Index

Notes: bold = extended discussion or term highlighted in text; f = figure; n = endnote/footnote; t = table.

‘activity risk’ (Tenold) 220–31Adelaide 172Admiralty law 201–2Advent of Steam (Gardiner and

Greenhill, 1993) 45, 61(n18)Aegean Sea 243–4, 247–8, 250–2Aeolos Management Company

(London, 1969–) 245–6Aframax tankers 78Africa: Southern and Western

49–50t, 50t, 53–4, 56, 59Agricultural and National Bank

(Greece) 246air transport 67, 90, 124, 130, 251,

255–6t, 266Alafouzos group 240, 255tAlexander of Weedon, Lord 137,

141(n72)Alexandria 118Algeria 59Aliveri coal mine 245Allison, K. J. 219(n67)Amatori, F. 259(n5)American Civil War 3, 37, 54, 109American Revolutionary War 35American South 37

see also New WorldAmos & Smith Ltd. 206Amsden, A. H. 259(n5, n9)Amsterdam 12Andersen, W.H. 225, 233(n15)Andreadis, Captain G. H. (1875–1945)

246Andreadis, S. G. (1905–89) 246Andreadis group 240, 246–7, 255t,

261(n44–5)London office 250second generation 246–7third 247, 249

Andros 243–4, 245, 261(n40)Angerstein, J. J. 111‘Anglo-Saxon business model’ 225,

233(n16)Anglo-Saxon Petroleum

Company 225–6Annual Statement of Navigation and

Shipping of UK (1871–) 46, 48n,K51, 59, 61(n22)

Annual Statement of Trade and Navigation (UK, 1853–70) 46,48n, 59, 61(n22)

anti-competitive practices 104(n25), 170, 171

Antwerp xiv, 5–6, 22, 187tcasual labour (persistence) 151,

157(n22)competition with Rotterdam

142–57dockers (number, 1899) 143‘general cargo port’ 144outdated port infrastructure 147,

148, 150‘quickest and cheapest in Europe’

(slogan) 149response to containerization ‘much

too late’ 152Ten-Year Plan (1955–65) 148, 151type of stevedore company (versus

Rotterdam) 146World War II (effects: short-term

versus long-term) 146–51, 156–7

Antwerp: Catholic University 155(n1)

Antwerp city council 144–5, 147–8, 154

Antwerp Port Authority 148, 152–3, 155(n1)

273

274 Index

Arbeidsblad 143arbitration 115, 171Argentina 54, 59, 62(n43), 116, 120Argonauta (Newsletter of CNRS)

25(n19)Arkwright, Sir Richard 30Armstrong, J. ix, 3, 13, 25(n6,

n25–6), 43–63, 265Arnould on Marine Insurance

(1848–) 120‘Ascendancy of Sailing Ship, 1850–85’

(Graham, 1956) 45, 60(n10–11)Asia-Pacific 186, 198(n17)

busiest ports 197, 199(n39)Asian Development Bank 185‘asset risk’ (Tenold) 220–31Association of Employers

of Waterfront Labour (Australia) 168–9

Astigarraga, J. B. 240Athens 244, 246Atlantic Canada Shipping Project

(1976–82) 14–15, 21–2, 26(n29)Atlantic Ocean 44, 53, 59, 60(n11),

62(n38), 67economy 29, 104(n18)

Australasia 49–50t, 51, 55, 59, 62(n30), 63(n46)

Australia xii, xiii, 6, 20, 26(n26), 30, 52, 59, 68, 96, 120

anti-competitive arrangements 170, 171

basic data (ports/trade) 166–7economy ‘on hinge of history’

172, 178(n61)port reform 175port reform (limits) 174, 179(n68)port regulation (institutional path

dependence) 158–79waterfront industry (characteristics,

1989) 171, 178(n59)waterfront reform (1989) 172–3

Australia: Bureau of Infrastructure 173n

Australia: institutional path dependence 166–75, 177–9

entrenching self-reinforcing path dependence 169–71

regulating the waterfront 167–9

shifting to reactive path dependence 171–5

Australia: Treasury 178(n62)Australian Bureau of Statistics 169nAustralian Competition and

Consumer Commission(ACCC) 174, 179(n68)

Australian Stevedoring Industry Authority (ASIA, 1956–76) 168, 169

Australian Stevedoring Industry Board (ASIB, 1949–56) 167–8

Austria-Hungary 59Aznar & Astigarraga (firm) 241Aznar brothers 257tAznar Coste, E. (1920–81) 242–3Aznar Group (1861–) 240–3, 242,

250, 252, 258n, 261see also Basque country

Aznar Sáinz, A. 243Aznar Sáinz, E. 243Aznar de la Sota, E. (1830–1902)

240–1Aznar Tutor, A. (1865–1923) 241Aznar Tutor, E. (1860–1908) 241Aznar Tutor, L. M. (1862–1929)

241–2Aznar Zavala, I. (1898–1953) 242Aznar Zavala, J. (1904–1964) 242Aznar Zavala, J. A. (1901–1972) 242Aznar Zavala, J. L. (1896–1951) 242

‘backlash processes’ 160Backx, J. P. 156(n18)balance of payments 36t, 268–9,

272(n20)Baldwin, R. E. 41(n1)ballast 46–9, 49t, 61–2(n27), 68Baltic Co. Ltd. 115Baltic Committee 115Baltic Mercantile Exchange see

London: Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange

Baltic Sea 22, 27(n34), 40, 41, 78Baltic Society 115Banco Urquijo 242, 243Bank of Athens (1893–) 244Bank of Attica 246Bank of Greece 269

Index 275

Bank of National Economy (Greece, 1918–29) 245

Bank of Piraeus 246bankruptcy 224, 228, 243banks and banking 100, 203, 228–9,

241–2, 244–6, 251–2, 253–8t, 261(n41)

role in business groups 236Barnard, M. G. ix, 7, 200–19, 267Barnett, C. 218(n56)Barry, M. 176(n18)Barty-King, H. 115, 118, 122–3Basberg, B. 232(n1)Basque country iii, xiii, 248, 251

see also BilbaoBasque Shipowners’ Association 243Bassett, M. 176(n22)Bates, Colonel P. 130bauxite/aluminium 96, 97, 104(n32)Beckinton, J. 205Belgium 48, 59, 60(n11)Belgium: Ministry of Labour 143Belgium: National Joint

Committee 145Belgium: National Labour

Council 149Belief in Sea (Davies, 1992) 126,

139(n12, n19), 141(n57)Bellamy, J. M. 206, 217(n28,

n31–2)Beneki, H. 256nBengal 59Berge Stahl 70Bergen (Norway) 16, 18, 233(n17)Bergesen, S. 228Bilbaína de Navegación (company)

241Bilbao 240, 248, 252, 261(n31–2,

n49)see also Aznar Group

Bilbao Shipowners’ Association 241Black Sea 30, 39, 247, 248Blair, A. C. L. 127Blake, G. 114, 122(n27)Boin, A. 176(n2)Boluda group 252Bombay 59, 116Bonney, J. 178(n52)Boston Associates 37

Boyce, G. H. ix, 4–5, 7, 9(n16), 26(n26), 106–23, 200, 201, 216(n4, n9), 264

BP 127Braila (Romania) 244, 245Brautaset, C. 233(n6)Brazil 59Bremen 142Brisbane 172Britain see United KingdomBritish and Commonwealth

[company] 127British Chamber of Shipping

272(n20)British Commission (with ICMH) 20British Corporation for Survey and

Registry of Shipping (1890–1949)114

British Maritime Charitable Foundation 133, 140(n50)

British Parliamentary Papers (BPP) 49–50n, 201, 216(n14, n17)

British Shipbuilding and State since 1918 (Johnman and Murphy,2002) 126, 139(n11)

British shipping 200, 201, 216(n4, n9)‘ebb tide’ (Jamieson) 124, 138(n1)government response to decline

124–41reasons for decline (external versus

internal) 124–6source material 46–7, 61(n22–3)

British Shipping (Thornton, 1939) 44,g60(n8)

British Shipping: Challenges and Opportunities (c.1990) 136

British Shipping: Charting New Course (DETR, 1998) 137, 141(n71)

British Shipping and World Competition (Sturmey) 125, 138(n3)

Broeze, F. 2, 5, 9, 15, 26(n25–6),62(n30), 86(n21), 103(n1), 176(n17), 178(n52), 267

Brook, T. 197(n2)Brown, J. 210, 218(n50)Bruijn, J. 21, 26(n26)Bubble Act (UK, 1720–1825) 203Buenmar Compania Naviera (Piraeus,

1969–) 245

276 Index

Bugge, I. 98bulk cargoes/commodities 3, 45, 46,

52, 54–5, 57deep sea 125dry 4, 68–71, 78–9, 91, 127, 230dry (global fleet size, 1960–75) 95freight rates 91heavy 73–4, 74tlight 66n, 73–6price index 92, 104(n15)return-leg 69

bulk carriers 68–9, 74, 80,85(n13–14), 86(n31), 86–7(n33–4), 90, 242, 243

deadweight tonnage versus cargo-hold volume 74t

‘maxi-size’ 82revolution 72revolution ‘comes of age’ 70scale economies (building and

carrying costs per ton-mile) 76f, 76–7

size 72–3, 76size (average, 1930–2008) 70fsize constraints 77–8specialized 102total tonnage (1930–2008) 70f, 70

bunkers 47, 65, 72, 75, 232(n4)Bureau of Transport and

Communications Economics (BTCE, Australia) 172–3, 179(n66)

Busan 187tbusiness culture/environment

237–40, 247‘isolate city’ (Hull) 210–14, 215,

218–19key research theme 210path dependent 250–1see also culture

business cycles 6, 81, 150, 223, 267business groups 10(n17), 267

capability to combine resources for repeated industry entry 237,259(n10)

concept 7, 10(n16)contact capabilities 237core activity (reversion in times of

economic crisis) 238, 249

definition 236diversification 248‘dynastic motivations’ 239,

260(n20)formation (exogenous versus

endogenous factors) 236–7governance structures 237multi-generational 252structure and growth

strategies 238survival factors/technique 235,

238–40, 251 business groups and entrepreneurial

families (Greece and Spain) 7–8,235–62, 267

Greek (non-traditional) 255–6tGreek (traditional) 253–5tSpanish 257–8tstrategy, structure, evolution 235traditional versus

non-traditional 251business history 6–7, 200, 216(n5)British 202–3

maritime 100–3, 200Business History (journal) 6, 9(n13)Buyst, E. 155(n2)

C.D. Holmes & Co. Ltd. 206cabotage 126Cain, P. J. 106, 121(n3)Cairo 116Calcutta 52, 116Canada 3, 27(n33–4), 38, 41(n1),

44–5, 54, 59, 60(n9), 116merchant marine 233(n9)see also Atlantic Canada

Canadian Nautical Research Society (CNRS) 18, 19, 25(n19)

canals (inter-oceanic)constraint on ship sizes 78Canary Islands 242Cape of Good Hope 59Capemax bulk carriers 66tcapital 39, 41, 144, 190, 202, 238,

269, 271(n6)family ‘first source’ 250

capital costs 79, 93, 100, 221capital and labour 30, 32, 34, 227,

267

Index 277

capital management risk 233(n4)capital markets 247, 250capitalism

familial 218(n47), 236, 259(n7) ‘gentlemanly’ 106, 115, 121,

121(n3)industrial 218(n46)managerial (US model) 210

Cardiff 47, 61(n24), 245cargo 46–9, 49t, 53, 61–2(n27)captured 112

insurance risks 111cargo handlers 142, 145, 146, 148cargo handling 167containerization 152costs 78, 148, 156(n17), 221

speed ‘key factor’ 152, 153‘unnecessary complication’

(Antwerp) 144cargo liners 66t, 74t, 127cargo ships 68, 73, 246

versus mail/passenger ships 61(n25)

specialized 90cargo space/capacity 66n, 86(n31)

advantage of sailing ships (versussteamships) 60(n12)

volumes 75–6cargo tonnage 86(n25)

global growth 65‘minor tricks’ 86(n26)

Carras group 255tCastillo, A. 258n, 261(n28)casual labour 143, 145, 153–5, 161,

167, 168elimination (NZ waterfront,

1980) 164, 177(n37)opportunism-prone spot

contracting system 162persistence at Antwerp 151,

157(n22)see also decasualization

Catalogue for Guidance of Industries for Foreign Investment (PRC) 196, 199(n37)

Caves, R. E. 41(n1)Central Bureau of Statistics (Norway)

233(n11)Ceylon 16, 59

chaebol 236Chamber of Shipping (UK) 126–7,

128, 134Chambers’Journal 117Chandler, A. D. 7, 200, 210,

216(n5), 218(n46)Chandos Committee 130Chandris group 254tCharles Hellyer & Company Ltd.

