indo-pak history

8/7/2019 Indo-Pak history

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The Muslim conquest of Persia including the provinces of Kirman and Makran

brought the Arabs face to face with the then ruler of Sindh who had made common

cause with the ruler of Makran against the Muslims.

Arabia and the sub-continent had the trade relations since ages.

The Arabs had settlements on the coast of southern India, which then provided the

link between the Arab ports and ports of south and Southeast Asia. These commercial activities were increased after Arabs became Muslims and built

an empire.

Some Arab merchants had died in Ceylon and the king of Ceylon sent to Hajjaj, theUmayyad viceroy of the eastern provinces, the orphan daughters of the merchants

and many valuable presents for the caliph and the viceroy in 8 ships.

These ships were plundered by the pirates near the Sindh coast.

These pirates had constantly disturbed the flow of commerce between the Arabports and the Arab establishments of south India and Ceylon.

The ruler of Sindh was Dahar, son of Chuch.

Hajjaj asked the Sindh ruler Dahar for the adequate steps but no positive response

was received from him. This stubborn attitude of Dahar infuriated Hujjaj. He sent a small expedition under

Abaidullah in 710 to punish the Sindhi ruler but it was defeated.

In 711 he sent another army under Badeel but it too failed to achieve the desired

results. It was defeated by Dahars son.

Hujjaj made preparations for a full scale attack. He sent his son-in-law 17 years oldImad-ud-din Muahmmad Bin Qasim to invade Sindh.

Muhammad Bin Qasim at that time was the Governor of Farus.

His army consisted of 6000 Syrian and Iraqi soldiers, a camel corps numbering

6000, and a baggage caravan of 3000 camels.

His siege engines included a manjaniq (ballista) worked by 500 men, and called

the Bride (Arus). He reached Daibul through Makran in 712. On his way to Daibul he conquered

Panjgur and Arman Bela.

The people of Daibul remained inside the strong fortress. The Muslim armies laid a

siege for months.

A red flag was fluttering on a large temple in Daibul. The inhabitants believed that

Daibul would not fall as long that flag was intact. Muhammad Bin Qasim ordered

to bring that flag down using manjaniq. It was done and the defenders lost heart

and Daibul was conquered.

After Debul the Muslims reached Nirun, a city near Hyderabad.

The people of Nirn, including their ruler, were Buddhist.

The ruler of Nirun requested Hujjaj for amnesty which was granted even before theMuslim army reached there.

A Buddhist monk, who was left in charge of the city, surrendered.

The victorious army then proceeded to Savistan. The Buddhist Nirun ruleraccompanied the Muslims. Here Dahars nephew Bajahra was the ruler. He wanted

to put up a fight but the people did not support him so he had to flee.

Bajahra reached Sasum and tried to gather army to fight the Muslims but the

Buddhist ruler refused to support him and cooperated with the invaders.


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Bajahra put up some fight but was defeated and killed.

Hujjaj ordered Muhammad Bin Qasim to attack the capital of Dahar.

Muhammad Bin Qasim then crossed the Indus and met Dahar at Roar.

Dahar put up a fierce fight but was defeated and killed.

The Muslim armies then occupied Alor and Sikka(Uchh) before proceeding to

Multan. The Hindus at Multan offered resistance for 2 months but ultimately defeated.

The traders, merchants, artisans, Jats and Meds welcomed Muslims because of the

atrocities of the native rulers.

Muhammad Bin Qasim treated the people with generosity and declared that their

worship places would be protected.

He entrusted the Brahmins and Buddhist with responsible administrative office

particularly in the revenue department. He sent one of his generals to Qanauj but before anything could be achieved he was

recalled by the Caliph because of the politics at the Capital and put in prison on his

return. Later he died in the prison.

Arabs learnt the decimal numerals and chess from the Indians. Indian books on astronomy, such asSiddhanta were translated into Arabic as were

books onAyurvedic medicine.

The book of fables calledKalilah wa Dimnahby the Arabs had its origin in Indian

sources.

Subuktigin was a former slave of the Samanids who had become virtuallyindependent in Central Asia (874-999) and had established a great political and

cultural centre of islam at Bukhara.

Alptigin, who was a Turkish slave of the Samandi ruler, Abd-ul-Malik, was

appointed governor of Khurasan.

