountability, 36–9, 133, 582–4alternatives. See alternativescategories, 4development, 3future, 585–7history, 109human rights law and, 13–15human security focus, 3humanitarian law and, 15meanings, 3–5

core crimes, 4crimes created by international criminal

law, 8–9crimes within international court

jurisdiction, 4–5set of rules of international order, 6–7state involvement, 7supranational law, 8transnational criminal law, 5–6

objectives. See objectives of internationalcriminal law

principles, 16–21scope, 5selective justice, 38–9, 62, 583sources of law, 9–12state responsibility and, 15–16, 584, 585Western construct, 38–9

international criminal procedures. Seeprocedures

international humanitarian law. Seehumanitarian law

International Law Commissionaggression, 314–15, 329crimes against humanity, 232

sexual violence, 253ICC Draft Statute, 144

jurisdiction, 167procedures, 428

immunities, 543international crimes, meaning, 16prosecution or extradition obligations, 71

international organizations, cooperation,516–17, 524

internationalized courtsSee also specific courtsadvantages, 198–9assessment, 197–9cooperation, 198political pressures, 198

Interpol, 87intoxicationcomplete defence, 408defence, 406–8destruction of capacity, 407–8voluntary and involuntary, 407

investigationscommencement, 443–5on-site, 446

cooperation, 525–6procedures, 445–7

Iran, Iraqi war, 194IraqAnglo-American War (2003), 324, 332Ba’ath Party, 575Gulf War (1991), 325High Tribunal. See Iraqi High TribunalInternational Criminal Court and, 165prosecution of Anglo-American abuses, 68Saddam wars, 194US amnesty offer to Saddam, 571US immunities, 545

Iraqi High Tribunalcrimes against humanity, 233death penalty, 195international element, 181, 198judges, 195jurisdiction, 194–5legal basis, 194origins, 194overview, 194–5war crimes, list, 275

Ireland, 96, 301

Index 605






Irish Republican Army, 96Israel

Lebanese War (2006), 332prosecutions

immunities, 543limited legislation, 74universal jurisdiction, 53–4WWII cases, 65–6

transfer of population to occupiedterritories, 308

Italian prosecutionsimmunities, 545presumption of innocence, 433statutory limitations, 78WWII cases, 65

Ivory Coast, 168

Jackson, Robert, 23, 112Jahreiss, Hermann, 111Japan

post-war allied trials, 120Tokyo IMT. See Tokyo IMTWWII, sexual slavery, 256, 293

Jaranilla, Judge Delfin, 117–18, 367joint criminal enterprise

actus reus, 369–71aiding and abetting and, 374liability, 367–74mens rea, 371–2nature of liability, 372–4

judgesBosnia War Crimes Chamber, 193Cambodia Extraordinary Chambers, 186examining judges, 426ICTR, 436independence, 35inquisitorial systems, 478International Criminal Court, 150, 436Iraqi High Tribunal, 195Kosovo Special Panel, 190Lebanese Special Tribunal, 187Nuremberg IMT, 111roles, 426, 436Sierra Leone Special Court, 182

judgments, procedures, 470jura novit curia, 457jurisdiction

See also specific tribunalsadjudicative jurisdiction, 44customary law, 46–50executive jurisdiction, 44–5

extraterritoriality, cooperation, 88forms, 43–5legislative jurisdiction, 43–4meaning, 43national prosecutions, 73–80nationality principle, 47–9passive personality principle, 49–50procedures, 441–3proof, 45protective principle, 50suppression conventions, 336territoriality principle, 46–7treaties and, 46universal jurisdiction, 50–62

jus ad bellum, jus in bello and, 269–70jus cogens

genocide, 204human rights, 93immunities and, 532, 540prosecution or extradition obligations,

71–3torture, 251, 352

jus in bello. See humanitarian lawjust war, 269justice

amnesties and, 33, 569for victims, 30–1, 569miscarriages, 474peace and justice dilemma, 178–9, 583selectivity, 38–9, 62, 68, 583victors’ justice, 113–14, 583

Kaing Guek Eav (‘Dutch’), 186Kalshoven, Fits, 123Kambanda, Jean, 138, 205, 553Kant, Immanuel, 24, 26Karadžic, Radovan, 130, 132, 133, 443,