(Hull, 1891–7) 209, 218(n43–4)authorized capital 209nominal capital (1891–7) 213,

219(n64)reconstitution (1897) 212–13,

217(n35), 218(n62)see also Hellyer Steam Fishing

Company Ltdchartering 116chartering agents 118Chartering Annual 72chartering process 122(n35)chartering terms 80charters

long-term 225–6, 228, 231short-term 229, 231

chemical (parcel) tankers 73, 98–100, 105(n40–50), 229

building costs 100chemicals 4, 90, 246, 265case study 89, 97–100, 102

reduction in bulk transport costs 99

Chesterfield, Earl of 207Chiang, Z. 186, 198(n19)Chicago 116Chicago University 90, 103(n6)Chifley, J. B. 167Chile 59China/PRC 54, 56, 59, 60(n11), 166,

178(n46), 252, 265, 266–7concession fees and tariffs 199container throughputs (1995–2000)

185tcustom clearance procedure 195–6

entry into WTO (2002) 196–7harbour and wharf

construction 184legal reforms (maritime

transport) 189–91, 199(n26)

278 Index

custom clearance procedure – continued

Open Door Policy 181–3open ports (1984–) 185, 192,

198(n14)port governance (challenges)

194–7, 199port problems (Chiang and Lau)

186, 198(n19)public enterprise management

187–8, 198(n21–4)public financial management

198–9seaport development (1978–2002)

6, 180–99seaports: public sector

management 184–7, 198sources of port finance 198–9transport network 186transport system (literature) 181,

197(n4)transport system (problems) 181

China: Five-Year Plans (PRC) 1858th (1991–1995) 1869th (1996–2000) 186, 188

China: Ministry of Communications(MOC) 189, 190, 192, 194f

Maritime Bureau 191, 192China: Ministry of Finance 189China: Ministry of Foreign Trade and

Economic Cooperation 182China: National People’s Congress

5th (1979) 198(n9)7th (1988) 1828th (1993) 183

China: State Council 182, 191, 192, 197(n5), 198(n10)

China: State Price Bureau 189China clipper 66tChinese Communist Party (CCP)

180, 18113th Congress (1987) 18215th Congress (1998) 183

Chios 245, 246Chiwan 185Church, R. 210Clarence, Duke of 212Clydebank 131co-operative structures 152–3

coal 40, 52, 67–9, 79, 87(n38), 104(n32), 241, 253t, 257t, 265

cargo size (increase) 72export trade 47, 61(n24), 96freight costs (different distances,

1872–2001) 81f, 81freight rates 91terminal costs (1872–2001) 82tsee also coking coal

coal-carriers 93, 94coastal shipping ix, 38, 47, 60(n12),

62(n38), 64, 65, 242‘always depended on small

vessels’ 77versus road transport 77

Coates, D. 139(n16)Cochrane & Sons 206coffee houses 110, 112, 113, 117,

122(n5)patronage (by occupational

group) 107coking coal

actions of shipping entrepreneurs 96–7

case study 89, 100, 102contracts with customers 97Colpan, A. M. 259(n5)combination carriers 95Comillas group 240, 257t, 261(n28)Commercial Bank of Greece 246, 247Commercial Bank of Near East

(London) 246commercial infrastructure (world

shipping) 4–5, 106–23, 264‘feeling’ for state of trade 108,

117, 121organization of space 121physical construction of trading

places 121specialized terminology 109,

117–18, 119, 121commodities 5, 46, 56, 88, 107, 160,

196most valuable (versus ship size) 83specific positions on exchange

trading floors 117trade volumes 79

commodity deflators 92, 93, 104(n23–4)

Index 279

commodity pricescollapse (1930s) 116

impact of freight rates 93Commonwealth Bank (Australia,

1911–) 171Commonwealth Court of Conciliation

and Arbitration (Australia) 167communications 3, 57communists 149–50, 156(n20), 168Compañía Bilbaína de Navegación

(1882–) 240companies/firms 159

internationalization 251‘maritime businesses’ 2private 7specialist and limited 7, 9(n14)

company law 202, 203, 216(n17)company records 7, 201comparative history 1, 8, 24,

28(n45)Compensatiefonds voor

bestaanszekerheid 151competition 175, 248, 267

existence of limits 238international 38‘unfair’ 129

competitive advantage 230, 237–8, 247, 252, 260(n16)

‘comparative advantage’ 121Rotterdam versus Antwerp 146

conferences 14–16, 18–20, 22, 25(n13)Conservative Governments (UK)

(1959–64) 127, 128–9, 130–1(1970–74) 127, 129, 131–2(1990–97) 136–7

Conservative Party (Spain) 242Consolidating Act (UK, 1862) 7, 203,

215Constantakopoulos group 256tConstantinople 60(n11), 246construction 150, 254t, 258tcontainer feeders 66t, 74t, 75,

86(n28)container ports

low productivity (Australia) 170, 178(n56)

container revolution 71–2, 74–5Antwerp versus Rotterdam

(1966–) 151–3, 157

PRC 184–5, 198(n8, n11)‘still in full swing’ 72–3

container shipping (1950s–) 71–3,73–80, 83, 87(n37–8), 90, 252, 265

average size 70fcellular 71, 75, 86(n29)deadweight-TEU ratios

(1986–2008) 75t, 75deadweight tonnage versus cargo-

hold volume 74tfirst-generation 66tglobal fleet 77global fleet: number of ships by

size class (1980–2008) 77fgross tonnage-deadweight ratios

(1986–2008) 75t, 75on-deck cargoes 74–5‘semi-container ships’ 71, 85(n18)size 72, 74tsize (increase, 1986–2008) 75size constraints 77–8speed 71see also liner shipping

container terminalsspecialized 152–3upstream location 153

Containerisation International Yearbook187n

containerization 5, 161, 163–4, 164f, 168, 169, 175, 178(n52), 188, 197(n4), 267–8

Antwerp versus Rotterdam 155impact on dock labour 71, 85(n17)labour-saving potential 165PRC 186

containerscustoms inspection (PRC versus

international norms) 196efficiency 71international standards (1965–) 71‘random selection’ inspection

system 196contract stevedoring (NZ) 161–2Conway’s History of the Ship 66nCook, Welton & Gemmell 206core versus periphery (manufacturing

versus raw materials) 29core-periphery globalization

(Cs16–19) 29–31

280 Index

Corfu 12corporatization 172, 187Corrigan, C. 173COSCO (PRC container shipping line:

China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company ) 184, 188

‘cost-plus’ contracts 161–2, 168cotton 30, 37, 52, 54, 116, 245Cottrell, P. L. 53, 62(n37), 201,

216(n9)Coustas group 256tCrafts, N. F. R. 84(n1)Craig, R. 12, 14, 26(n25), 57, 62(n32)cranes 71, 78, 144–7, 154

national container rates (1990–2010) 172, 173f, 173–4, 178(n65)

specialized type for container ships 152

crew agreements 14, 22crews 97, 142, 143, 192, 224, 269

accommodation 76advantage of sailing ships (versus

steamships) 60(n12)casualty rates 55

employment costs 125Cuba 248Cufley, C. F. H. 118, 120, 122(n35),

123(n47)culture 210–14, 214–15, 218–19

definition 201, 216(n6)see also business culture

Cunard 85(n9), 127, 130–2, 140, 215(n2)

government loans (1930s) 128‘sacred cow’ status 131taken over by Trafalgar House

(1971) 131currency risk 225, 228, 232(n4)customs duties 107, 121(n4)

exemptions 189customs union 37–8

Dalian 185t, 186, 187, 198(n14)Danube River 39, 244data deficiencies 65–6, 68n, 69, 69t,

84, 86(n30), 162David, P. A. 260(n25)Davies, M. 126, 139(n12, n20),

141(n57)

Davies, P. N. 13, 15, 26(n25–6), 62(n37, n39), 200, 215(n2), 233(n13)

Davies, S. 178(n47)Davis, C. J. 178(n47)Davis, R. 11, 15, 24(n2), 201,

216(n7) De Goey, F. 155(n2)De Keuster, J. 156(n18)deadweight tonnage 86(n25)

versus cargo-hold volume 73–4, 74t, 86(n26)

Deakin, B. M. 9(n12)decasualization 150–1, 154,

156–7(n21–2)see also dock labour

decentralization 183, 187, 191–4, 199(n27–30)

‘Decline in UK-Registered Merchant Fleet’ (House of Commons Transport Committee,1987–8) 124, 125, 138–41

Deddington Steamship Company Ltd. (Hull) 205

Deery, S. 178(n54)deflators 4, 92, 93, 101demography/population 34, 264,

266Deng Xiaoping 180, 182Denmark 21, 26(n26), 59, 226developing countries 197, 236,

259(n8)competition (shipping) versus

UK 124Devos, G. 176(n2)Dickens, P. 196, 199(n36)distance 30, 263

see also hauling distances‘distribution nodes’ 266diversification 163, 229, 230, 236–8,

249, 251, 252dividends 211, 221dock labour 5–6, 167, 178(n47)decasualization 150–1, 156–7(n21–2)

guaranteed supply 162‘monitoring’ versus ‘monetary

incentives’ 162, 177(n29)productivity 168stereotypical 150

Index 281

working conditions 150, 151see also internal labour markets

dock-labour organization (Antwerp and Rotterdam) 142

docks 144–6, 152–4Donovan, A. 178(n52)Driel, H. van 176(n2)‘dual leadership’

‘mainly led by local authorities’(PRC) 192

‘mainly led by MOC’ (PRC) 192Dyson, B. 217(n27)

Earle, C. 206Earle, W. 206Earle’s/Earles Shipbuilding and

Engineering Company Ltd. 206, 209, 211, 217(n28)

authorized capital 206capital (reconstituted) 207liquidation (1900) 206–7‘public company’ 211reconstitution as family business

(1901) 207, 209transformed from partnership into

company (1871) 206early Open Door Policy period (PRC,

1978–2002) 180–99economic crises 239, 245economic development 29, 184,

200, 268, 271(n17–18)economic equilibrium 31–3, 35economic growth 8, 68, 181, 200,

235, 268Australia 172, 178(n62)

‘early modern period’ (Europe)263–4

economic history 8, 11, 100–3,263

absence of shipping 263, 268–70,271–2

‘early modern period’ 9(n5)global 2, 9(n5)‘major discontinuity’ 31

economic openness 238, 248–9economic theory 21, 23, 27(n37)economics 8, 264

absence of shipping 263, 268–70,271–2

economies of scale 33, 64–87, 169, 227, 231

building and carrying costs per ton-mile 76f, 76–7

Ecuador 59Edinburgh 64, 208

efficiency 4–5, 52, 65, 73–4, 75t, 81, 172, 183–4, 187, 197(n5), 264, 271(n6)

versus visibility 266Egypt 59, 60(n11)Eisenhardt, K. M. 259(n4)Ekberg, E. ix–x, 4, 88–105, 264elasticity of demand 35, 36Eldridge on Marine Policies 120elites 107, 211, 246Ellerman, Sir John 217(n27)Embiricos, A. (1842–1924) 244Embiricos, E. (1858–1924) 244, 245Embiricos, E. G. (grandson of E. K.)