Aptigin was removed from governorship on the death of his patron therefore he

moved on to Ghazni and established himself as practically independent ruler in

962.

Subuktigin was the trusted slave and son-in-law of Aptigin.

Subuktigin became ruler of Ghazni on the death of Aptigin on April 20, 977.

Subuktigin extended his empire by annexing Khurasan, Sistan and Lamghan(Jalalabad).

At that time north-western part of Pakistan was ruled by the Hindu Shahi dynasty,

with its capital at Waihind near modern Attock.

In 979 the Hindu shahi Raja Jaipal of Bathinda attacked Ghazni. A battle betweenIndian and Ghazni armies was fought between Lamghan and Ghazni.

Jaipal was defeated and he was spared after he agreed to pay tribute.

Jaipal did not keep his promise of paying tribute rather organized a confederacy ofHindu kings (including among others were Rajyapala, the Pratihara King of

Kanauj, and Dhanga, the ruler of the distant Chandel kingdom to the south of the

Jumna). The allies attacked Subuktigin in 991 and were defeated somewhere in ornear Kurram (or Kumrah) valley and Peshawar was occupied by the Muslims.

In 997 Amir Subuktigin was succeeded by his son Mahmood Ghaznavi.


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In 998 Mahmood conquered Khurasan from the Samanid ruler Abdul Malik ibn

Nuh. From the battlefield at Marw he wrote a letter of allegiance to the Abbasid

Caliph al-Qadir billah.

The Caliph conferred upon him the titles of Yamin-ud-daulah and Amin-ul-millah.

Mahmmood assumed the title of Sultan for himself.

In 1001 Jaipal again organized a vast army consisting of 12000 horsemen, 30000foot and 300 elephants. The battle was fought somewhere near Peshawar. Jaipal

was defeated and taken prisoner but then released on payment of a heavy ransom.

Jaipal committed suicide by self-immolation.

Jaipal was succeeded by his Anandpal.

Anadpal refused to tribute to Mahmood. In 2004 Mahmood attacked Anandpals

territory Bhatiya (Bhera), on the left bank of the Jehlum, and annexed it.

On his return journey from Bhatiya Mahmood was harassed by Abdul Fateh Daud,the Ismaili ruler of Multan. In 2005, after doing enough preparation at Ghazni,

Mahmood set out to punish Daud. On his way to Multan Anandpal tried to obstruct

his passage but was defeated.

Mahmood inflicted a crushing defeat on Daud who paid heavy indemnity. When Mahmood was busy in his Multan compaign he heard that the ruler of

Kashgar had invaded his territory. Mahmood entrusted the newly acquired Indianterritories to Sukhpal, a grandson of Jaipal who had accepted Islam, as governor of

Waihind.

As soon as Mahmood returned to Ghazni, Sukhpal apostatized and renouncedallegiance to Ghazni.

In 2008 Mahmood marched to punish Anandpal who had again organized a large

number of Hindu Rajas to fight the Muslims. These Rajas included the Raja of

Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Qanauj, Delhi and Ajmer.

Great religious fervor prevailed in Hindu masses. Women sold their ornaments to

provide arms to the soldiers.

A fierce battle was fought somewhere between Peshawar and Waihind. At onemoment it looked as if the Hindus were going to be victorious but suddenly the

elephant of Anandpal took fright and fled from the battlefield. His army took it as

an indication of retreat so the Hindu army fled in utter confusion and wasrelentlessly followed by the Muslims.

This defeat ended the Hnidu shahi dynasty and its territory was annexed by

Mahmood.

The fort of Kangra or Nagarkot was the next target of his attack. It was situated atthe top of a hill and was considered invincible. But it offered no resistance to

Mahmood and easily fell into his hands.

In 1014 Mahmood attacked Thanesar and captured it.

Qanauj was the tradition imperial city of the Hindus. In 1019 Mahmood left Ghazni

to subjugate Qanauj. On his way he occupied a number forts and defeated Hindus at

Bulandshahar, Mathura and Brindaban.

Qanauj was the city of 7 forts and ten thousand temples. Its Raja, Rajapala,

submitted without any resistance.

In 1019 Ganda, the Chandela Raja of Kalinjar organized a big confederacy against

Mahmood but was defeated and fled from the battleground.