518, 553Keenan, Joseph, 115Khmer Rouge, 66, 186killing. See murderKirsch, Philippe, 147Kiyose, Ichiro, 116Koojimans, Judge, 56Koroma, Judge, 56Koskeniemmi, Martti, 37Kosovo

humanitarian interventions, 325ICTY and, 129independence, 190lustration, 575

606 Index






Provisional Criminal Code, 190secession conflict, 181Special Panel, 188–90

EULEX judges, 190victims, 481

UNMIK, 189Kranzbühler, Otto, 111, 114Krštic, Radislav, 130Kuwait, Iraqi war, 194

landmines, 305Latin America, amnesties, 33, 563, 570Lauterpacht, Judge Hersch, 215law of armed conflict. See humanitarian lawLawrence, Geoffrey, 111League of Nations, 338Lebanese Special Tribunal

applicable law, 188cooperation, 198creation, 187international element, 182judges, 187jurisdiction, 187

terrorism, 338legal status, 187operation, 188overview, 187–8victims, 480

Lebanon, Israeli War (2006), 332legal persons, victims, 481, 486legal representation

accused, 438–9victims, 487

legality. See non-retroactivity principle; nullapoena sine lege

Lemkin, Raphael, 205lex talionis, 24Li, Judge, 126–7liability

aiding and abetting, 374–7, 382attempts, 382–3command. See command responsibilityconspiracy, 367–8, 383–4corporate liability, 587instigation, 379–80joint criminal enterprise, 367–74Lieber Code, 273mental elements, 384–7ordering, 377–9perpetration, 362–7planning and preparing, 382

superior responsibility. See commandresponsibility

war crimes, 273–4liberation movements, 339, 345, 346liberation wars, 280Liberiaimmunities, 550Truth Commission, 572, 573, 574, 575US forces in, 175

Libya, Lockerbie bombing and, 15, 196, 341Lieber Code, 267, 273life imprisonment, extradition and, 98limitation statutes, 77, 90LOAC. See humanitarian lawlocal justice mechanisms, 576–7location of international tribunals, 36–7Lockerbie bombingLibyan responsibility, 15prosecution under criminal law, 347UNSC Resolutions, 341

Lockerbie Court, 182, 196Lord’s Resistance Army, 166, 178, 583Lubanga Dyilo, Thomas, 158lustration, 575

MacArthur, Douglas, 115MacKinnon, Catharine, 255male captus bene detentus, 45, 101marriage, forced marriage, 266Masalit people, 212, 225medical experiments, 291mental incapacity defence, 405–6mercenaries, 319Meron, Theodor, 272Mexico, 175, 528military necessity, 423military objectives. See targetsmilitary offences, 97Miloševic, Slobodan, 129, 132, 518, 553Minear, Richard, 118minors, ICC jurisdiction and, 169miscarriage of justice, 474mistakesdefences, 414–15fact, 414–15law, 415

Mladic, Ratko, 130, 132, 443mock operations, 306MONUC, 516Moreno-Ocampo, Luis, 529, 566–7, 577Moscow Declaration (1943), 111, 114

Index 607






Mossad, 53Moynier, Gustave, 144murder

crimes against humanity, 246genocide, 214war crimes, 290–1

mutual assistanceconditions, 103–4conventions, 102–3overview, 102–4procedures, 104

mutual recognition, 88, 91My Lai massacres, 49, 66

Nagasaki, 117, 118Nanking, Rape of (1937), 116national prosecutions

Control Council Law No.10, 119–20fair trial, 83future, 580–2ICC jurisdiction and

abandoned proceedings, 157–8complementarity principle, 153–4inability to proceed, 157proceedings relating to the case, 154–5unwillingness to proceed, 156–7

immunities andfunctional immunities, 538–45personal immunities, 545–9

impact of national and international caselaw, 76

jurisdiction, 73–80See also universal jurisdictionamnesties, 567–8ICTY and, 125legislation, 73–6statutory limitations, 77

legislation, 73–6ICC catalyst, 75–6, 162, 581

ne bis in idem, 80–2inter-state application, 80–1international criminal jurisdictions,