245–6Embiricos, E. K. 245Embiricos, G. 244Embiricos, G. M. (1875–1945) 245Embiricos, K. L. 244Embiricos, Captain Leonardos

(1765–) 243–4Embiricos, Leonidas (1836–1894) 244Embiricos, Leonidas (1872–1947) 244Embiricos, Maris 244Embiricos, Michalis 244Embiricos, S. G. (1868–1929) 244,

245Embiricos group (1860s–) 240,

243–6, 247, 253t, 261(n38–43)diversification (third and fourth

generations) 249fragmentation into three

branches 244–5, 249–50London office 250shipping office at Braila 244

Embiricos Shipping Agency Ltd. (London) 246

emerging markets 10(n17), 236, 259(n3, n5)

empiricism 3, 76f, 76, 197, 236, 240, 248

employers (Australian waterfront) 172

282 Index

employers’ organizations 148, 149, 150

employment 133–7, 141(n61), 160, 161, 172, 269

industry-based versus company-specific 172

permanent 168see also labour

Encyclopaedia Britannica 44, 60(n5)‘English way of life’ 211entrepreneurs 7, 51, 95, 213, 226

see also shipping entrepreneursentrepreneurship 37, 38–9,

233(n14), 237, 239Esbjerg 12Europe 36–7, 47, 60(n12), 67, 68,

78, 96, 227, 236sale of colonial produce 35

Europe: Northern 19, 49–50t, 51–3, 55, 59, 248

Europe: Southern 235–62Europe: Western 49–50t, 50, 53, 56,

59European Commission 137European Economic

Community 135Greek and Spanish entry 238UK entry (1973) 162–3

European Union 243Euskalduna Shipyards 241, 243exports 2–3, 35–6, 36t, 96, 160, 162,

166, 177(n34), 238Exports and Shipping Council (NZ)

163, 165

‘FAA’ 109Fairburn, M. 176(n17)family: ‘first source of capital’ 250family businesses 144, 200, 204–5,

207–8, 216(n5)Greek diaspora 248, 261(n48)ownership and control

combined 209–10ownership combined with

management 214survival 239, 260(n21–2)

family offices 237, 239‘Far East’ 49–50t, 50–2, 54, 56, 59,

63(n46)

Fayle, C. E. 1, 9(n2)Fearnley, T. 224Fearnley & Eger 23, 27(n36–8),

233(n13)feeder ships 83ferries 242fertilizers 97, 104(n32)Fierro group 240, 258t, 261(n28)finance (sector) 244, 247, 248Finance Act (UK, 1984) 134Findlay, R. 41(n2), 88, 91, 103(n2),

104(n25)Finland x, 21, 26(n26)

transport statistics 84–5(n3)first-mover advantage 3, 41fiscal policy 136–7Fischer, Professor L. R. xi, 1, 2, 8,

8–9(n1), 9(n10), 11–28, 85(n4), 88, 103, 105(n51), 138(n3), 155(n1), 178(n63), 215, 200, 215(n1), 223, 224, 232, 233(n7–9, n13–14), 234(n25), 264, 270, 270–1(n6–7), 272(n23–4)

career achievement (peroration) 23–4

contribution to maritime history (three aspects) 13–24, 25–8

‘disc jockey in New York’ 25(n8)encouragement for maritime

history 19–20encouragement to scholars and

organizations 13, 20–1history department (Memorial

University, 1976–) 14honorary doctorate (Liverpool,

2005) 25(n5)influences 15‘innate modesty’ 13, 20loyalty to Memorial

University 20–1nickname (‘Skip’) 13, 25(n7)propulsion to maritime

history 13–20publications 14publishing role 13–20research work 13, 21–3role in IMEHA 12–13Secretary-General of the

ICMH 20

Index 283

support for young scholars (and others) 20–1

visiting scholar 20fisheries/fishing 35, 40, 201, 204–5flags of convenience 90, 266Fletcher, R. A. 60(n7)flexibility 5, 6, 239Fon, A. M. 224, 233(n13)foreign direct investment (FDI)

181–3, 186, 188, 196, 199(n32)see also investment

foreign exchange 34f, 35, 40Forum (IJMH, 1989–) 17, 25(n18)France 37, 48, 53, 59, 60(n11),

62(n38), 108, 248, 265regional allocation

(imperfections) 59Francoist regime (Spain) 242–3,

249free discharge (FD) 80, 81, 87(n38)free in and out (FIO) 80–1, 87(n38)freight costs 79, 263, 269

commodity-deflated indices 93, 104(n23–4)

measures (adequacy) 89real rates 92–4

‘freight factor’ (deflator) 92, 93freight-rate indices (bias) 94freight rates x, 2, 4, 46, 101, 102,

128, 148, 162, 168, 220, 222f, 222, 229, 241, 264

appropriate deflator 92depressed (1973–c.1988) 228differing conclusions 91–2nominal versus real values 92peaks (late 1960s, early 1970s)

227–8post-war era 89–95, 103–5see also shipping costs

Fremantle Harbour Trust 170Fremantle Port Authority 168,

178(n48)Friedman, W. A. 216(n5)fruit 52, 242Fu, X. 198(n13)fuel 79, 91, 93, 94Full Steam Ahead: Maritime Strategy

(Prescott, 1993) 137, 141(n68)Furness [shipping company] 127

furs 35, 120Fusaro, M. 9(n5), 42(n8)

Gambia 59Gandarias Urquijo family 242Gardiner, R. 45Garrod, P. 87(n34, n36)Garrway’s coffee house 107Gartland, M. P. 176(n1)GDP deflator 92Geddes Committee (1965–6) 132,

140(n39)gender history 200general cargo 70f, 82–3, 90, 144,

146, 148, 153, 154General Council for British Shipping

(GCBS) 133–4, 136‘gentlemanly capitalism’ (Cain and

Hopkins) 106, 115, 121, 121(n3)

geographical constraints 82, 83geographical location 36–7, 269Germany xii, 20, 21, 26(n26), 48,

59, 62(n38), 108, 209Gianitsis, T. 260(n17)Gibraltar 59Giffard, A. 61(n16)Giffen, Sir Robert 269, 271(n19)Glasgow 113, 114, 130global economic integration 8

contribution of shipping 263–8,270–1

preconditions (Fischer and Nordvik) 264

global economy 1, 2–3, 40–1‘international economy’ 95‘world economy’ 5, 43, 57

globalization 2, 4, 9(n4), 23, 28(n44), 41, 43, 65, 85(n4–5, n17), 166–7, 171–2, 183

core-periphery (Cs16–19) 29–31driving force (C19 versus C20) 88literature 29nineteenth century 88, 90shipping businesses

‘forerunner’ 267Glover, J. 62(n45)Gold Coast 59Goldfinch, S. 177(n41)

284 Index

Goss, R. O 76n, 125, 126–7, 136,139(n14–15), 139–40(n24–5)

Goulandris group 240, 254tgovernments: general 5, 23, 28(n42),

104(n25), 112, 237, 251close relations with business

groups 238–9, 249, 250, 252intervention (economic) 237, 238maritime policy 266role 2, 264

governments: specific countriesAustralia 158, 168, 169, 173–4, 176Australia (federal) 167, 172, 175Australia (state) 167, 175Belgium 148, 149Netherlands 147, 149New Zealand 160, 161, 163–6,

174–5, 177(n41)PRC 6, 180–97, 198(n21),

199(n37)PRC (central/national) 181, 194fPRC (local/regional) 181, 188,

191, 194fUK 5, 124–41, 174–5, 266

Graebner, M. E. 259(n4)Graham, G. S. 44–5, 53, 57,

60(n10–12), 61(n21), 62(n36), 63(n45)

grain 22, 27(n34), 29, 30, 39, 40, 52, 54–5, 66, 73, 79, 96–7, 104(n15, n32), 115, 144, 146, 241, 244

cargo size (increase) 72freight costs (different distances,

1872–2001) 80f, 81, 87(n36–7)freight rates 91shipping costs 4terminal costs (1872–2001) 82t

grain carriers 93, 94Granovetter, M. 259(n5)Great Eastern (Brunel, 1858) 67Great Northern Steamship Fishing

Company Ltd. (1880–) 207–8,209, 211, 217(n36–9), 218(n55)

membership restrictions 211ownership and management 208

Greece 3, 8, 20, 21, 26(n26), 31,38–40, 42(n7–10), 59, 105(n32),200, 216(n5)

access to capital 250

‘leading shipping nation of world’ 259(n2)

military dictatorship (1967–74) 247, 249, 250

and Spain (business groups, Cs19–20) 8, 235–62

Greek diaspora 248, 250Greek shipping 226Greek Shipping Co-operation

Committee (London) 246Green, A. 176(n20, n22)Greenhill, B. 14, 45, 61(n16)‘gross rate’ principle 81grupos económicos (Latin

America) 236Guangdong Province 193, 194fGuangzhou 185t, 198(n13–14)Guillén, M. F. 238, 259(n5, n10),

260(n13, n17)Gulf of Finland 78Gulliver, M. 19

Hahn-Pedersen, M. 26(n26)Hamburg 60(n11), 142, 152,

155(n1), 156(n18), 187tHamre, H. 26(n26)hanseatic tradition 145Haritatos, M. 256nHarlaftis, G. x, 1–10, 16, 26(n26),

42(n7–10), 103(n1), 105(n32), 197(n1), 200, 216(n5), 235–62,263–72

Harley, C. K. x, 2–3, 14, 25(n11), 28–42, 44, 45, 52–3, 54, 57, 61(n13–15, n21), 62(n33–4), 264–5

Harrower, J. 217(n27)Harvard School 200hauling distances 79, 87(n36)

short-distance trades 47–8Heath, C. 109, 110, 122(n18)Heathcoat-Amory, D. 130Heerma van Voss, L. 178(n47)Hellyer, C. 208, 209, 212, 213,

219(n64)Hellyer, F. O. 209Hellyer, H. A. 209Hellyer, J. E. 209Hellyer, J. W. 208, 209

Index 285

Hellyer, O. S. 209Hellyer, R. 208, 209Hellyer, S. H. 209Hellyers Steam Fishing Company Ltd.

(Hellyers SFC, 1897–1919) 207–8, 209, 217(n35), 218(n44)

authorized capital 209capital and shares (1897) 213,

219(n64)reconstitution of Charles Hellyer &

Company Ltd. 212–13, 218(n62)

see also Charles Hellyer & Company Ltd.

