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Hindu Temples of South India

Version 1.1

by David Raezer and Jennifer Raezer

2012 by Approach Guides

(text, images, & illustrations, except those to which specic attribution is given)

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Contents

Introduction

History of Hindu Architecture

Basics of Hindu Architecture

North and South India Temples Compared

STYLE GUIDE

Chalukya Empire Style

Pallava Empire Style

Pandyan Empire Style

Chola Empire Style

Rashtrakuta Empire Style

Hoysala Empire Style

Vijayanagar Empire Style

Nayak Empire Style

SITE PROFILES

Map of Temple Sites in South India

Aihole (near Goa) : Durga Temple

Aihole (near Goa) : Ladh Khan Temple

Belur (near Bangalore) : Chennakeshvara Temple

Ellora (near Mumbai) : Kailasa Temple (Cave 16)

Halebid (near Bangalore) : Hoysaleshvara Temple

Hampi (near Goa) : Overview

Hampi (near Goa) : Hemakuta Hill

Hampi (near Goa) : Virupaksha Temple

Hampi (near Goa) : Vitthala Temple

Kanchipuram (near Chennai) : Kailasanatha Temple

Kanchipuram (near Chennai) : Vaikunthaperumal Temple
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Kanchipuram : Varadaraja Temple

Madurai : Meenakshi Temple

Madurai : Kudal Alagar Perumal Temple

Mahabalipuram (near Chennai) : Rathas

Mahabalipuram (near Chennai) : Shore Temple

Pattadakal (near Goa) : Galaganatha Temple

Pattadakal (near Goa) : Jambulinga Temple

Pattadakal (near Goa) : Virupaksha Temple

Somnathpur (near Bangalore) : Keshava Temple

Thanjavur : Brihadeshevara Temple

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Introduction

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South India is the premier area in which to experience the architectural tradition ofthe Hindu temple. Given that the Hindu empires of the South were able to hold off the imperialexpansion of Islamic forces, Hindu architecture in South India did not suffer the same destructionas that in the North. As a result, the Souths religious complexes remain largely intact, offering anabundance of temples from all time periods and empires.

This Approach Guide explores South Indias architecture by looking at temples built by eight of themost powerful Hindu empires in Tamil Nadu (Pallava, Pandyan, Chola, and Nayak) and Kar-nataka (Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Hoysala, and Vijayanagar). This guide begins by reviewing thedening features of each empires architectural style, with a focus on innovations and trademark

elements. The goal is to provide travelers with an appreciation of both what makes each empiresarchitecture unique, as well as what connects it to that of those empires that came before and thosethat would come after.

With this stylistic foundation in place, this Approach Guide takes travelers on a tour of twenty-four of the most iconic Hindu temples in South India. Each temples detailed prole in-cludes high-resolution images and oorplans that reveal salient features with color highlightsto ease identication. This tour includes the following locations:

Aihole (near Goa). Visit the site of the earliest temples in South India, the Chalukya-builtLadh Khan and Durga Temples, that bridge the gap from early Buddhist to Hindu forms.

Belur (near Mysore and Bangalore). Explore the Hoysalas Chennakeshvara Temple, adecorative masterpiece.

Ellora (near Mumbai). The stunning, rock-cut Kailasa Temple is the best example of theRashtrakuta Empire style.

Halebid(near Mysore and Bangalore). Yet another Hoysala site, the HoysaleshvaraTemple demonstrates a major step forward in the layout of the Hoysala oorplan.

Hampi(near Goa). This Vijayanagar architectural site with its Virupaksha, Vitthala,and Hemakuta Hill Temples makes for a really cool stop, combining a wealth of culturalsites with a laid back vibe.

Kanchipuram (near Chennai). Visit this Pallava architectural sites three impressivetemples that went on to inuence all future ones in South India: Kailasanatha, Vaikunthape -rumal, and Varadaraja Temples.