81–2non-retroactivity principle, 79–80Pacific military commissions, 120practical obstacles, 82–3preferable option, 64prosecution or extradition

erga omnes obligations, 72human rights law, 70–1jus cogens, 71–3

state obligations, 69–73terrorist conventions, 347torture, 356treaty obligations, 69–70

selective justice, 68state practices, 64–9terrorism, 347–9torture, 356–7

national security, cooperation and, 523–5nationality

crimes against humanity and, 241extradition and, 97–8, 521jurisdictional principle, 47–9

NATO, 129, 188, 517, 524ne bis in idem

ICC jurisdiction and, 160national prosecutions and, 80–2

inter-state applications, 80–1international criminal jurisdictions, 81–2

state cooperation and, 90–1ICC proceedings, 519

transfer of proceedings, 104necessity defence

causation, 413imminent threat, 412mental element, 413–14military necessity, 423overview, 410–14reasonable actions, 412–13self-defence, 323

nemo dat quod non habet, 551neo-colonialism, 61Netherlands

ICC and, war crimes, 301immunities, 543jurisdiction, passive personality principle, 49Lockerbie Court, 196statutory limitations, 78universal jurisdiction, 59WWII prosecutions, 65

New ZealandICC and, war crimes, 301jurisdiction, irregular arrests, 101legislation on international crimes, 75, 79universal jurisdiction, 58

Nigeria, 550Nikitchenko,Major-General Timofeyevich, 112Nimitz, Chester, 114non-combatants, war crimes against, 290–5non-inquiry rule, 95–6non-refoulement principle, 92, 99

608 Index






non-retroactivity principleICTY and, 19–20, 134International Criminal Court, 20, 153national prosecutions of international

crimes, 79–80Nuremberg IMT, 112–13principle, 17–20, 494

non-state actors, 271, 324Nordic Arrest Warrant, 89Norman, Sam Hinga, 573Norway, 89, 331nuclear installations, 410nuclear weapons, 304–5nulla poena sine lege, 20–1, 89, 494nullum crimen sine lege. See non-retroactivity

principleNuremberg IMT

aggression, 113, 114, 312–13, 317,320, 321

assessment, 113–15controversies, 113crimes against humanity, 206, 231–2

armed conflict nexus, 234, 235list, 245persecution, 261

death penalty, 494defence lawyers, 111defences

self-defence, 331superior orders, 416

documentary evidence, 332genocide, 205immunities and, 538, 542, 550indictment, 112judges, 111liability principles, 584

conspiracy, 367–8, 383ordering, 377planning, 382

London Charter, 111no appeals, 471overview, 111–15principles, 113, 543procedures, 427sentences, 112speed, 436terrorism, 349trial, 111–13verdicts, 112victors’ justice, 113–14war crimes, 274

sexual violence, 293watershed, 112–13

objectives. See targetsobjectives of international criminal lawaccountability, 36–9, 133, 582–4competence, 35–6denunciative/educative function, 29–30deterrence, 26–8, 34, 38, 569historical record, 31–3, 427, 461incapacitation, 28incoherence, 23international v domestic law, 22–3justice for victims, 30–1, 569overview, 23–30political independence, 35post-conflict reconciliation, 33–5, 569–70,

572, 573–4rehabilitation, 28–9retribution, 24–6, 38, 497sentencing, 496–8truth-finding, 427, 463

objectivity principle, 445–6occupied territories, transfer of population to,

308–9Oda, Judge, 56omissionaiding and abetting and, 376command responsibility, 394–6perpetration by, 363

on-site investigations, 446, 525–6Opacic, Dragan, 135opinio juris, 11, 72ordering, liability, 377–9organized crime, 334OSCE, 195Osiel, Mark, 25

Pacific military commissions, 120Pakistan, Bangladesh war (1971), 66Pal, Judge Radhabinod, 117–18, 313Palestinian National Authority, ICC

jurisdiction, 168Papen, Franz von, 112Papon, Maurice, 65par in parem non habet juridicium,

537, 551pardons, 186–7, 503–4passive personality principle, 49–50penalties. See sentencingperfidy, 306–7