Henley and Son 201Henning, G. 26(n26)Hesselink, L. 178(n47)Hikino, T. 259(n5, n9)Hinkkanen, M-L. 26(n26)Hispano Americano Bank 242, 243historical profession 24, 200,

215(n1)historical sociology 159, 176(n10)historiography 23, 28(n45), 103(n1),

263, 270(n3)British business history 202–3British shipping decline

(government policy) 126–7decline of British maritime

economic power 124, 138(n3)legal framework 201–2maritime business history 200maritime history as international

economic history 100–3shipping and freight rate

developments (post-war era) 89–95

subjectivity 46, 57–8transition to steam 56–7transition to steam

(‘gradualness’) 43–6US merchant marine 62(n42)world shipping (development of

commercial infrastructure) 106–8, 121–2

History of Steam Navigation (Kennedy,1905) 44, 60(n7)

Ho, V. 197(n2)Hodder, C. 209

holding companies 237, 239see also joint-stock companies

Holland see NetherlandsHolm, P. 26(n26)‘home trades’ 53, 59, 62(n38)Hong Kong xii–xiii, 186, 194,

198(n15)loss of market share 185world’s leading container port

(2000) 187tHope, R. 138(n3)Hopkins, A. G. 106, 121(n3)horizontal integration 146, 153, 247Hoste, S. 155(n2)hotels 242, 245House of Commons: Defence

Committee (1988 report) 135, 141(n60)

House of Commons: EmploymentCommittee (1992) 135–6, 141(n61)

House of Commons: TransportCommittee 124, 125, 133–5,136, 138–41

Hovis (company) 116Huchet, J. F. 195, 199(n34)Hull (Kingston-upon-Hull) ix, xii,

219(n67)business behaviour in ‘isolate

city’ 210–14, 215, 218–19maritime business sector

(c.1860–1914) 7, 200–19, 267‘ninth-largest ship-owning port’

(UK, 1913) 204private business mentalité 204–10,

217–18private companies, culture, and

place 200–19‘third-largest port’ (UK, early

C20) 204–5trawl fishery (1850–1914) 207–9,

211, 212, 215, 217–18Hull: Tranby Croft (mansion) 212Hull area: Beverley, Cottingham,

Hessle 208Hull Steam Fishing and Ice Company

Ltd. (Hull SFIC, 1880–) 207–8, 208–9, 211, 217–18(n40–1), 218(n55)

286 Index

hulls‘double hulls’ 75insurance risks 111of iron 52of metal 202, 204of steel 52, 207

human resources 191, 237–8, 248, 252Hummels, D. 90–2, 103(n6)Humphreys and Pearson’s 206Hutchison Port Holdings (HPH)

178(n55), 186, 196Hyde, F. E. 11, 24(n2), 200, 215(n2)hydrodynamics 65, 85(n6)

Ibaizabal Management Services 243Imlah, A. H. 272(n20)imperialism 29, 121(n3), 180imports 34f, 34–6, 36tIn-Principle Agreement (IPA,

Australia, 1989) 172India 16, 22, 27(n33), 29, 49–50t,

50–2, 54–5, 59, 60(n11), 63(n46), 68, 116, 236

Indian Ocean 54indicated horsepower (ihp) 206Indonesia 96industrial relations 167, 168, 170,

173, 178(n54)see also strikes

industrial relocation 96–7, 101, 153, 263, 266, 270(n2)

Industrial Revolution 30, 41, 106, 200, 216(n3)

‘industrial shipping’ 230, 232industrialization 203, 227, 236,

259(n9), 269industry 242, 244, 246, 257tIndustry Act (UK, 1972) 127industry associations 120information dissemination 4, 5, 23,

28(n41), 106–8, 112, 120–1, 270information technology 233(n4)infrastructure 145–6, 198(n23), 264innovation processes 94–5innovations 264, 265–6input costs 91, 92, 93–4‘Inquiry into British Shipping’

(Rochdale Committee, 1970) 124–5, 127, 138–40

institutional change/s 90frame-breaking 159technological change ‘classic

driver’ 168trigger points 175institutional path dependence 6,

158–79Australia 166–75, 177–9NZ 160–6, 176–7institutional reform (PRC) 182,

184–8, 198institutions 222, 232

‘discontinuous changes’ 159facilitative of growing trade

106formal and informal 264inertia 195–6stability and change 158, 159,

176(n2)transformations 99see also organizations

Instone (air charters) 116insurance 41, 117, 120, 222, 224,

226, 231, 233(n4), 241, 245–7, 251, 253–8t

non-marine sector 109, 110see also Lloyd’s of London

insurance ‘binders’ 109insurance brokers 113, 122(n35)insurance risk 109, 111–12insurance ‘slips’ 109, 110, 111,

122(n19)Interim Regulations (PRC, 1985) 184,

189, 192, 198(n10)internal labour markets (ILMs)

160–4, 166, 168see also naties

International Commission for Maritime History (ICMH) 20

International Congress of Maritime History (quadrennial, 1992–) 12,13

International Congress of Economic History

Berne (1986) 15, 16, 25(n14)Leuven (1990) 15, 16, 17, 20Milan (1994) 22, 27(n35)

International Congress of Historical Sciences 20

Index 287

International Economic History Association 19–20, 26(n24)

International Financial Statistics (IMF) 104(n15)

international integration see globalization

International Journal of Maritime History (IJMH, 1989–) 12, 13, 17–19, 20, 23, 24, 25(n4, n15), 28(n45–6), 59, 63(n48), 88, 103

international load line convention see load line revision (1966)

International Maritime Economic History Association (IMEHA,1988–) xiii, 12–13, 15, 18, 19–20, 26(n24), 88, 103(n1)

International Ship RegistersDanish and Norwegian 94

inventory costs 79, 82investment 39, 41, 144–7, 152, 154,

170–1, 174, 183, 188, 191–2, 195–6, 198(n23), 211, 216(n9), 223, 226–7, 233(n17), 241–2, 244–5, 248

conservative pattern 224diversification 229, 230

in shipping (core task) 221, 232investment banks 250‘investment choice’ 222f, 225investment risk 102invisible earnings/exports 268–9,

272(n20)Ionian and Popular Bank 246Ionian Sea iii, x, 247–8, 250iPod 265, 271(n10)Iran 67Irish Republican Army 115iron 3, 30, 41, 52, 73, 205, 241iron ore 68, 92, 96, 104(n15, n32),

241, 248iron ships 37, 113, 142iron works 242iron-screw steamer 53ISL 75n, 77nIsle of Man 125n‘isolate city’ (Hull) 213, 219(n66)Isserlis, L. 271–2(n19–20)Italy 59, 259(n5), 260(n20)

Jackson, G. 13, 23, 26(n25–6), 27(n40)

Jamieson, A. G. 124, 138(n1)Jane’s Merchant Ships 86(n22)Jansson, J. O. 87(n34)Janzen, O. U. 18Japan 16, 54, 56, 59, 67, 68, 99, 101,

166, 227, 236steel industry 96–7

Jarvis, A. 23, 26(n26)Jebsen, P. 223, 232, 233(n8),

234(n25)Jenkins, G. 130Jerusalem coffee house (London)

107, 115, 119Jessop, B. 195, 199(n31)Jiangsu Province 193Johansen, H. C. 26(n26)John Brown’s (Clydebank) 131Johnman, L. 103(n1), 126, 139(n11,

n19), 140(n34)Johnsen, B. E. 26(n26)joint-stock companies 109, 202, 207,

215see also limited liability companies

Joint-Stock Companies Act (UK, 1844) 203

joint-ventures 184–5, 187–92, 196Jonathan’s coffee house 107Jones, C. D. 76nJones, G. 7, 9–10(n16), 213,

219(n65), 259(n5)‘Julians’ (insurance ‘slips’) 111just-in-time principle 79

Kaohsiung (Taiwan) 187tKaramanlis governments (1950s,

1970s) 246, 247, 249Kaukiainen, Y. x, 3–4, 14, 25(n11),

26(n25–6), 43, 60(n2), 64–87,91–2, 104(n12–14, n21), 108, 122(n13), 227, 265–6, 271(n7–8)

real freight rates 93–4, 104Kavussanis, M. G. 221, 232(n3)Kendall, M. G. 272(n20)Kendall, P. M. H. 86–7(n33–4),

87(n36)Kennedy, J. 44, 60(n7)Kennerley, A. 26(n26)

288 Index

Khana, T. 10(n17), 235–6, 259(n3,n5–6), 260(n11)

Kiær, A. N. 223, 233(n5)Kingston-upon-Hull see HullKirkaldy, A. 114, 122(n28)Kloster, L. 224, 233(n14)Knight, F. 271(n14)Kock, C. J. 238, 260(n13)Koopmans, T. 9(n12)Korea 252Korean War (1950–3) 67, 180Koryzis, A. 246Koumoundouros, A. 244Kresse, W. 26(n26)Krugman, P. 272(n22)Kuipers, S. 176(n2)Kulukundis family 245Kulukundis group 253tKunz, A. ix, 62(n38)Kutchuk-Kainardji Treaty (1774) 39

Labor Party (Australia) 167–8labour

maritime/seafaring 14, 22,28(n45)

non-union 174labour costs 145, 154, 162–6, 170,

177(n39)Antwerp ‘uncompetitive’ 150NZ 162‘wage costs’ 93–4World War II (effects) 148–50,

156–7see also wages

Labour Governments (UK)(1964–1970) 127, 129, 131(1974–1979) 127(1997–2010) 137–8

labour markets 5, 159, 172external 175maritime 27(n35)national and international

maritime 21labour organizationAntwerp versus Rotterdam 154–5further research required 154World War II (effects) 150–1,

156–7Labour Party 137, 141(n68)

Labour Pool (dock labour,1918–) 150, 151

labour productivity 64, 94labour shortages 161, 164, 174labour-based transformation

costs 162, 177(n30)Lagos 59Lam, J. S. L. 198(n13)land transport 99, 108, 190land-based facilities 99land-sea interface 4‘landlord’ model (PRC) 185, 192,

198(n12)Lange, E. x–xi, 4, 26(n26), 85(n4),

88–105, 138(n3), 264Langlois, R. N. 260(n26)Larkin, P. 213, 219(n66)Latin America 236Latsis group 240, 255tLau, D. 186, 198(n19)Le Havre 142, 155(n1)Lee, C. H. 106, 121(n2)Leeds-Bradford 213Leff, N. H. 259(n8)Leith 64Lemayeur, B. 155(n1)Lemos group 254tLevant 38, 42(n8), 53liabilities

‘several’ versus ‘joint’ 109Liberal Country Party (Australia) 168Liberal Party (Australia) 173Liberty ships 66t, 67, 74t, 95, 102,

246coking coal trade (1950) 96–7

Limited Liability Act (UK, 1856) 203limited liability companies 214,

216(n17)ownership (and retention of

control) 203–4Lindsay, W. S. 44, 60(n6)liner companies 127–8liner freights 128liner services 57liner shipping 71, 87(n34)liner trades 125, 241linseed 116, 117liquid gas tankers 73, 90, 229liquidity risk 232–3(n4)

Index 289

Livanos group 240, 254tLiverpool 62(n37), 113, 122(n7),

201, 216(n3), 248Liverpool: ICMH (1992) 12Liverpool docks 23, 27(n39)Liverpool School (maritime history)

6, 9(n13, n15), 24(n2), 200see also maritime economic history

Lloyd, E. 107, 108, 112Lloyd’s Act (UK, 1870) 109Lloyd’s coffee house (London) 107,

108Lloyd’s Committee 109–10, 113Lloyd’s List (1726–) 113Lloyds of London 5, 106, 108–12,

117, 119, 122(n16–26)legislative foundations (1720–)

108–9motto 114‘national institution’ (early C19

onwards) 112physical layout 110–11‘quasi-regulatory agency’ 114see also maritime insurance

Lloyd’s of London: Captain’s Register 112

Lloyd’s of London: Intelligence Section (1850–) 112

Lloyd’s of London: Statistical Committee (1867–) 112

Lloyd’s Policy Signing Office 110Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign

Shipping (1833–) 112–14,122(n27–32)

headquarters 113origins 113

Lloyd’s Register of Shipping 98, 105(n40), 106, 108

Lloyd’s Salvage Association 111–12Lloyd’s Shipping Economist 91tLloyd’s statistics 68–70n

deficiencies 69load line regulations 73, 113, 114load line revision (1966) 67–9,

74–5, 85(n12, n27)local authorities (PRC) 191, 195lock-in (concept) 159, 176

institutional 5, 6, 160–1, 167, 171, 174–5

London 5, 64, 106, 136, 208, 245–8centre of global shipping

industry 121commercial infrastructure

(longevity) 121importance to business

executives 119information-related

advantages 121IRA bombing (1992) 115miscellaneous markets and

infrastructure elements 120,123(n52)