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Masud was succeeded by his son Mahmud. During his reign the Raja of Delhi

made a desperate attempt to oust the Muslims from the Punjab but could not

succeed.

Mahmud was succeeded by his son Ibrahim who ruled for quite a long time from

1059 to 1099. During his reign the hold on Punjab was strengthened and successful

expeditions were led against Banares, Thanesar and Qanauj. In 1079 Sultan Ibrahim captured Ajodhan, (Presently know as Pakpattan).

During the reign of Bahram (1118-1152) the Afghan valley became the scene of a

tripartite struggle for supremacy. To the already existing antagonism between theGhaznawids and the Seljuks, the rise to power of the Shansabaniya princes in Ghur

added fresh complications.

Ghur is the hilly area between Herat and Kabul.

In a confused struggle between the Ghaznawids and the Guris, Ala-ud-din Husaininflicted a terrible punishment on Ghazni in 1151 by setting fire to the city and

reducing it to ashes. Due to this he was known asJahansuz.

The ruined city to which the Ghaznawids returned fell into the hands of the Ghuzz

Turks and a son of Bahram Khusrau Shah fell back upon the Punjab in 1160, whichwas now the only part of their once vast empire which owed allegiance to the

Ghaznawids.

The Ghaznawid rule over the Peshawar region, the Punjab and Multan lasted for

about two hundred years.

After the fall of Ghazni many poets, writers and philosophers settled in Lahorewhich remained the capital of the area till the time of Iltutmish. Persian became the

language of culture of the Muslim elite.

Ghaznawid Lahore had two prominent persons. The poet Masud Sad Salman who

wrote in Arabic, Persian and Hindi and the famous Ali Hujweri, known as DataGunj Bakhsh, the author ofKash-ul-Mahjub, one of the earliest works on Sufism.

Shansabaniya was the ruling family of Ghur.

Qutb-ud-din Hasan was a Ghuri prince who had taken refuge in the court of SultanBahram of Ghazni. Bahram had also given him a daughter in marriage but later on

killed him.

This cruel murder aroused a feeling of resentment in Ghur and Saifuddin, a brotherpf the deceased prince attacked Ghazni and expelled Bahram from there.

On re-entering Ghazni, Bahram captured Saifuddin and had him executed.

Ala-ud-din, Another brother of Qutb-ud-din, took Ghazni by storm and wreaked

such a vengeance that it never recovered from it. The whole of Ghazni was burnt toashes and the fire kept burning for 7 days.

Later the city was again occupied by the Ghaznawids.

Ghuzz Turks expelled Khusrau Shah from Ghazni so he came to Lahore.

Khusrau Shah was succeeded by Khusrau Malik who an inefficient, luxury loving

and debauch ruler.

Ala-ud-dinJahansuz died in 1163 and was succeeded by his nephew Ghiyas-ud-dinMuhammad bin Sam in the principality of Ghur.

Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad fought against the Ghuzz Turks and captured Ghazni in

1173-74.


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Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad entrusted the rule of Ghazni to his brother Shihabuddin

or Muizz-ud-din Muhammad Bin Sam (better known as Muhammad Ghuri) and

confined himself to ruling his native principality of Ghur.

At that time Khusrau Malik was ruling in Lahore while Multan and Uchh were held

by the Ismailis.

Lower Sindh was held by the Sumra dynasty. Qanauj was being ruled by theGahadwal Rajputs, Dehli and Ajmer by the Chauhans Rajputs, Gujarat by the

Chalukyas (Baghelas) and Bundelkhand by the Chandels.

Muhammad Ghuri crossed Gomal Pass (instead of the Khyber Pass) and reachedDera Ismail Khan and from there to Sindh Sagar Doab. He occupied both Uchh and

Multan in a single expedition in 1175.

He proceeded next against Anilwara, the capital of Gujarat in 1178. his army was

exhausted after a long march through the desert and was repulsed by the ruler. Muhammad Ghuri occupied Peshawar in 1179. From there he proceeded against

Khusrau Malik who submitted.

In 1182 he advanced towards Sindh and captured Daibul and the adjoining areas.

In 1184 he occupied Sialkot. In 1186 Khusrau Malik revolted and thus punished and taken as captive. This ended

Ghaznawid rule once for all.

Now he captured Bhatinda ( a town on the Punjab frontier) which the Chauhans had

taken from the Ghaznawids.