Mahabalipuram(near Chennai). This Pallava site offers some of the earliest architec-ture in South India, the Rathas Temples, and one of the most picturesque, the Shore Temple.

Madurai. Madurai is a very religious city and offers you a great opportunity to experiencean active Hindu community, best witnessed at the enormous Meenakshi Temple, constructedin the Nayak style; however, the decoration of the little-known Kudal Alagar Perumal Templemakes it a highlight stop as well.

Pattadakal(near Goa). At this site of the mature Chalukya temple style, visit the Virupak-

sha, Jambulinga, and Galaganatha Temples.
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Somnathpur(near Mysore and Bangalore). This sites Keshava Temple representsthe high point of the Hoysala style; its star-shaped, triple-shrine arrangement was a break-through.

Thanjavur. The Brihadeshvara Temple, with its massive tower, represents the Chola archi-tectural style par excellence.

Intuitively organized and loaded with over 100 photos, this guidebook serves as an ideal reference,both for pre-travel research and on location touring.

Contact us anytime

Our readers are our greatest inspiration. Email us at [email protected] to let us knowabout your experience with Approach Guides many of our recent updates have been inspired bycustomers like you. We personally respond to every email.

We hope you enjoy what we believe is a totally unique guide to the Hindu temples of South India.

Have a great trip!

David and Jennifer RaezerFounders, Approach Guides
mailto:founders%40approachguides.com?subject=Feedback%20on%20Approach%20Guides%20-%20South%20Indiamailto:founders%40approachguides.com?subject=Feedback%20on%20Approach%20Guides%20-%20South%20India


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Temple Layout and Chief Structural Components

Temple layout

The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west alignment; the temple entrance is on the eastern sideand the sanctuary is on the western side. The entire temple complex is placed on a high plinth orplatform to symbolize its signicance.

Primary structures

The chief temple structures (moving from east to west) include:

Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open entrance vestibule, entered by passing under agopuram (arched gateway), symbolic of the passage from the world of the profane to the

sacred. Temple-goers ascend stairs, pass under the gopuram to the level of the ardha-man-dapa, and then proceed into the mandapa. See green highlights on Fig. 1.

Mandapa. The mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb-ha griha; it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity inthe garbha griha) and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will havea second mandapa called the maha mandapa that is located in between the externalmandapa and the garbha griha. See blue (mandapa) and yellow (maha mandapa) highlightson Fig. 1.

Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha griha holds the core sanctuary, cella, or Holyof Holies where the resident deity resides. The vimana, the main tower of the temple, sits

directly above the garbha griha. See red highlights on Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Floorplan, Northern Temple style. Highlights added.


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The square and circle

The square sanctuary(garbha griha) is the core of the temple complex, positioned directly underthe mountain tower (vimana); it houses the resident deity. The overall plan of the temple is dictated

by this central square, as its form is mirrored by surrounding structures.

To return briey to cosmology: The square form is associated in Hinduism with divinity(hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is associated with humanity. The transitionfrom profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones po-sitioned at the base of the entrance stairways to temples ardha-mandapas.

It is interesting to note that the apsidal form used as the oorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha -itya) fuses the circular with the square; this was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic,symbolic architectural forms.

Gods mount at the temple entrance

The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-mandapa) is indicated by the presence of the residentdivinitys mount or transport:

Temples venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount,Nandi (a seated bull), facing the main shrine. See Fig. 2.

Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi) display stone images of hismount, Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.


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Fig. 9. The Southern temple style. Dharmaraja ratha, Mahabalipuram. Highlights added.

The temple oorplan

There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, andsouth sides of the external ardha-mandapa (see green highlights in Fig. 10). This compares

versus the Northern temples single eastern entrance.

The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: In Fig. 10, the internalmandapa is shown in yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in redhighlights.

Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern styles development, the internal mandapawas replaced by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later, even theexternal ardha-mandapa was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an evenlarger one.