London: Baltic Mercantile and Shipping Exchange 5, 106, 114–19, 122–3, 241

barometer of business conditions 117

‘best market prices’ 118‘clearing house for cereal produce

of world’ 115dealing locations 117hierarchy of members (efficiency

effects) 118‘one-stop shop’ 117standardized contracts (1878–)

117–18tacit knowledge 118trading in specific goods (‘calls’) 117

London: City of London 107, 108, 113, 118, 245

London: Embiricos family office 244, 245

London: Greenwich xi, 12London: Leadenhall Street 108London: Lime Street 108London: Royal Exchange 108, 114,

119‘walks’ 117

London: St. Mary’s Axe 115London: Virginia and Baltick[yes]

coffee house (1744–) 114London Corn Exchange 116, 119London Grain Futures

Association 116London Metal Exchange (LME) 119,

123(n49–51)premises 119trading ‘ring’ 119

290 Index

London offices 250London Shipping Exchange 115London Stock Exchange 117, 119

‘pitches’ 117Long Beach 187tLorange, P. 228, 234(n23)Los Angeles 187tLowell (Massachusetts) 37Lower, A. R. M. 42(n4)Loyen, R. 155(n1–2)Lucassen, J. 263, 270(n4–5)Ludwig 270Lykiardopoulos group 253tLyne tariff (1908) 171

Macgregor, J. 141(n66)Mackintosh, W. A. 41(n1)Macmillan, H. 130Madras 59Maersk Line 72, 186Magasins à Grains d’Anvers

(SAMGA) 144Mahoney, J. 159, 164n, 176(n10)mail 47, 51, 57, 60(n12), 61(n25),

265Maine 38maize 116, 117Major, J. 136Malaga 118Malta 59, 60(n11)Malthus, T. 213Malthusian dynamic 2, 33–8man-ton ratios 76management (and ownership) 202,

203–4, 216(n11)management firms 250manufactured goods 105(n32), 163,

264, 265manufacturing 3, 29, 37–8, 42(n6),

215, 251, 253–6tMao Zedong 180, 191Marine Insurance Act (UK, 1724)

108–9Maritime Code (PRC, 1992) 187, 190maritime economic history 2, 200

comparative approach 21–2, 23emergence as specific

discipline 11–12Fischer 11–28

as international economichistory 100–3

literature 14shifts (post-war era) 89state of the art (‘still some way to

go’) 270, 272(n24)as sub-discipline 23, 28(n45)

Maritime Economic History Group 15

maritime historians’ community 26(n26)

Maritime History (journal) 12maritime industries: context 24maritime skills 135–6, 141(n61)‘minimum training obligation’ 137maritime transport

laws, regulations, guidelines(PRC) 190–1

legal reforms (PRC) 189–91, 199(n26)

literature 1–2world’s key industry (Fayle) 1, 9(n2)

Maritime Union of Australia (MUA, 1989–) 169, 171, 174

market efficiency 264, 271(n6)market failure 102, 175market forces 29, 127, 264market imperfections 236–8, 247–8market incentives 182market internationalization 259(n2)Market for Seamen (Fischer, ed.,

1994) 19, 25(n23)‘Market for Seamen in Age of Sail’

(Milan conference, 1994) 22market structure

concentrated 167, 169–70, 171markets 6, 88, 106

domestic versus international 38, 40

financial 5international integration 2, 9(n4)size and growth 83

Marples Memorandum 128–9, 133Marriner, S. 215(n2)Marshall Plan funding 147Martin, F. 109Martin Samuelson & Co. 206Martinos group 255tMatthews, K. 25(n13)

Index 291

McCusker, J. J. 34, 41(n3)meat 29, 54, 62(n43), 120media 251, 255tMediterranean 19, 52, 53, 60(n11),

62(n38), 247, 269triumph of steam (later than

previously supposed) 53Mediterranean: Eastern 49–50t, 50,

56constituent countries 59

Mediterranean: Western 49–50t, 50, 56, 59, 248

members of parliament 206, 249‘memory bank’ 240, 251, 260(n26)Menard, R. R. 34, 41(n3)merchant houses 236merchant navy reserve scheme

(UK) 134merchant shipping/ships 6, 11,

28(n45), 44, 60(n6), 65, 66t, 102cruising speeds 65, 66t, 85(n6)global tonnage 65size (increase, 1880–2008) 65, 66tsteamship 45, 61(n18)

Merok, E. xi, 4, 88–105, 264Mersey Docks and Harbour Board

(1857) 170Michalinos group 253tMichie, R. C. 122(n12)microeconomic reform 158, 172,

175microeconomics 6–8, 9–10(n12–17),

142Middle East 227Middleton, R. 139(n16)migration 23, 28(n43), 265Miklius, W. 87(n34, n36)Mill, J. S. 213Milne, G. 107, 122(n6–9)Minchinton, W. E. 27(n32, n36)mineral exports 166minimum value clause 228–9mining 241–2, 244, 253–4t, 257–8t‘minor bulk products’ 104(n32–3)Modern Terminals Ltd. (MTL) 186Mohammed, S. I. S. 91, 93, 103(n9)monopolies 144, 167, 169, 171, 174,

214Morocco 59, 116

motorships 113, 225Mottershead, P. 139(n16)MS Aila 86(n28)MT Freddy (1955–) 98, 105(n41)yMulatu, A. 84(n1)multinational corporations 183, 187,

188, 190, 196, 270municipal governments (PRC) 192Murphy, H. 98, 99, 103(n1, n3), 105,

126, 139(n11, n19), 140(n34)

Naess, E. D. 96–7, 100, 105(n35)Nakagawa, K. 15names (underwriters) 109–10, 111natie companies 143–5, 146, 152–3,

154naties (Antwerp) 142–3, 155(n3)

see also port labourNational Archives (previously Public

Record Office), UK 14, 126, 139(n13)

National Party (Australia) 173National Ports Council (UK,

1964–81) 175, 179(n70)National Ports Plan (Australia,

2010–) 175, 179(n71)national traits 211–13nationalism 188, 259(n2)nationalization 191, 247, 249, 250natural resources 264–5

see also raw materialsNaviera Aznar 243Naviera Sota & Aznar 241Navigation Acts 37, 126

repealed (UK, 1850) 201, 216(n9)Nerheim, G. 26(n26)Netherlands 21, 26(n26), 40, 48, 59,

60(n11), 137central incomes policy 149, 150government investment (Rotterdam

port) 145see also Rotterdam

networking 14–15, 21, 26(n26), 110networks 7, 252

global production 264Greek family businesses 248international 239–40, 251see also trade networks

‘new economic geography’ 269

292 Index

New England 3, 31, 34balance of payments (1768–72) 36teconomic situation 37–8

New Hampshire 38New Labour 127New Orleans 52New World 31, 32f, 34, 266‘new world of shipping’ 43New York 96, 116, 170New York Times 99, 212, 218(n60)New Zealand xii, 6, 26(n26), 59,

120, 167, 168currency devaluation (1967) 163dependence on UK market (freefall,

1950–81) 163economic diversification (1973–)

163export-led growth 162exports 163GDP loss (due to high shipping

costs) 166, 177(n43pastoral exports 163, 177(n34)port regulation (institutional path

dependence) 158–79productivity (port labour, 1976–88)

165t, 165regulating port labour markets

160–6, 176–7New Zealand: Treasury

Department 166, 177(n43)New Zealand Association of

Waterfront Employers (1981–) 165

New Zealand Business Roundtable 165, 166, 177(n42)

New Zealand Overseas (Conference)Lines 162

New Zealand Ports Authority (1968–88)175, 179(n70)

New Zealand Shipping Company177(n28)

Newcastle (UK) ix, 61(n24)Newcastle Stevedores

(Australia) 178(n55)Newfoundland 59Newsletter of Maritime Economic History

Group (1987–) 16, 17, 25(n14)Ng, A. K. Y. xi, 6, 180–99, 266–7Niarchos group 251, 255t

Nijhof, E. 156(n19)Ningbo 185t, 194, 198(n14)noise 116–17Nomikos group 254tnon-bulk trades 53, 62(n35)Norden (Danish company) 221,

232–3(n4)Nordvik, H. W. (19433-–1998) 1,

8, 8–9(n1), 15–18, 19, 22, 23,24(n1), 25(n15, n17, n21), 26–8,103, 105(n51), 223, 224, 232, 233(n7–9, n14), 234(n25), 264, 270, 270(n6), 272(n23–4)

Norman, V. D. 228, 234(n22–3)North, D. C. 6, 11, 24(n3), 92,

104(n16), 121(n1), 159, 176(n3), 177(n30), 268, 271(n17)

North America 30, 48, 49–50t, 51, 55, 96

balance of payments (1768–72) 36t

colonial era 271(n18)constituent countries 59‘crucial decade’ (1880s) 56Middle Colonies 3, 34, 36t

North Atlantic 52, 62(n41), 233(n7)economic integration 23, 28(n44)grain 52shipping 21, 26(n27)

North Atlantic Shipping Act (UK, 1961) 131

North Sea 22, 28(n41–2), 60(n11), 148, 217(n27), 269

Northern Colonies (Malthusian dynamic) 33–8

Northern Mariner/Le Marin du Nord (journal, 1991–) 18, 25(n19–20)

Northern Stevedoring Services 178(n55)

Norway x–xi, xiii, 3, 7, 20, 21,26–7(n26), 27(n34–5), 31, 40, 53, 59, 98, 137

capital and labour (relative price) 227

export ports 27(n40)imports and exports 223, 233(n6)merchant marine (fourfold

expansion, 1850–70) 223shipbroking 23

Index 293

Norwegian Guarantee Institute for Ships and Drilling Vessels Ltd. 234(n24)

Norwegian International Ship Register (1987–) 230

‘Norwegian Sailors in Canadian Merchant Marine’ 22, 26(n31)

Norwegian School of Economics (NHH,Bergen) iii, 16–17, 25(n16)

Norwegian shipping 220–34crisis of 1970s and 1980s 227,

234(n20)‘laggards to leaders’ 225, 233(n15)oil tankers 225–6, 233–4(n15–18)part-ownership system 223,

233(n7)risks and rewards (long-term

synthesis) 230–2tanker-owners (risk preference)

228, 234(n23)traditional business model 220

Norwegian Shipping News 91, 94

Oakland 170Oasis of Seas (2009) 85(n9)Ocean Freights and Chartering (Cufley,

1962) 120, 122(n35)ocean shipping 29, 65, 66n, 75, 83,

89, 106, 264technological change 90transport costs 90–1, 103(n6)

Odfjell 99, 105(n46), 221, 232(n4)OECD 125, 265oil 78–9, 104(n32), 144, 227, 258t

‘petroleum’ 265oil companies 225, 231oil crises (1970s) 69, 71–2, 93, 94oil refineries: location 67oil tankers 66t, 69–70, 71, 74, 96,

113, 127, 226–9, 231, 234, 242,246, 251

building costs 100deadweight tonnage versus cargo-

hold volume 74t‘enjoy full scale advantages even in

port’ 78–9‘maxi-size’ 82Norwegian (inter-war era) 225–6,

231f, 231, 233–4(n15–18)

Scandinavian owners (risk preference) 228, 234(n23)

size 67–8, 77, 85(n11–12), 227size (average, 1950–80) 68t, 68size revolution ‘comes of age’ 70total fleet (1950–80) 68t, 68total tonnage (1930–2008) 70f, 70see also tankers

Old World trading connections 31,41(n2)

On Reform of Economic Structures (CCP,1984) 182, 187

Onassis group 251, 255t, 270open-cry dealing 108, 110, 116–17,

119, 122(n10)operating costs 93, 230opportunity costs 82optimal ship size theory 78–9, 82,