Index 609






perpetrationcharges, hierarchy, 459co-perpetration, 363–7indictments, 456innocent agency, 364joint criminal enterprise, 367–74liability, 362–7omission, 363through agents, 364–5

persecutioncivilians, 261connection to other acts, 260crime against humanity, 259–62discriminatory grounds, 260examples, 262genocide and, 261mental element, 261sentencing practice, 498severe deprivation of fundamental rights, 259severity, 259

Peru, universal jurisdiction, 59Pettit, Philip, 187pillage, 303Pinochet case, 582

France and, 545functional immunities and national courts,

538–42personal immunity as serving head of

state, 546self-granted immunity, 61

piracy, 4, 8, 51, 334Plavšic, Biljana, 130pleas

plea bargaining, 467–8, 498procedures, 467–8sentencing and guilty pleas, 500–1

poison, 304Pol Pot, 66, 185, 186, 203political offences, 96–7, 100politics of impunity, 561, 569Powell, Colin, 57pre-trial proceedings

confirmation of charges, 460–1disclosure of evidence, 462–4first appearances, 460preparations for trial, 461–2procedures, 460–4

precedents, 12, 76prescription, 77presumption of innocence, 433–4principles of law, 11–12

prison. See imprisonmentprisoners of war, repatriation, 294procedures

See also specific proceduresadministration of justice, offences against, 475adversarial v inquisitorial procedures,

425–7, 476appeals, 471–4assessment, 476–7civil and common law traditions, 425–7coercive measures, 447–54domestic and international law, 429–30evidentiary rules, 464–7fair trial. See fair trialhuman rights and, 430–6, 476hybridity, 429–30indictments, 454–60initiation of proceedings, 443–5international courts and tribunals, 427–9investigations. See investigationsjudgments, 470jurisdiction and admissibility, 441–3pleas, 467–8pre-trial proceedings, 460–4revision of proceedings, 474–5sentencing, 502–3trials, 469–70victims. See victimswitnesses. See witnesses

propertycultural property, 268, 296defence of, 408–10pillage, 303war crimes, 302–3

proportionalitycivilian damage as war crime

principle, 297–8test, 299–301

necessity defence, 412–13punishment, 25reprisals, 422self-defence, 323, 410, 413

prosecutions. See indictmentsprosecutors

coercive measures, 447–54investigation procedures, 445–7role, 437

protective jurisdiction, 50proxy forces, 282public hearings, 434, 469punishment. See sentencing

610 Index






quarters, no, 306

Raeder, Erich, 114Rafsanjani, Hashemis, 55Ranjeva, Judge, 56rape. See sexual violencereasonableness. See proportionalityreconciliation

amnesties and, 569–70objective, 33–5truth commissions, 572, 573–4

Red Cross (ICRC)amnesties and, 565cooperation status, 517creation, 268emblems, 307privileges in criminal proceedings, 441

reformatio in peius, 471refugees, non-refoulement principle, 92, 99rehabilitation, 28–9remorse, 501rendition. See abductionreparation

civil proceedings, 576freezing assets, 490–1International Criminal Court, 490–1, 492national systems, 478

reprisals, 422–3Republika Sprska, 192retribution, 24–6, 38, 497revision of proceedings, 474–5Rezek, Judge, 56, 61riots, civil wars or, 282–5Röling, Judge B.V. A., 32, 117, 313, 389Romania, prosecutions, 66Rome Conference (1998), 146–9Rumsfeld, Donald, 545ruses, 306Russia, Declaration on Armenia (1915), 230Rutaganda, Georges, 137Rwanda

See also ICTRBelgian universal jurisdiction and, 55extradition of Rwandans from Europe, 99gacaca trials, 47, 577genocide, 140, 205, 214

drunkenness, 406incitement, 141intentions, 221

ICTR and, 138creation, 136

non-compliance, 518, 528transfer of proceedings, 141

prisoners awaiting trial, 443prosecutions, 67

in other states, 67transfer of proceedings from ICTR, 141

UN peacekeepers, 136

Sachs, Albie, 574Sadat, Leila, 584Saddam Hussein, 194, 195, 571sadism, 356Sawoniuk, Anthony, 60Schabas, William, 207Schacht, Hjalmar, 112, 327–8Schröder, Gerhard, 514Schwarzenberger, Georg, 4scientific experiments, 291Scilingo, Adolfo, 57SCSL. See Sierra Leone Special Courtselective justice, 38–9, 62, 68, 583self-defencedefence, 408–10imminent unlawful use of force, 409–10non-state actors, 324pre-emptive, 323proportionality, 323, 410, 413terrorism, 337UN Charter, 322–3use of force, 322–4