The conquest of Bhatinda was challenged by Prithviraj, the ruler of Delhi-Ajmer.

Prithvi advanced in 1191 with a vast army consisting of 200,000 horses and 3000

elephants. Many other Rajput Rajas joined him to fight Ghauri at Tarain.

During the battle Ghuri came face to face with against Govind Rai, the borther of

Prithvi. Ghuri hit him with his spear knocking out two of his teet. Govind Rai hitthe Sultan with a Javelin which made him bleed profusely and was about to fall. A

young Khalaji soldier jumped in and guided his horse to safety.

The Sultans army dispersed in panic but soon gathered round their leader at Lahoreand returned to Dehli. This is called the first battle of Tarain.

The Sultan made adequate preparations for a second campaign and retuned next

year in 1192 with an army of 120,000 horses and encamped near Tarain.

Prithviraj was this time supported by 120 Rajput Princes of Indian states. His army

numbered 300,000.

After a fierce battle the Hindu army was defeated. Govind Rai was killed in the

battlefield while Prithviraj was captured and later put to death. This is known asSecond battle of Tarain. This battle shattered the power of Chauhan Rajputs.

After Tarain Ghuri occupied Hansi, Kuhram, Sarswati and Samana.

Ajmer was given to a son of Prithvi Raj as a tributary and Dehli was allowed to beruled by Govind Rais successor.

The Sultan then left his faithful officer Qutb-ud-din Aibek in charge of the newly

acquired territories and himself returned to Ghazni.

Shortly after Aibek conquered Mirath, Koil (Modern Aligarh) and Dehli.

Aibek made Dheli as his headquarter.

Qanauj was being ruled by the Gahadwal king, Jayachandra. He hoped to rule India

after Prithvis defeat.


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Ghauri led an expedition against him in 1194 with an army of 50,000 horsemen.

Both armies met in the vicinity of Chandwara and Jayachandra was defeated and

killed.

In Ajmer the Sultans tributary was ousted by his uncle indicating revolt. In 1195

Aibek proceeded to Ajmer crushed the rebellion and this time appointed a Muslim

governor. Aibek then punished Bhimdev II, ruler of Gujarat, who had helped the rebels in

Ajmer. The Raja was killed but Anhilwara beinf too far away was not annexed.

Aibek then occupied Badaun, Banaras (in 1197-98), Sirohi (1198-99), Gwalior(1200), Kalinjar (1202), Mahoba and Kalpi.

The overthrow of the rulers of the eastern kingdoms was effected with the

remarkable ease by Aibeks general Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad Khilji, the son of

Bakhtyar. Initial expedtitons of Muhammad Khilji included occupation ofiqtas of Bhagwat

and Bhili under Malik Husam-ud-din, the governor og Awadh.

In or about 1199 Muhammad Khilji made a sudden dash against the fortress of

Bihar and occupied it. It was in fact a Buddhist monastery (Vihara) calledUdanatapura Vihara and thus the whole country came to be called Bihar by the

Muslims.

In 1200 Muhammad Khilji proceeded through the unfrequented Jharkhand region

and marched so swiftly towards Nadia that only 18 horsemen could keep pace with

him. He was mistaken a horse dealer and passed through the gates ofLakhmansenas palace unopposed. He attacked the royal guards. The king who had

just sat down at his lunch heard the uproar and fled by the back door barefooted.

Meanwhile the main army of Muhammad Khilji arrived. He then proceeded

northward and established his headquarters at Lakhnauti (Lakshmanavati) nearGaur (ancient Ganda) in Maldah.

In 1206 Muhammad Khilji started his ill-fated campaign against Tibet.

He left for this expedition from Devkot (in Dinajpur) with 10000 horsemen up theriver Bhagmati. On reaching the hills he sustained heavy losses in a battle with the

local people. He decided to return but this again proved to be disastrous and only

100 soldiers reached back with him at Devkot.

Muhammad Khilji was stabbed to death by one of his lieutenants in 1206.

Ghuris brother Ghiyas-ud-din at Ghau was resisting pressure from the

Khawarizmshah.

The death of Ghiyas-ud-din in 1202 left Khawarizmshah unopposed.

In 1204 Muhammad Ghauri attacked Khawarizm with a large army.