84, 86–7(n33–4), 87(n36)ore carriers 66t, 67, 68–9ore-bulk carriers 69, 69tore-bulk-oil carriers (OBOs) 69, 69t,

70nores 52, 73, 79, 97‘organizational determinism’

(Scranton) 210–11organizations

stability and change 158, 176(n2)Oropos coal mine 245O’Rourke, K. H. 9(n4), 41(n2), 88,

91, 103(n2), 104(n25)Ottoman Empire 38, 42(n8), 243‘our word is our bond’ 115ownership (versus control) 209–10ownership (and

management) 203–4, 208

P&O 127, 131, 136Pacific Ocean 67, 72Pakistan 236Pallis, A. A. 198(n22)Palmer, S. xi–xii, 5, 15, 26(n26),

45, 61(n21, n24), 124–41, 201,216(n9), 266

Panama Canal 72, 78, 97Panamax bulk carrier 66t, 78Panting, G. E. 18, 25(n13, n21),

60(n9)parcel sizes 79, 82, 83

294 Index

Parkinson, M. 178(n62)part-ownership system 223, 230,

233(n7)partnerships 204, 207

‘inherent adaptability’ 202–3‘kaleidoscopic nature’ 205Norway 223

‘private partnerships’ 7, 239passenger liners 49, 54, 73, 127, 242

cargo space 65–7, 85(n7)‘cruise ships’ 67, 73, 85(n9), 242size 67, 85(n7)speeds 67

passengers 47, 51, 57, 60(n12), 61(n25), 125

path dependence 158, 176(n1), 240, 250–1, 252, 260(n25)

historical sociology 159, 176(n10)institutional 6

port regulation 158–79‘self-reinforcing’ versus ‘reactive’

(NZ) 160–2, 162–6‘self-reinforcing’ versus ‘reactive’

(Australia) 168, 169–75‘self-reinforcing’ versus ‘reactive’

(Mahoney) 159–60, 176(n11)Patrick Corporation 173–4, 178(n55)Payne, P. L. 202–3, 216(n11),

217(n21)Pearl River Delta (PRD) 185, 186,

198(n13, n20)Pearson Committee (1966–7) 132,

140(n40)Performance and Competitiveness of

Seaports in Transformation (HKproject) 197(n1)

periphery 3, 28–42, 265Persian Gulf 67, 78Persson, K. G. 91, 92, 103(n10, n18)Peru 59Petersen, F. S. 224Piraeus 245, 247, 269Piraeus: Vassiliadis Shipyards and

Mechanical Works 245Pirounakis, N. 260(n17)Plimsoll’s load line 113

see also load line revisionPolemis group 255tpolitical-institutional research 142

politics 237, 239, 241–5, 249, 261(n39), 266

Pollard, S. 62(n35)pollution 192Polónia, A. 9(n5, n7)port authorities 120, 142, 167,

169–72, 174, 187, 191, 192–3, 196

management practices (Australia) 170–1

port charges 78, 82, 86(n26), 125, 148–9, 156(n16), 170

port costs 81, 84, 91, 94port development 2

Interim Regulations (PRC, 1985) 184, 198(n10)

port employersAustralia 168 NZ 160, 165, 177(n40)

Port Employers’ Association (NZ) 163

port facilities 97port finance

sources (PRC) 188–9, 199(n25)port geography 172port governance

empirical evidence (PRC) 197port hierarchy 21, 23port history 23, 27(n40)path dependence 158–60, 176port infrastructure 144

World War II (effects) 146–8, 156–7

port labour 163–4NZ 160–6, 176–7NZ (productivity, 1976–88) 165t,

165see also stevedores

Port Law (PRC, 2004–) 190, 197Port Line 177(n28)port operators 187, 195‘port question’ (China) 6port reform 190

trigger points 175port regulation 6

institutional path dependence (Australia v NZ) 158–79

‘marginal incremental changes’ 159

Index 295

Port of Singapore AuthorityCorporation (PSA) 186

port size 83port systems (Asia) 6, 9(n11)port technology 94port terminals 267Porter, G. R. 44, 60(n4)Porter, M. 226, 234(n19–20)ports 22, 26(n27–8), 71, 129, 132,

140(n40), 264Australian (US technology) 168,

178(n51)British (foreign vessels) 52bulk handling technology 146changing location 266China (development, 1978–2002)

180–99, 266–7chokepoints 160, 167constraint on bulk-carrier size 68constraint on ship sizes 77coordination problems

(Australia) 174decentralization (PRC) 191–4,

199(n27–30)disadvantages of central control

(PRC) 191–2efficiency 79exchanges and markets (UK) 120formation 6, 9(n10)larger and deeper 99manual loading of ships 102new, deepwater 78

planning 23, 27–8(n40)privatization 94

regional hubs (PRC) 185–6sail and steamship vessels (share

of total tonnage entrances, UK, 1860–1910) 48t

‘seaports’ 5–6, 9(n7, n10), 23,27–8(n40)

versus ship size 266shipping costs 78shipping clearances 48, 61(n26)shipping entrances 47–56shipping turnaround times 78specialized loading equipment 102steam percentage (by tonnage,

UK, 1855–1910) 48–9, 49t,61–2(n27)

tonnage entrances 49n, 55–7vessel numbers 50t, 55water depth 78

Ports Industry Review Committee (NZ) 166, 177(n42)

Portugal/Portuguese 9(n7), 32, 59Post-Panamax ships 66t, 72, 74–5,

86(n21)Poulsen, R. T. 232(n1)Pratt, K. C. 216(n13)predictability 195, 196Prescott, J. 137President Line 72price/s 32f, 32, 34f, 34–5, 149price competition 93price deflators‘unfortunate selection’ 4principals and agents 4private business mentalité

Hull 204–10, 215, 217–18private companies 216(n13)

culture, and place (Hull) 200–19private limited companies 208, 209,

214proportion of total companies 204,

216(n18–19)recognized in law (1907) 7‘typical British compromise’ 201–4,

214–15, 216–17(n7–21)see also public limited companies

private sector 104(n25), 145–6, 154, 182, 183, 185, 191, 193, 198(n23)

privateering 25(n18)privatization 167, 172, 188prizes (captured shipping) 112‘Problem of Desertion’ (Fischer,

1980) 22, 26(n30)production costs 40–1, 42(n11), 165productivity 4, 90, 103(n9), 172,

173, 263profit motive 11, 30, 224, 226profitability 212, 228, 229profits 23, 27(n39), 29, 271(n14),

144, 146, 189, 211, 221–4, 229volatility (shipping sector) 220

Progress of Nation (Porter, 1838) 44,60(n4)

‘project execution capability’ (Amsden and Hikino, 1994) 237, 259(n9)

296 Index

proprietorships 7, 202, 203, 207‘Prospects of British Shipping’ 128–9Protection and Indemnity Clubs 120protectionism 37, 42(n6), 125, 129,

133, 145, 162, 171, 238, 249see also tariffs

public enterprise reform(PRC) 187–8, 198(n21–4)

public financial management (PRC) 188–9

public limited companies 204, 205public sector 185, 187, 188, 191, 193

definition of new responsibilities(PRC) 195, 199(n32)

public sector management 184–7, 198Puerto Rico 248Pyvis, J. 178(n53)

Qing dynasty 196Qingdao 185t, 198(n14)qualitative research 236, 259(n4)quantitative analysis 14, 21–2,

25(n10)quays 145–6, 152–3, 154Queen Elizabeth (Cunard liner) 128,

130Queen Elizabeth II (liner) 131Queen Mary 128, 130y

R. E. Wilson (T2 tanker) 98railways 64, 97, 190, 242, 257t, 267Rank (company) 116raw materials 65, 79, 181, 189, 265

‘agricultural industrial’ 29fall in prices and fall in freight rates

(‘related processes’) 101transport ‘almost quadrupled

1960–90’ 95, 104–5(n32)see also natural resources

real estate 242, 253–8tRediker, M. 25(n18)refrigerated ships 113, 114regions (transnational) 46, 48, 49,

49–50tconstituent countries 59, 62(n28)shift to steamships, pace and timing

(variations substantial) 51–8trade and shipping

volumes 62(n29)

Registrar of Joint Stock Companies (UK) 204

regulation: port labour markets (NZ) 176–7

entrenching self-reinforcing path dependence 160–2

shifting to reactive path dependence 162–6

Reith, P. 173Reksten, H. 227–8, 270Remolcadores Ibaizábal

(company) 241, 243rent payments 189replacement ratios 100reputation 109, 114, 118, 212, 230requisitioning 191Research in Maritime History series

(1992–) 12, 13, 18, 19, 24(n2),26(n25)

resource-based view 259(n5), 260(n16)resource-deprived economy

Greece 38Norway 40Restis group 256t

restrictive work practices 167, 170, 171, 173, 174

Reveley, J. xii, 6, 158–79, 266rice 73Richet, X. 195, 199(n34)risk 4, 7, 154, 189, 271(n14)

calculated 232financial 233(n4)political and economic 236

risk-management 221, 232(n3), 233(n4)

risk-taking 233(n14)Schumpeterian 224

RMS Queen Mary (2003–) 85(n9)Ro-Ro vessels 66t, 71, 73, 75, 86(n29)

deadweight tonnage versus cargo-hold volume 74t

Rochdale Committee (1969–70) 124–5, 129, 132,133, 138–40

Rodrigo, M. 258n, 261(n28)Rolls-Royce 127Romania 59, 244, 245, 248Rose, M. B. 210, 213, 218(n50),

219(n65)

Index 297

Rotterdam 5–6, 12, 170, 187tcompetition with Antwerp 142–57number of dockers (1899) 143port tariffs 149specialization 145, 146, 154‘technological advantage’ 146type of stevedore company (versus

Antwerp) 146war damage (1945) and

rehabilitation (by 1948) 147World War II (effects) 146–51,

156–7Rotterdam city council 145–6, 154Rotterdam port authority 145, 146,

149, 152‘Roundtable’ (IJMH, 1989–) 17,

25(n18)Royal Commission of Inquiry

into Waterfront Industry (NZ, 1950–2) 161, 177(n24)

Royal Dutch Shell 225Royal Statistical Society 269royalty charges 189Royen, P. van 26(n26)Rubenstein, W. D. 211–12,

218(n56–7)condemnation of ‘cultural

critique’ 215rural economy (PRC) 181, 182Russell, J. S. 44, 60(n5)Russia/Russian Federation

Tsarist 39, 53, 59, 248Soviet era 116, 135post-Soviet: oil exports 78

S.G. Embiricos Ltd. (1896–) 244, 245safety 99, 173Sager, E. W. 25(n10), 60(n9)sail: transition to steam 43–63, 64,

65, 231citius, altius, fortius 142–6, 155–6determinants of regional

variations 51–8, 62–3‘great shift’ (1870s, 1880s) 51Greece 39–40Hull trawl fishery 207‘process’ versus ‘event’ 3, 56–7‘rapid’ (in long-term context) 58

sectoral variations 57

‘short, sharp, decisive’ (in someregions) 56

tipping point(s) 46–51tonnage ratios 55, 62–3(n45)vessel numbers 55–6

sailing ships 27(n29, n34–5), 74t, 76, 220, 226, 229, 246, 250

‘ascendancy (1850–85)’ 45, 60(n10–11)

bulk carriers 66tlimited capital, limited risk

(Norway) 223–5, 233versus modern shipping 65, 66tprofitability (late 1880s) 223,

233(n8)second-hand 233(n9)Saint John’s

(Newfoundland) 26(n27, n29)Saint John’s: Memorial

University 17, 19, 25(n8, n16)Fischer’s loyalty 20–1

Salvage Agreement (Lloyd’s of London) 111–12

salvors 111–12Sampson, A. 218(n56)San Román, E. 258n, 261(n28)Sanderson, O. 206, 207, 217(n27)sanding (‘three definitions’, PRC) g

182–3, 197(n6)sawn wood 73, 79scale economies see economies of

scaleScandinavia 41, 79, 87(n35)Schedvin, C. B. 178(n61)Schneider, B. R. 237, 260(n11)Scholl, L. U. xii, 2, 11–28, 108,

122(n14–15)Scranton, P. 210, 218(n49)screw propeller 52, 60(n12)Scrutton on Charterparties (1886–) 120Sea-Land (US company) 71seafaring career (before air

transport) 266Seamen’s Union (Australia, to

1989) 169seaports see portsSeberechts, F. 155(n1)self-help (Smiles) 213‘self-reliance’ (national trait) 213

298 Index

‘selling chicken in rain’ 229service sector 200, 242, 268, 269Sewell, W. H. 159, 176(n12)Shanghai 184, 185t, 187, 194, 197

world ranking: as container port (2000) 186, 187t

world ranking: as port (2010) 197, 199(n39)

Shanghai International Shipping Centre (SISC) 188–9, 193, 199(n25)

Shanghai municipality 194fShanghai Port Authority 193status within Chinese institutional

system 193, 194fShanghai Port Container Co.