self-incrimination, 439, 447Senegal, 57, 59sentencingSee also death penaltycumulative or joint sentences, 502early release, 503–4enforcement of penalties, 504–5

state cooperation, 105international punishment, 494–6life sentences, extradition and, 98options, 495–6pardons, 503–4plea bargaining and, 498practice, 498–502

aggravating circumstances, 500guilty pleas, 500–1inconsistency, 498, 499–500leniency, 498mitigation, 500–1motivation factor, 502rank and position of accused, 501–2

Index 611






sentencing (cont.)procedures, 502–3purposes, 496–8review, 504

Serbialegal status, 515prosecutions, 67

transfers from ICTY, 132responsibility for Bosnian genocide, 15–16War Crimes Chamber, 182, 195–6

sexual violenceconsent, 421, 466crimes against humanity, 253–8

enforced prostitution, 256–7forced pregnancy, 257forced sterilization, 257–8rape, 254–6sexual slavery, 256

evidentiary rules, 466ICTR, 138, 141, 292torture, 253, 355war crimes, 292–3

SFOR, 516–17Sharon, Ariel, 55Shigemitsu, Mamoru, 117Sidhwa, Judge, 126Sierra Leone

atrocities, 197civil war, 181, 182Lomé Peace Agreement, 183Special Court. See Sierra Leone Special CourtTruth Commission, 573

Sierra Leone Special Courtamnesties and, 565–6, 567–8cases, 184–5child soldiers, 182, 184, 199, 309, 310completion, 185cooperation, 198, 509, 518, 551creation, 182crimes against humanity, 233forced marriage, 266funding issues, 198ICC and, 197immunities and, 550–2judges, 182jurisdiction, 183–4

amnesty, 183crimes against humanity, 184subject-matter, 184universal jurisdiction, 59

legal status, 182–3

liability principlesordering, 377planning, 382

overview, 182–5Prosecutor, 437sentencing, 502sexual violence, 184Truth Commission and, 573war crimes

list, 275terrorism, 351

silence, right to, 446–7, 463silent enim leges inter arma, 270slavery

conventions, 334crime against humanity, 248

sexual slavery, 256forced labour, 248taxonomy, 4, 8war crimes, 295

smuggling, 334Solferino, Battle of (1859), 268solitary confinement, 355Sonderkommandos, 406sources of law

academic writings, 12customary international law, 11general principles of law, 11–12overview, 9–12precedents, 12, 76treaties, 9–10

South Africaamnesties, 563, 569deportation, undertakings, 101jurisdiction, irregular arrests, 101legislation on international crimes, 75terrorism, definition, 344transition, 562TRC, 159, 572, 573, 574, 577

South Korea, 167Soviet Union

Nuremberg IMT and, 111World War II conduct, 114

SpainICC and war crimes, 301immunities, 546Pinochet extradition request, 538terminology, 6universal jurisdiction, 57–8

Special Court for Sierra Leone. See SierraLeone Special Court

612 Index






specialty rule, 90, 100, 522Srebenica massacre, 31, 130, 222, 224–5state immunity, 535–6, 547–9, 550–2state responsibility, 15–16, 584, 585state sovereignty

cooperation and, 87, 89ICC Draft Statute, 167international justice and, 589sovereign equality, 537

statesaggression, 312cooperation. See cooperationinitiation of ICC proceedings, 163involvement in international criminal law, 7role in international criminal proceedings,