Walled temple enclosure accessed through large gopurams


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This is a unique feature of the South India temple style. Temples are usually encircled byprotective, concentric enclosure walls (see blue highlights on Fig. 10), with entrances throughlarge gateways (called gopurams; see Fig. 11) that sometimes even dwarf the enclosed temples.

This walled design was perhaps precipitated by the increased fragility of Hindu empires in the wakeof ongoing Islamic invasions that jeopardized the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result,the temple complex came to include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself. Ac-

cordingly, the temple-cities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city (the temple prop-er) surrounded by its mountain ranges (city walls).

Fig. 10. Southern Style Temple, Floorplan. Highlights added.

Pyramidal shaped towers for temples

The Southern styles tower exhibits sharp vertical sides that proceed to the summit in a series

of diminishing storeys to form a pyramidal outline (rather than a curved, corn cob likeshape). This is perhaps the most easily identiable feature of the Southern styletemple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of the storeys contrast withthe Northern styles strong vertical lines. See Fig. 9.

The tower shape was originallyinspired by Buddhist vihara monastery antecedents specically, the parapets (discussed below) represent the cells around a square-shapedroom in which Buddhist monks were allowed to sleep. This core cell-surrounded squareform is merely superimposed in ever-smaller layers until the desired temple height isachieved.


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Pallava Empire Style

History

Regional context

The Tamil Nadu-based Pallava Empire spanned the 3rd-9th centuries, reaching its apex in the6th-7th centuries. Potentially descended from a group of Pahlavas from Iran (Persia) who migratedsouthward into the Indian peninsula in prehistory, the Pallavas comprised the rst major Hindudynasty in South India, displacing the Early Cholas (100-200 CE). For part of its existence, thePallava Empire shared control of Tamil Nadu with the Pandyan Empire (6th-9th centuries, dis-cussed in later section); the Pallavas controlled the lands to the North of the Kaveri River, whilethe Pandyans controlled the lands to its south. Both Empires were displaced by the rising MedievalCholas (836-1267), who assumed control of the entire region.

Linkage with Karnatakas Chalukya Empire

There was great exchange with the other leading Hindu empire of the time, the Badami-based Cha-lukya Empire, located in Indias Karnataka region. In fact, although there are arguments supportingthe fact that both the Chalukya and Pallava architectural styles arose independently, it is quite pos-sible that the Pallavas gained inspiration from the Chalukya temples in Aihole (discussed

in detail in a later section). The historical foundation for this assertion: the Pallavas sacked andoccupied Chalukya lands in 642; this occupation lasted for thirteen years and could have been thepoint of transfer of Chalukya architectural forms to the Pallavas. This argument is worth consider-ing, particularly since no Pallava temples currently extant pre-date this occupation.

Architecture Overview

Pallavas give form to the Southern temple style

Some of the oldest architecture in South India is attributable to the Pallavas, dating from the 7thcentury; the only older (extant) architecture was built by the Chalukya Empire, from whom theymight have borrowed the core framework for the Southern temple form. The Pallavas are knownfor their rock-hewn temples and were one of the rst to build structural stone-builttemples.

The Pallavas 7th century monolithic (rock-hewn) temples were named rathas (literally chari-ots). Likely inuenced by the Early Chalukya temples in Aihole, they incorporate many elements of

what would become the South Indian temple style, even at this early date (for more detail on theseforms, see the earlier section entitled North and South Indian Temples Compared). These ele-


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ments include:

Towers rising in a series of receding stories to form a perfect pyramid shape.

Bell-shaped, octagonal dome forms resembling small domed kiosks topping keytemple structures, especially the primary tower.

A molded plinth supporting the temple.

Temple walls dividing into alternating protruding and receding elements, the transi-

tion between being demarcated by pairs of shallow pilasters.

Sculptures of deities conned to niches.

Eaves positioned on eachsuccessively higher storey of the temples tower.

Parapets a low wall along the edge of each successive story created by a series of min-iature curved roof forms.