Ltd. 193Shannon, H. A. 204, 216(n18)Shantou 196shareholders 144, 201–4, 206–9,

211, 213, 224, 225Shaw Savill & Albion 177(n28)Shekou 185, 186Shell 85(n12), 127shelter-deck liners 73–4, 74t, 75Shenzhen 185t, 185–7, 194f, 197,

198(n13), 199(n39)Shenzhen Port Authority (1994–)

193, 194, 199(n30)status within Chinese institutional

system 193, 194fShepherd, J. F. 35, 36t, 42(n5), 268,

271(n18)‘Shift from Sailing Ships’ (Harley,

1971) 45, 61(n13)ship engines 75–6ship repair 247ship size 265–6

constraints 77–8constraints (economic interests of

shippers) 79, 87(n35)growth (‘central feature’) 84modern revolution 72–3versus number of ports capable of

handling larger vessels 266optimal 78–9, 82, 84,

86–7(n33–4), 87(n36)versus quayside length 84versus value of cargo 83

ship supplying 247ship values/prices 91, 220, 227–30

‘vessel value risk’ 222f, 222, 233(n4)

shipbroking 21, 22–3, 118, 120,123(n47), 240, 257t

shipbuilding 7, 43, 46, 113–14, 129–30, 132, 140(n39), 201, 206, 241–2, 247–8, 257t

costs 93Kingston-upon-Hull 204–5order books (UK decline,

1958–62) 128‘special fiscal status’ (UK) 128Shipbuilding Credit Scheme

(UK) 131shipowners 5, 7, 37, 41, 62(n37), 77,

79, 100, 102, 107–8, 112–14, 118, 120, 124, 129, 133, 136, 153, 168, 174, 214, 216(n5), 227, 232, 241, 250, 267, 269

British 128business risk perspective 221–2Canadian 54mortgage conditions

(disadvantageous clause) 228–9Norwegian 233(n9)

self-regulation, self-liberalization 266Spanish (‘British mirror’) 241,

261(n32)see also business groups

shipowning 138, 200, 202, 205, 245shippers 79, 100Shippers Today 185nyshipping

absence from mainstream research in economics and economic history 263, 268–70, 271–2

advantages (versus land transport) 64

advantages (water carriage of goods) 64–87

British 43–4, 60(n3)British-owned 61(n27)Canadian 44–5, 60(n9)capacity for heavy goods 66ncargo-hauling efficiency 65, 66tcontribution to global economic

integration 263–8, 270–1

Index 299

crisis (1970s, 1980s) 251cyclical nature 267demand 31efficiency (sail versus steam) 56English 201, 216(n7)forced sales (Norway) 228–9,

234(n24)freight rate developments (post-war

era) 89–95, 103–5‘fundamental changes’ (1950–80)

89–90‘gambling game’ (Stopford) 221,

232(n2)global (development of

commercial infrastructure) 106–23

global over-capacity 228Greek 38–40, 41, 42(n7–10)‘integral role in global

economy’ 21‘intermodal or multimodal

industry’ 267–8‘international character’ 268–9international competition (high

level) 267‘key industry’ versus ‘invisible

industry’ 8, 263–72market-collapse 228, 229mechanical efficiency 65modern revolution 73‘most central modern feature’ 84new build 100, 229, 231Norwegian 40, 105(n48–9)Norwegian (risks and rewards)

220–34post-war revolution 89–92, 95, 97,

99–101risk management 221, 232(n3)‘risky business’ (market cycle

‘prominent’) 267, 271(n 14)role in regional economic

development 21, 27(n29)‘romantic business’ (Stopford) 267,

271(n15)round-the-world trades 52, 55

scale economies 3–4, 64–87, 227,265–6

Scandinavian 41scheduled services 43, 57, 65

‘sector of origin’ (business groups) 252

size 66t, 67, 72staple economies 2–3, 28–42,

264–5statistical analysis 52

technical efficiency 65technological advances 5, 265–6ton-miles per day 65, 66ttotal entrances versus total

clearances (UK statistics) 47, 61(n23)

transatlantic 130, 132‘volumes not values’ mantra 57world fleet (1960s) 148world merchant fleet 70f, 72world trading activity (sail versus

steam) 56shipping business

characteristics 267‘forerunner of globalization’

267shipping companies 82, 90, 142,

144, 148, 152, 161–3, 164f, 170international mergers (1980s) 267,

271(n16)success or failure (determining

tasks) 221, 232shipping costs 76, 166, 224, 225,

231, 267division 80inflation 228pilot, mooring, and berth

charges 80in port 78, 80at sea 78see also transport costs

shipping efficiency 73, 74, 75t, 81see also transport efficiency

shipping entrepreneurs 4, 102–3chemicals 97–100, 105coking coal 96–7further research required 215see also entrepreneurs

shipping income/earnings 36t, 36lack of understanding (by

administrators) 269national (difficulty of

calculation) 269, 272(n20)

300 Index

shipping industry 4, 14, 120context and importance 270desire to be invisible 269–70microeconomics 6–8, 9–10(n12–17)

shipping institutions 2, 4–5Shipping Registers 21, 26(n28)shipping services 4, 35, 243, 252, 257t

see also transport servicesshipping technology 64–87shipping tonnage 49t, 55, 57,

62–3(n45)ships 267

average sizes (selected categories, 1930–2008) 70f

deadweight tonnage 86(n25)gas-turbine 71as ‘hardware’ 3–4individual 221medium-sized 82new registrations 46

sale and purchase market 224size versus speed 4speed 65–7, 71, 85(n6), 263

two-deck 73–4see also steamships

shipyards 206, 245Shneerson, D. 87(n34)Shou, C. 198(n22)Sideris, N. 256nSierra Leone 59Singapore 187tSino-Foreign Equity Joint Venture Law

[1979/1990] 184, 191, 198(n9)skills 135–7, 141(n61), 190Slack, B. 185, 198(n13)slavery 30, 32–4smack era 207, 208, 211Smiles, S. 213Smith, A. 64, 85(n3)Smyrna 116So B. K. L. 197(n2)social science/s 11, 158, 176(n10)‘socialist market economy’ 183Sota, R. de la (1857–1936) 240,

261(n35)Sota & Aznar (limited partnership,

1881–) 240–1Sota & Aznar group 242, 257tsplit in two (Franco era) 242

Sota family 242assets expropriated by Franco

government 242South America 48, 49–50t, 54, 56,

59, 60(n11), 68South Korea 187t, 236, 259(n5)South Seas Company 115Spain 21, 26(n26), 59, 62(n38)

economic crisis (post-Franco) 243and Greece (business groups,

Cs19–20) 8, 235–62regional allocation

(imperfections) 59Spanish Civil War 242, 258nSpanish Shipowners’ Association 243spar and awning deck vessels 113specialization 7, 9(n14), 90, 102,

144, 145, 166, 201, 229–30, 238, 267, 271(n12)

shipping efficiency 73speculation 114, 224, 230spot market strategy 226–9, 231St John’s 20–1St John’s (Newfoundland): Memorial

University: Maritime HistoryArchive 14, 15, 16–17

stainless steel tanks 99stamp duty 110, 112staple economies 38–9, 40, 60(n9),

160, 265colonial growth 32f, 32

shipping and ~ 28–42staple theory 29, 31, 41(n1)Starkey, D. J. xii, 7, 16, 26(n26), 45,

61(n22), 200–19, 267state-owned enterprises 183, 193statistics 46–7, 52, 68–70n, 84–5(n3),

85(n16), 104(n15), 112, 169n, 233(n11)

problems of interpretation 47–9, 61(n23), 61–2(n27), 62(n38)

steam engines/steam power 3, 5, 30, 41, 202, 204, 207, 241

steamships 7, 37, 74t, 86(n31), 206, 216(n9), 224, 245, 246

advent 267‘archetypal shipping

innovation’ 265coal consumption (efficiency) 51

Index 301

early routes 60(n11)efficiency 52factor inputs and costs (inverse

variation with length of voyage) 51–2, 62(n32)

literature 43machinery and bunkers (versus

sailing ships) 65participation by number of

vessels per region of origin 50t, 50–1

percentage by tonnage (UK ports, 1855–1910) 48–9, 49t, 61–2(n27)

progress (C19) 3, 43–63tonnage (Hull, 1878–1913) 205world fleet (1900) 60(n3)

steel 30, 43, 52, 79, 100, 104(n32), 207, 241

container revolution 74–5steel four-mast bark 66tsteelworks: locational shift 96–7stevedore costs 80, 81stevedores 143–6, 152–5, 155(n5),

160–2, 170, 174, 179(n68)number and size (Antwerp versus

Rotterdam) 153see also vemen

Stevedoring Industry Commission(Australia) 167

Steward, T. 9(n12)stock exchanges 107–8, 122(n12)Stolt-Nielsen, J. 98–9, 105(n41–2)Stopford, M. 66n, 76n, 84(n2),

85(n11), 86(n21), 87(n35), 89, 98, 260(n23), 267, 271(n14–15)

Storarr, A. C. 216(n13)Strandenes, S. P. 232(n1)strikes 145, 160, 167, 176(n17),

178(n47)UK seamen (1966) 132working days lost (Australian

stevedoring, 1950–2010) 168, 169f

Sturmey, S. G. 11, 24(n2), 63(n45),125, 138–9, 226, 229, 234(n18)

subsidies 126, 128, 129, 131, 132Suddaby, R. 259(n4)Suez Canal 51, 52, 54, 56, 128

closures (1956–7, 1967–75) 67, 78, 227

Suez isthmus 60(n11), 63(n46)Suezmax tankers 78sugar 29, 30, 32f, 32, 33, 79supply and demand 32f, 32–3, 34f,

34–5, 221, 222fSvanaas (parcel tanker, 1949–) 98Sweden 59, 177(n32), 205, 226Sydney 184Sykes, Sir Tatton 212–13Synacomex (charter party form)

118syndicates (insurance) 109Syren and Shipping 207, 219(n68)gSyros 246

T2 tankers 66t, 67tacit knowledge 118, 119, 121Tam Ka-chai xii–xiii, 6, 180–99, 267Tangier 59tankers 72–3, 220, 243

size (average, 1930–2008) 70ftariffs 37, 42(n6), 92, 172, 189, 267

see also protectionismTarragona 118taxation 184, 189, 196, 270

concessions/exemptions 136, 189, 192

corporate 134technological and organizational

changes 94, 102chemicals transport 97–100coking coal transport 96–7

technological progress 2, 37, 43, 52, 145, 158, 250, 266–7, 269

Antwerp versus Rotterdam 154‘classic driver of institutional

change’ 168‘unimpressive progress’ of steam

(Palmer) 45technology 3–4, 190, 195, 265telegraph 108, 111, 116, 122(n14–15)‘tenants-in-common’ 201–2Tenold, S. xiii, 1–10, 26(n26),