440–1terrorism, 346

statutory limitations, 77, 90sterilization, 216–17, 257–8subpoenas, 440, 513–14Sudan

genocide and, 209, 225ICC cooperation

AU refusal, 177, 529non-compliance, 518, 529UNAMID, 516

ICC proceedingsinitiation by UNSC, 164issues, 178jurisdiction, sufficient gravity, 161peace and justice dilemma, 179, 583suspension requests, 170US forces and, 175

terrorism, 341Sun Tzu, 387superior orders

crimes against humanity, 419defence, 415–20genocide, 419knowledge of unlawfulness, 418lawful orders, 417–18manifest illegality, 418–19obligation to obey, 417–18other defences and, 419–20

superior responsibility. See commandresponsibility

Swedenextradition, 89, 94, 100nationality jurisdiction, 48prosecutions,Rwandan andBalkan crimes, 67victims, compensation, 478

Switzerlandcooperation with Tribunals, 515extradition, Rwandans, 99jurisdiction, universal jurisdiction, 60prosecutions, Rwandan and Balkan

crimes, 67statutory limitations, 78universal jurisdiction, 55

Tadic case, 585aiding and abetting, 374–5, 376equality of arms, 438joint criminal enterprise, 368–9

mens rea, 371jurisdiction, 126–8meaning of armed conflict, 284milestone, 126–8transfer from Germany, 126war crimes, 272

internal conflicts, 277, 282witness anonymity, 135

Takayanagi, Kenzo, 116Taliban, 337, 341targetsmilitary objectives, meaning, 295prohibited targets, war crimes, 295–7

Taylor, Charles, 185, 518, 550–2territorial jurisdiction, principle, 46–7terrorismconventions, 10, 334, 339–40definition

human rights and, 343–4liberation movements and, 339, 345, 346material elements, 345–6mental elements, 346–7overview, 342–7state terrorism, 346UNGA, 339, 340UNSC resolution, 343

extradition, 96–7global agreements, 339–40ICC jurisdiction and, 152, 343, 349–50international crimes, 349–52crimes against humanity, 351–2war crimes, 350–1

legal classification, 4, 8, 336–7legal history, 338–42military approaches, 337–8national prosecutions, 347–9

evidence, 348human rights, 347–8, 349

Index 613






terrorism (cont.)9/11 attacks, 337, 338, 342, 352overview, 336–52regional conventions, 341UNSC resolutions, 341–2

competence, 342cooperation obligations, 87definition of terrorism, 343threat to peace and security, 342

Tokyo IMTaggression, 313–14, 320, 321assessment, 118–19command responsibility, 116, 117, 118, 388composition, 115–16creation, 115crimes against humanity, 232

armed conflict nexus, 234death penalty, 494defence, 116documentary evidence, 332historical record, 32immunities and, 550judgments, 116–18liability principles

conspiracy, 367–8, 383planning, 382

no appeals, 471overview, 115–19procedures, 427Prosecutor, 115sentences, 116trial, 116–18victors’ justice, 118–19war crimes, sexual violence, 293

torture1984 Convention, 334, 353–7absolute prohibition, 352Committee against Torture, 353crimes against humanity, 251–3customary law, 251extradition and, 98–100international crime, 357jus cogens, 251, 352legal cooperation and, 93material elements, 353–5mental elements, 356national prosecutions, 356–7sexual violence, 253, 355taxonomy, 4, 8transnational crime, 353–7war crimes, 291

Touvier, Paul, 65, 83transfer of population

crimes against humanity, 249–50occupied territories, 308–9war crimes, 294, 308–9

transfer of proceedingsICTR, 141ICTY, 125, 132state cooperation, 104

transitional societies, 562–3transnational crimes

meaning, 5–6suppression conventions, 334, 335–6jurisdiction, 336

terminology, 334terrorism. See terrorismtorture, 353–7treaty crimes, 335

treachery, 306–7treaties

jurisdiction and, 46signatures, obligations, 172sources of law, 9–10suppression conventions, 10, 334, 335–6

See also transnational crimesjurisdiction, 336

treaty crimes, 335trials

in absentia, 469procedures, 469–70public hearings, 434, 469

Trinidad and Tobago, 59, 145truth commissions

ICC jurisdiction and, 158–9overview, 571–5

tu quoqueinvalid plea, 420Nuremberg IMT, 113, 114Tokyo IMT, 118

Turkey, 65, 230Tutu, Desmond, 569

UgandaICC proceedings

admissibility, 158peace and justice dilemma, 178, 583self-referral, 166suspension requests, 170