Building supports in which a multi-faceted pillar is transformed into a sculptural element(especially a lion) at its base.

Pallavas and Chalukyas Compared

Although we asked readers to consider that the Pallavas might have borrowed their core Southerntemple form from the Chalukyas, there are clear differences, mostly taking the form of a more de-

veloped style under the Pallavas:

Towers are topped with octagonal dome forms, as compared to the Chalukyas predomi-nantlysquare dome forms.

Further, this octagonal dome form is more elevated (compared to its Chalukya predeces-sors) above the surrounding cells comprising the parapet, thereby better emphasizing its

distinct form.

The Pallava shrines employ exclusivelysolid walls, with none of the pierced stone windowsof the Chalukyas.

The Pallavas abandoned the projecting gable (that was adjoined to the front of thetower) utilized by the Chalukyas.

Under the Pallavas, the pillared hall (or mandapa), which had heretofore remained a sepa-rate structure, was made tojoin the square sanctuary. This is a major step forward in thematuration of the South Indian temple style.

Where to See It

Mahabalipuram. This Pallava site offers some of the earliest architecture in South India.It is a highlight stop, remarkable for both its impressive structures and their high state ofpreservation.

Kanchipuram. After Mahabalipuram, seemingly a architectural prototyping zone, Kanchi-puram (the Pallava capital city) was the next site of architectural development for the Palla-

vas.


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Map of Temple Sites in South India


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Aihole (near Goa) : Ladh Khan Temple

Location: Aihole (near Goa), Karnataka. The original core square portion of the temple (greenhighlights in Fig. 20)housing the core sanctuary (red highlights) was likely built in 540; the porchextension (yellow highlights) and superstructure were added in 600-650.

Style: Chalukya Empire

Fig. 20. Floorplan, Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole. Highlights added.

Prole

Built of sandstone, this is the earliest stone-built temple in India.

The design of the core structure was borrowed from 5th century Buddhist rock-hewn monasteries (viharas) at Ajanta, as it employs a similar square oorplan andhypostyle interior. Cave 2 at Ajanta is a perfect example of such a vihara prototype; for pur-

poses of comparison, in Fig. 21 depicting Cave 2s oorplan, we have applied color highlights


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to the same elements marked in Ladh Khans oorplan.

Fig. 21. Floorplan, Cave 2, Ajanta. Highlights added.

The First Vimana Tower

In the mid-7th century, architects began initial experimentation with a simple form of vimanaor tower superstructure (red highlights in Fig. 22); this is the earliest such form in India. This

rudimentary tower will reach its greatest expression in the Western Group temples of Khajuraho,India (built 1025-1050; see Fig. 23).


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Fig. 22. The rst vimana tower, Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole.


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Fig. 23. The vimana towers highest expression, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho.

Decoration

The roof consists of huge stone slabs laid at. Further, there are clear references to timber-based architectural forms, particularly in the log-shaped forms that sit atop the roof andproject slightly outward. See yellow highlights in Fig. 22.

ANandi bull, Shivas transport, sits in the center of the internal hall, facing the shrine.In later temples, the Nandi will migrate from the inside to the outside of the temple struc-ture.

Again attesting to its Buddhist antecedents, forms highly reminiscent ofBuddhist wheelsare borrowed and incorporated into the temple as monolithic window screens. Notice thelotus owers (symbols of purity) that sit at their hubs and the sh (symbols of rebirth) whichcover the spokes; taken together, these symbols can indicate the many-routed path over mul-tiple rebirths (the sh spokes) to eventual salvation (the lotus at the center) with the recogni-tion of the at-one-ment of all things. See Fig. 24.


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Fig. 24. Ladh Khan Temple, Aihole.


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Belur (near Bangalore) : Chennakeshvara Temple

Location: Belur (near Bangalore and Mysore), Karnataka. Built in 1117, this is a predecessor tothe Keshava Temple in Somnathpur.