103(n3), 98, 99, 105, 197(n1), 220–34, 260(n23), 263–72

terminal costs 80–2, 82tterminals 230

302 Index

TEU (twenty-foot equivalent units) 66t, 71, 78, 172, 173f, 173–4, 178(n65), 186, 199(n39)

textiles 30, 120Thanopoulou, H. 260(n16)Thatcher, M. H. 127, 134–5‘the Society’ see Lloyd’s RegisterTheotokas, I. (‚John‘) x, 200,

216(n5)256n, 260(n16, n21)Thomas, R. P. 177(n30)Thomas’ book on stowage 120Thomas Wilson Son & Company

(1841) 205Thomas Wilson Sons & Co. (TWSC,

Hull) 207, 208, 214, 217(n28), 218(n51)

origins (1822–) 205–6, 217(n27)registered as company (1891) 206

Thornton, R. H. 44, 60(n8)Tianjin 185t, 188, 198(n14, n22)Tilbury 170timber 35, 40, 42(n4), 54, 62(n40),

73, 114, 118, 241time 119, 121, 153, 184, 196, 203,

220, 222, 237see also turnaround times

Titanic insurance policy 109ctobacco 29, 30, 33, 257tTomlinson, J. 139(n16)Tonnage Tax 137, 141(n72)Torquay 208Torres, E. 258n, 261(n35)tourism 242, 244, 246, 254–6t, 266Towards New Maritime Strategy (EC,

1996) 137, 141(n69)trade 4, 124, 244, 247–8, 250, 252,

253–5t, 257–8t, 265, 269expansion/growth 95, 100impeded by port-level labour

disputes 160, 176(n18)inter-continental and regional 2political impediments 125seagoing 2, 148

technological and institutional preconditions 95

volumes 59trade growth 267

hindrances 92‘main driver’ 1

trade liberalization 101trade networks (C20) 4, 88–105, 264

building 95–100, 105see also networks

trade routesinsurance risks 111length 55–6see also voyages

trade unions 137, 145, 149–50, 159, 161–5, 167–8, 172, 174, 177(n25)

trading companies (British) 7, 10(n16)Trafalgar House Investments

Ltd. 131training/apprenticeships 137, 173,

181tramp shipping 8, 68, 73, 86(n23),

90–3, 100, 105(n32), 216(n5), 241–2, 259(n2), 262(n51)

British (1869–1950) 91, 103(n9)freight rates 128low-cost 235

tramp steamship 52, 69tramp trip charter price index 91transaction cost approach 200transaction costs 5, 106, 110, 119,

159, 162, 177(n30), 196, 236–7Transatlantic trades 54transhipment 196transparency 144, 145, 153, 182,

195, 196‘transport component’ 265transport costs 29, 30, 35, 64, 84,

84(n1–2), 88, 91, 221, 222f, 230, 265

‘assumed to be zero’ (not yet the case) 269, 272(n22)

ocean shipping 90–1, 103(n6)‘warrant further scholarly

attention’ 94see also freight rates

transport efficiency 65see also shipping efficiency

transport sector 246transport services 220, 264

production and sale (core task) 221, 232

sale of 222voyage-by-voyage basis 226see also shipping services

Index 303

transport system 181trawl fisheries see HullTriple E series (Maersk Line) 72,

86(n22)triple expansion engine 52Tripoli 59trough yard credit 100trucks 65, 85(n3), 267trust 4, 106–7, 115, 121, 211Tsakos group 256ttug boats 243, 252Tull, M. xiii, 6, 26(n26), 158–79, 266Tunis 59Turkey 59turnaround times 142, 143, 145,

152, 153, 168, 170, 173, 174turret ships 113tweendeck spaces 74, 86(n26)two-deck steam liner 66t

Ukraine 39UL crude tanker 66tuncertainty 43, 106, 236, 243,

260(n26), 271(n14)underwriters 109–10

‘good leads’ 111underwriters’ associations 110, 112Underwriters’ Claim Office 111underwriting agents 109, 111underwriting brokers 109, 111unemployment 150, 151Unger, R. W. 9(n5), 263, 270(n4–5)Unilever 116Union Carbide 98Union of Greek Shipowners 246Union Steam Ship Company 162,

177(n28)United Kingdom ix-xii, xiv, 3, 6–7,

20, 21, 24(n2), 26(n26), 29, 35, 36t, 38, 40–1, 43–4, 67, 68, 103(n1), 166, 201, 248, 252, 260(n20)

British Atlantic economy (C18) 31–3

business organizations (legal framework) 214–15

economic performance (‘negative influence of business behaviour and culture’) 211, 218(n56)

entry into EEC (effect in NZ)162–3

industrial policy 127, 139(n16)ports 23regions 120shipping income 269, 272(n20)wholesale price index 92

United Kingdom: Board of Trade 113, 203–4, 216(n17),272(n20)

United Kingdom: Department of Transport 125n, 135, 136,139(n14)

United Kingdom: England 107–8, 122(n6–9), 241

United Kingdom: England northeast 113

United Kingdom: Foreign Office129

United Kingdom: HM Treasury 128,131–2, 137, 141(n72)

United Kingdom: Ministry of Transport 128

United Kingdom: Scotland 113United Kingdom: shipping industry

1950s, 1960s 127–8decline in employment

(1980–95) 133defence capability 137fiscal advantages 132government policy, later C20) 5,

124–41government policy (1980s,

1990s) 133–5, 140–1government support (impact,

1960s, 1970s) 132–3, 140industry-government distrust

129, 138internal policy review (1959–60)

128–9joint working party (1990) 136lack of government assistance

towards capital costs 125managerial failings 125manpower and training 133Marples Memorandum

(1962) 128–9, 133merchant marine (decline) 5,

124, 125t, 138(n2)

304 Index

United Kingdom: shipping industry –continuedmerchant marine (foreign

ownership, 1975) 133national interest argument 126,

133, 134, 135, 137, 138‘old-fashioned’ (1962) 129,

139(n23)policy determinants 138policy reversal (1988–) 135–8,

141see also British shipping

United Kingdom: Shipping AdvisoryCommittee (proposed) 129

United Nations 180UN Code of Conduct for Liner

Conferences 135UNCTAD 93, 125n, 135United States of America 34, 41, 59,

60(n3, n11), 67, 68, 78, 85(n7), 108, 117, 135, 181, 200, 209, 236, 241

coal exporters 96–7container ships 71decline of merchant marine (post-

1865) 37domestic market 38, 40GDP deflator 92merchant shipping 54, 62(n41–2)peripheral regions 2–3producer price index 92shipping and economic

development (to 1860s) 268war with UK (1812) 37wheat exchanges 116see also American Civil War

Upper Clyde Shipbuilders 127Urquijo Bank 242, 243Uruguay 59

Vagliano Bros 241(n48)Vaglianos group 253tValdaliso, J. M. xiii, 1–10, 26(n26),

197(n1), 235–62, 263–72Valparaiso 60(n11)value chain 102, 267

‘sliced up’ 265, 271(n10)Vanfraechem, S. xiv, 5–6, 142–57Vardinoyannis group 240, 255t

vemen (Rotterdam) 143, 145, 153see also waterside workers

Venetian Empire 38, 42(n8)vertical integration 102, 143–4, 146,

153, 167, 236–7, 238, 247Ville, S. P. ix, 61(n15, n20), 201,

216(n8)Vinos de los Herederos del Marques de

Riscal 243Virginia and Maryland coffee house

(London) 107, 114see also Baltic Mercantile Exchange

Visvikis, I. D. 221, 232(n3)voyages

duration 51–2, 54, 62(n32)patterns (sail versus steam) 59,

63(n48)see also distance

Vries, D. de 178(n47)

W.H. Cockerline & Co. (Hull) 205wages 34f, 35, 38, 40, 42(n11), 143,

145, 149–50, 269‘basic’ (Australia, 1907–) 171‘rates of pay’ 22, 26–7(n32–4)see also labour costs

Waltham 37Walton, G. M. 35, 36t, 42(n5), 268,

271(n18)Wang, J. J. 185, 198(n13)Wang, K. 198(n13)warehouses/warehousing 23,

27(n39), 78, 143–6, 148, 152–4, 155(n4)

Waterfront Conference (NZ,1967) 163

Waterfront Control Commission (NZ) 160

Waterfront Dispute (NZ, 1951) 160,176(n22)

Waterfront Industry Act (NZ,1953) 161, 176(n19)

Waterfront Industry Commission (WIC, NZ) 160, 165, 161, 162, 175

abolished (1989) 166abolition process 163–6

Waterfront Industry Reform Act (NZ,1989) 166

Index 305

waterfront reform (Australia) 173–4government objectives (1998) 173

Waterfront Workers’ Federation (Australia) 168–9

Waters, H. J. 186, 198(n18)‘waterside work’ 160, 176(n19)waterside workers/watersiders 161,

163, 175see also casual labour

Waterside Workers’ Federation (Australia, 1902–89) 167, 168, 169

Waterside Workers’ Federation (WWF, NZ, 1967–) 163–4, 166

Waterside Workers’ Union (WWU, NZ) 160, 176(n22)

wave-making resistance 65, 85(n27)Wealth of Nations (Smith, 1776) 64weather deck 74n, 74Weinhauer, K. 178(n47)West, B. 209West Indies 33, 35, 36t, 37, 60(n11)‘Western America‘ 49–50t, 50, 51,

52, 55, 56, 62(n44)constituent countries 59

Westfal-Larsen 233(n17)wheat 85(n7)

dealing location 117freight costs 92No 3 Manitoba benchmark 116

White, C. 178(n60)White Australia Policy (1901) 171Wiener, M. J. 218(n56)Williams, D. M. xiv, 2, 3, 11–28,

43–63, 265Williamson, J. G. 9(n4), 91, 93,

103(n9)Wilson, A. 205–6, 208–9, 211, 212

estate (1909) 209, 218(n42)Wilson, C. H. (d 1907) 205–6, 207,

208–9, 211, 212Wilson, C. H. A. 206Wilson, C. H. W. 206, 207, 209Wilson, D. 205Wilson, E. E. 207Wilson, E. K. 206Wilson, F. J. H. 207, 208Wilson, G. G. (MP) 206, 207

Wilson, J. F. 203, 210, 215, 216(n13–14), 218(n48, n50, n63)

Wilson, T. (d 1869) 205, 211see also Thomas Wilson Sons & Co.

Wilson, W. 209Wilsons of Hull 205–6, 217(n27)With-Andersen, H. see Andersen, W. H.wood 223wooden ships of line 74Woodhouse, H. J. S. 207Woodman, R. 125, 138(n3), 139(n9)Woodward, N. C. W. 139(n16)wool 120, 248working conditions 168World Bank 185, 188, 197(n4),

198(n12)World Bank Port Reform Toolkit

(second edition, 2007) 192, 199(n27)

world’s key industry (Fayle) 1, 9(n2)World’s Key Industry (volume title)y

book purpose 1–2introduction 1–10‘key industry’ versus ‘invisible

industry’ 8, 263–72World Trade OrganizationPRC entry (2002) 196–7

wrecks 223–4, 233(n10–11), 229, 231

Xiamen 185t

Yafeh, Y. 10(n17), 235–6, 259(n3,n5–6), 260(n11)

Yangtze River Delta 185Yannoulatos group 254tYantian 185, 186, 188Yantian International Container

Terminals (1992–) 193Ybarra group 240, 257t, 261(n28)yigangyanggan (self-sustaining system,

PRC) 189York: Warter Priory 212

zaibatsu 236Zhejiang Province 193Zheng, Y. 189, 195, 199(n33),

199(n26)