Lord’s Resistance Army, 166, 178, 583reintegration ceremonies, 577

UNAMID, 516

614 Index






uniforms, misuse, 307United Kingdom

Boer Wars, 65command responsibility, 397cooperation, statutory limitations, 90Declaration on Armenia (1915), 230defences

insanity, 406intoxication, 408superior orders, 417

extradition, 94evidence, 95extraditable offences, 96human rights, 96Rwandans, 99

ICC and war crimes, 301immunities

diplomatic immunities, 546personal immunities, 548, 558Pinochet case, 538–42

Iraq War, 324jurisdiction

irregular arrests, 101nationality and, 47passive personality principle, 50universal jurisdiction, 54war crimes, 54

legislation on international crimes, 75Lockerbie Court and, 196Nuremberg IMT and, 111prosecutions

customary law and, 74international case law and, 76limited legislation, 74post-war military trials, 120WWII cases, 65, 74

Sierra Leone intervention, 182terrorism

approach, 337military approach, 337prosecution evidence, 348state terrorism and, 346

torture, 355, 356Torture Convention and, 541universal jurisdiction

legislation, 54, 58–9Pinochet case, 57Sawoniuk case, 60Zardad case, 60

World War II bombing, 114United Nations

aggression, 314–15, 321–5cooperation, Model Treaties, 86, 99crimes against humanity, 232emblems, perfidious use, 306, 307Friendly Relations Declaration (1970), 315GA powers, 329genocide and, 203, 205, 220Human Rights Committee, amnesties

and, 564immunities, 536lustration, 575Nuremberg Principles, 113, 543peacekeeping forces

cooperation with Tribunals, 516–17East Timor, 189Kosovo, 189Rwanda, 136Sierra Leone, 182status of conflicts, 281

Security Council. See United NationsSecurity Council

on superior orders, 416terrorism

GA definition, 339, 340human rights and, 349

victimsVan Boven/Bassiouni Principles, 479,

481, 490Victims Declaration (1985), 479, 481

War Crimes Commission, 53extermination, 247

Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, 251United Nations Security Councilaccountability and, 583ICTR

completion strategy, 139cooperation obligations, 510creation, 136staffing, 138, 139war crimes in internal conflicts, 277

ICTYcompletion strategy, 131cooperation obligations, 510creation, 123–4, 126–8

International Criminal Court andaggression jurisdiction, 316, 329–31deferral of investigations/prosecutions,

169–70enforcement of decisions, 171independence, 432initiation of proceedings, 163–4, 166

Index 615






United Nations Security Council (cont.)referrals, 509Relationship Agreement, 517US challenges, 174–6

Lockerbie Court and, 196role in criminal proceedings, 440–1special tribunals and

establishment, 182–93immunities, 552–4, 556–8independence from, 432

terrorism, 87, 338competence, 342Counter-Terrorism Committee, 342definition, 343human rights and, 349resolutions, 341–2threat to peace and security, 342

use of forceauthorization, 322, 324–5self-defence, 322

United StatesAlien Tort Claims Act, 576Caroline incident, 323Civil War, 65court-martials, 66Darfur and genocide, 212extradition

denaturalization and, 67extraditable offences, 96political offences, 96UK residents, 95

Genocide Convention and, 215ICTR, cooperation with, 521immunities, 546International Criminal Court and

challenges, 174–7cooperation, 558Darfur proceedings, 164enforced prostitution, 257future, 580genocide, 206jurisdiction negotiations, 167non-surrender agreements, 176–7opposition, 171–2Rome Conference, 147Security Council resolutions, 174–6

Iraq War, 324, 571jurisdiction

nationality, 49passive personality principle, 49universal jurisdiction, 54, 59

Lieber Code, 267, 273Lockerbie Court and, 196My Lai massacres, 49, 669/11 attacks, 337, 338, 342, 352Nuremberg IMT and, 111post-war Crimes Commission, 231rendition programme, 100, 101self-defence, pre-emptive, 323terrorism

cooperation, 348military approach, 337Military Commissions, 77–9, 349prosecutions, 348–9war on terror, 337