The Khawarizmshah, Alauddin received assistance from the Qara-Khitai Turks and

thus defeated the army of Muhammad Ghauri. This defeat spread the roumour ogGhauris death and thus ignited rebellions in his empire.

Khokhars grew turbulent in the Panjab and the remittance of revenue from Lahore

to Ghazni was stopped. Muhammad Ghauri himself came to deal with the situation.The combined forces of Ghauri and Aibek crushed the Khokhars.

On his way from Lahore to Ghazni in 1206 the Sultan halted at Damik in the

Jehlum district. There while engaged in his evening prayers, he was assassinated by

an Ismaili fanatic on March 15, 1206.


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As Sultan Muhammad Ghuri had left son, his empire was divided among his

Turkish slaves. His nephew Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud succeeded him at Ghur. One of

his slaves Taj-ud-din Ildiz held Ghazni. Another slave Nasir-ud-din Qubachah washolding Uch while Qutb-ud-din Aibek was in Lahore.

Sultan Muhammad Ghuris nephew Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud Ghuri gave Aibke

freedom and the title of Sultan. Aibek was elected Sultan by the amirs. He ascended to throne in Lahore on June

24, 1206.

Aibek was originally from a Turkish family of Central Asia but was sold as a slaveto the chief qazi of Nishapur who arranged his early education and traning as a

soldier.

After the death of the qazi his sons sold Aibek to a merchant who later on sold him

to Muhammad Ghuri. By dint of his exceptional qualities he rose to the position ofamir-i-akhur(controller of royal stables and establishments of breeding horses).

This was a key post keeping in view the importance of cavalry in those days.

Aibek served Sultan Ghuri with distinction and once in a battle against

Khawarizmshah he was captured but on the defeat of the enemy was released. In 1208 the pressure of Khawarizmshah forced Taj-ud-din Ildiz to quit Ghazni and

march towards the Punjab. Fearing that this might bring Khawarizmshah in pursuit,Aibek drove Ildiz out of Punjab and moved on to occupy Ghazni.

Aibek soon gave up Ghazni and returned to Lahore.

In 1210 Aibek fell from his horse while playing polo and died.

Aibek was the first independent Sultan of the newly established Sultanate of Delhi.

His generosity earned him the title ofLakh Bakhsh.

He was a patron of learning and bestowed favors on Hasan Nizami and Fakhr-i-

Mudabbir.

On the death of Aibek the amirs and maliks in Lahore placed his son Aram Shah on

the throne in 1210.

Because of incompetence of Aram Shah the nobles of Delhi invited Iltutmish,Aibeks son-in-law to govern. Iltutmish was the governor of Badun at that time.

Aram Shah marched from Lahore to Delhi but was defeated and captured by

Iltutmish. Nothing more is heard about him.

Political situation was dismal at that time. Sindh and Multan were held by Nasir-

ud-din Qubachah. Delhi and its environs were in the possession of Iltutmish. In

Bengal Ali Mardan, who had succeeded Muhammad Bin Bakhtyar Khilji, had

declared himself independent. Lahore was the bone of contention betweenQubachah, Iltutmish and Ildiz, who had recovered his position at Ghazni.

Iltutmish belonged to a noble family of Ilbari Turks. His personal qualities arose the

jealousy of his brothers who sold him to a slave dealer. After sometime he waspurchased by Sadr Jahan, the qazi of Bukhara, who educated him. Later he was

brought to Delhi where Aibek bought him and treated him kindly. Iltutmish was

first appointed as sar-jandar(chief of the guards) and later raised to the high officeofamir-i-shikar. He was then appointed amir of Gwalior and later on Governor of

Badaun. He showed great courage at the time of suppression of khokhars which

pleased Sultan Ghuri as lot.


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Iltutmish acceded to throne in 1211 and immediately faced a strong revolt of many

nobles. He successfully suppressed the rebels and brought the country between

Banaras and the Siwalik hills under his control.

In an attempt to reconcile with Ildiz he accepted the insignia of royalty sent by him.

Lahore had meanwhile passed into the hands of Qabachah. In 1214 Khawarizmshah ejected Ildiz from Ghazni who came to Lahore and

established himself there.

In 1215 Iltutmish marched against Ildiz and defeated him on the historicalbattlefield of Tarain. Ildiz was made a captive and later on executed.