Style: Hoysala Empire

Fig. 25. Floorplan, Chennakeshvara Temple, Belur.


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Fig. 27. Exterior decoration, Shrine, Chennakeshvara Temple, Belur. Highlights added.

Decoration

Decoration was the focus and is therefore the highlight of the temple. As at Somnathpur and Hale-bid, the Hoysalas built in the local soapstone in Belur. This allowed them to carve ornate detailson the walls and columns of their temples.

Trademark friezes. The multiple friezes depicting animals and gures in processionalmovement (yellow highlights in Fig. 27) that become a hallmark of the Hoysala style get theirstart on this temple. The three levels of friezes on this temple (in some places only one) in-creases to six levels in subsequent temples (Hoysaleshvara in Halebid and Keshava in Som-nathpur).

Dynamic, in-the-round features. The gures sculpted onto the Chennakeshvara Tem-ples walls are in very high relief, another characteristic element of the Hoysala style. In fact,in some cases, as in Fig. 28 (look at the chaitya arch over the dancing gure), the sculpture iscompletely detached from the wall behind it.


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Thanjavur : Brihadeshevara Temple

Location: Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. This magnicent temple, dedicated to Shiva, was built in 1000by Rajaraja Chola I, the greatest of the Chola king-builders.

Style: Chola Empire

Fig. 102. Floorplan, temple compound, Brihadeshevara Temple. Highlights added.

Layout

Visitors to the temple enter through a large gopuram (orange highlights in Fig. 102).

A 16th century Nayak Period Nandi pavilion (pink highlights in Fig. 102) stands to the eastof the primary temple.

The temple itself has an open entrance hall (ardha-mandapa; blue highlights in Fig. 102and Fig. 103 for location; and Fig. 104), also dating from the Nayak Period (1559-1736), thataffords access to the original, enclosed hypostyle hall (mandapa; green highlights in Fig.102 and Fig. 103).

The hypostyle hall, in turn, leads to the square garbha-griha sanctuary(red highlights Fig.102 and Fig. 103), which is surrounded by an ambulatory(yellow highlights Fig. 102 andFig. 103).

The entrances to the core sanctuaryare anked by enormous guardian gures wieldingclubs.


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AMERICAS

Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras: Maya Art & Architecture
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New York City: Cast Iron Architecture in SoHo & TriBeCa

Wine Guide to Argentina and Chile

JAPAN

Guide to Sushi & Sake (includes introduction and map to Tsukiji Market in Tokyo, Japan)

WINE GUIDES

Italian Wine Guide

Spanish Wine Guide

Wine Guide to Argentina and Chile

Wines of Australia

Wines of New Zealand

Wines of France: Burgundy

Wines of France: Loire Valley
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Praise for Approach Guides

Compulsive (and compulsively informed) travelers, the Raezers are the masterminds behindthe downloadable Approach Guides, which are lled with a university course-worth of historyand insights for 62 destinations worldwide. Why we love it. The Raezers share our desire fordeep, well-researched information on the wonders of the world.

Travel + Leisure

What started as one couples travel notes aimed at lling in the gaps in guidebooks has becomeApproachGuides.com a menu of downloadable travel guides that cover cultural and histori-cal topics of interest to thoughtful travelers. Whats hot: Bite-sized travel guides that special-ize in topics ranging from ... the foods of Italy to one that helps you explore the historical andarchitectural signicance of Angkors famous temple structures in Cambodia.

Los Angeles Times


28/28

About Approach Guides

Approach Guides offers a complete range of cultural travel guidebooks to locations throughout theworld. Find a guide for your next destination at www.approachguides.com

Join the Approach Guides travel community

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The greatest people we meet are the ones who nd us through our guidebooks. Email us at [email protected] to let us know about your experience with Approach Guides many ofour recent updates have been inspired by customers like you. We personally respond to every email.

Check out our wine guide for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad at www.agwine.com
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