Tokyo IMT and, 115–16, 118–19torture, definition, 354, 355

universal jurisdictionabsolute jurisdiction, 51–2amnesties and, 61, 567–8approaches, 51–2Belgium, 55–7conditional jurisdiction, 52debate, 50decline, 55–60, 581forum shopping, 60–1Geneva Conventions and, 53limiting, 57–8meaning, 50–1national practices, 58–60neo-colonialism, 61overview, 50–62political critique, 61–2practical problems, 60–1rise, 53–5

UNMIK, 189UNTAET, 189, 190–2Ušaka, Judge Anita, 212, 219use of force

humanitarian interventions, 324–5self-defence, 322–4, 408–10UNSC authorization, 322, 324–5

Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles, 479, 481, 490Vandermeersch, Damien, 56Venezuela, 165vengeance, 24–5victims

adversarial systems, 478assistance by accused, 501children, 479civil law systems, 484

616 Index






definition, 481ICC and, 479–80

assessment, 491–2definition, 481participation, 484–9procedures, 178protection, 483–4, 492reparation, 490–1, 492

ICC participationappeals, 489appropriateness, 487conditions, 485legal representation, 487overview, 484–9personal interests, 486–7purposes, 485stages of proceedings, 488–9

indirect victims, 481justice for, 30–1, 569legal persons, 481, 486parties civiles, 484protection, 440, 481–4, 492reparation

freezing assets, 490–1ICC, 490–1, 492national systems, 478

role, 439–40UN Victims Declaration (1985), 479, 481Van Boven/Bassiouni Principles, 479,

481, 490war crimes, nexus, 287–8

victors’ justice, 118–19, 583video-links, 515Vienna Declaration (1993), 257Vietnam, 185

war crimesarmed conflicts, 279–82

internal conflicts, 275–9internal conflicts or riots, 282–5international or internal, 280–2nexus, 285–6perpetrators, 286–7victims/objects, 287–8

child soldiers, use of, 309–11common elements, 279–89crimes against humanity and, 233, 586–7criminal liability, 273–4excessive civilian damage

mental element, 301–2overview, 297–302

proportionality principle, 297–8proportionality test, 299–301

humanitarian law and, 271–3grave violations, 267

ICC jurisdictional threshold, 288–9legal history, 273–5non-combatants, against

deportation, 294experiments, 291forced conscription, 294–5hostage taking, 294murder, 290–1outrages on dignity, 291–2overview, 290–5prisoners of war, 294punishment without trial, 294sexual violence, 292–3slavery and forced labour, 295torture, 291transfer of population to occupied

territories, 308–9violence and mistreatment, 290–3

offences, 289–311against non-combatants, 290–5excessive civilian damage, 279–82lists, 275, 289–90prohibited methods, 305–8prohibited targets, 295–7prohibited weapons, 303–5property crimes, 302–3terrorism, 350–1

prohibited targets, 295–7prohibited warfare methods, 305–8

human shields, 307–8misuse of flags and insignia, 307no quarters, 306treachery and perfidy, 306–7

prohibited weapons, 303–5property crimes, 302–3sentencing practice, 499

weaponsConventions, 268indiscriminate weapons, war crimes, 303–5

Webb, William, 116Webster, Daniel, 323Westphalia Treaty (1648), 563Wicquefort, A. van, 533–4Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 110, 312–13witnessesproofing, 462protection, 440, 481–4, 492

Index 617






witnesses (cont.)role, 439–40self-incrimination, 439subpoenas, 440, 513–14transfer of detained witnesses, 515video-links, 515written statements, 466

Wyngaert, Judge Christine Van den, 56

Yamashita, General, 120Yerodia case

personal immunities and national courts,547–9, 582

universal jurisdiction, 56

Yugoslavia (Former)See also ICTYconcentration camps, 369cooperation with ICTY, 130,

521, 528forced pregnancies, 257legal status of FRY, 515, 553prosecutions, 67, 68proxy forces, 282successor state, 515

Zaghawa people, 212, 225Zardad, Faryadi, 60Zimbabwe, 101

618 Index






index [assets.cambridge.org]...index abduction abuse of process, 101 eichmann exception, 101...

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