Lahore was again occupied by Qabachah who was also defeated by Iltutmish and

compelled to surrender the upper Punjab.

At this time Mongols had devastated Balkh, Bukhara, Herat and Samarqand. TheKhawarizmshahi Empire was also relentlessly put to an end. Ala-ud-din

Muhammad was forced to seek shelter in a Caspian Island where he ecentually died

while the crown prince Jalal-ud-din Mangbarni was pushed across the Indus to find

refuge in Sindh Sagar doab in 1221. Jalal-ud-din requested Iltutmish for support or shelter but Iltutmish politely

refused him because it have attracted a Mongol invasion. Jalal-ud-din went to theSalt Range and first fought with Khokhars then established matrimonial alliance

with them.

Jalal-ud-din then defeated Qabachah and compelled him to pay a heavy tribute.After 3 years of wandering in West Punjab he attacked Sindh and then went to

Persia in 1224.

According to scholars the refusal by Iltutmish to support Jalal-ud-din at that time

saved the newly created Delhi Sultanate from the Mongol wrath.

In Bengal the Khalaji ruler Husamud-din Iwaz had assumed the title of Sultan

Ghiyas-ud-din and extended his authority over the territories of Jajnagar, Bang,

Kamprup, and Tirhut.

In 1225 Iltutmish led an expedition against Iwaz who submitted and acknowledged

his authority. Iltutmish returned after appointing his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmood

governor of Awadh.

In 1227 Nasir-ud-din Mahmood attacked Lakhnauti and killed Iwaz.

Iltutmish then launched a series of expeditions against the Hindus who had

recovered most of their lost territories. In 1226 he re-conquered Ranthambore and

took Mandawar in the Siwalik Hills in 1227.

When Qabachah was busy tackling Jalal-ud-din Iltutmish occupied Lahore.

In 1228 Iltutmish marched against Uchch and directed his lieutenant from Lahore to

attack Multan.

Qabachah withdrew to the Island fortress of Bhakkar in the lower Indus.

After a siege of about 3 months Uchch was captured.

An army from Delhi also pressed hard on Qabachah in his Island refuge when hestarted negotiations for a settlement. In an attempt to escape Qabachah was

drowned in Indus. After his death the Sumra ruler of lower Sindh, Sinan-ud-din

Chanesar, also submitted to Iltutmish.


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In 1229 the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansar billha through a letter invested him with

the monarchy of all the territories in his possession. After this investure Iltutmish

issued new coins with the Caliphs name inscribed on them and describing himselfas the Helper of the commander of the Faithful. He also introduced purely Arabic

coinage and issued silverTankah, the precursor of the modern rupee.

In 1231 Iltutmish besieged the fortress of Gwalior. Its ruler, Mangal Dev, escapedsecretly after an years resistance.

In 1231-32 Iltutmish built the famous Qutb Minar in honor of the great saint

Khawajah Qutb-ud-din Bakhtyar Kaki.

In 1234 Iltutmish. Invaded Malwa, captured the fort of Bhilsa and Ujjain and thus

extended the boundaries of his empire to Narbada. On his return a group of

Ismailis made an unsuccessful assassination attempt on his life.

The prominent people in his court were Fakh-i-Mudabbir, historian Minhaj-i-Sirajand the poet Taj-ul-Mulk Rizah.

At the end of 1235 he led an expedition against the Khokhars but on the way he

fell seriously ill and was carried back to Delhi in a litter. He died in April 1236 after

a reign of 26 years. Iltutmish laid the administration on sound basis. In this task he was assisted by his

famous wazir Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi.

Iltutmish named his daughter Raziyah as his successor in preference to his sons.

In spite of the wish of Iltutmish the nobles raised to throne his eldest surviving son

Rukn-ud-din Firuz in April 1236.

Rukn-ud-din Firuz was a pleasure-seeking and incapable ruler. The business of the

state passed into the hands of his mother, Shah Turkan. She was an intriguer and

removed her rivals by putting them to death. She also got killed one of the younger

sons of Iltutmish, Qutb-ud-din. This infuriated the nobles and they revolted.

The governors of Badaun, Multan, Hansi, and Lahore entered into a conspiracy

against Rukn-ud-din Firuz.

In Bengal Tughril assumed independence. Rukn-ud-din Firuz started from Delhi tothe deal with the rebels but desertions in his army and the news of a revolt at Delhi

forced him to return to the capital.

In Delhi Shah Turkan precipitated a crisis by capturing he step-daughter Raziyah toput her to death.

The people of Delhi rose in favor of Raziyah and Shah Turkan was taken as a

prisoner.

The Turkish officers now rallied around Raziyah and proclaimed her queen.

Rukn-ud-din Firuz was captured and imprisoned where he died on 9 th Nov. 1236

after a reign of about 7 months.

Raziyah had had the chance to show her qualities to govern in the life time ofIltutmish when he entrusted her with the business of the state when he went for his

Gwalior expedition.

Raziyah acceded to throne with the title Jalalat-ud-din Raziyah in Nov. 1236.

The provincial nobles who had revolted against Firuz felt dismayed at not being

consulted before her accession to the throne and they marched against Delhi.

Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi also did not her right to sovereignty and joined the rebels.


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Raziyah came out of palace and encamped near the rebel forces on the bank of the

River Jumna. By unsusal courage and diplomacy she created divisions among her

enemies and with the help of one group crushed the other.

Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi fled to the Sirmur hills where he died.

Raziyah appointed Khawajah Muhazzib-ud-din Husain as her wazir with the title

Nizam-ul-Mulk. All the governors now showed their allegiance to her. Even the governors of the

distant provinces of Bengal and Sindh submitted to her rule.

Her army dealth effectively with the rebellion of Ismailis who under the leadershipof Nur-ud-din Turk assembled at Delhi and a force of one thousand fully armed

men launched an attack on the worshippers in the Jamia mosque of Delhi on March

5, 1237.

She appeared in court and in the battlefield attired in male dress. She promoted an Abyssinian named Jalal-ud-din Yaqut to the post ofamir-i-akhur

and made him her personal attendant. This was intended to break the monopoly of

the Turkish officers.

The Turkish nobles reacted to it and the group of Forty under Aitigin decided toremove her.

The group of Forty was created by Iltutmish as his supporters but had grown toostrong now.

In 1239 the governor of Punjab was the first to revolt but his revolt was

successfully suppressed.

This was followed by the revolt of the governor of Bhatinda, Altuniya.

She proceeded to Bhatinda to crush the rebellion but faced defeat. Yaqut was killed

and Raziyah was taken captive and imprisoned in the fortress of Bhatinda in the

custody of Altuniya.

The rebels then proceeded to Delhi where the third son of Iltutmish had been raised

to the throne by the Forty with the title Muizzuddin in April 1240.

While in prison Raziyah in a desperate attempt to regain her throne married hercaptor and together they marched towards Delhi but were defeated. They both fled

but were killed by Hindu robbers.

Bahram was made king on the condition that Aitigin would act as the Sultansdeputy. But Aitigin also tried to have some royal prerogatives. This infuriated

Sultan Bhram who got him killed.

Another noble Badr-ud-din Sanqar was also killed on the conspiring against the

Sultan.

The Turkish oligarchy now organized a rebellion against the Sultan.

These intrigues weakened the royal authority this encouraged the Mongol leader,

Bahadur Tair to come from Khurasan and Ghazni and attack Lahore. The governorof Lahore fled and the city was occupied by the Mongols on December 22, 1241.

Mongols as usual killed a large majority of people. The army which the Sultan sent

to beat the Mongols became rebellious itself and fell back upon the Delhi. Theybesieged the Sultan in his palace for over 3 months and occupied the city. The

Sultan was taken as a prisoner and then killed.

The nobles then raised to throne Ala-ud-din Masud, son of Rukn-ud-din Firuz in

1242.


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During the reign of Ala-ud-din Masud (1242-1245) East Bengal and Bihar broke

away from the centre and Multan, Sindh and Upper Punjab were also lost to the

Sultanate.

Ala-ud-din Masud appointed Baha-ud-din Balban, later know as Ulugh Khan, as

amir hajib.

Balban organized a large army to repel the Mongol invaders. He got relieved Uchchand forced the Mongols back.

Ala-ud-din Masud tried to re-establish the prestige of the monarchy and curb the

power of the Forty.

The Turkish officers now deposed him and Nasir-ud-din Mahmood was made

Sultan in 1246.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmood was a son of Iltutmish and was a pious and generous man.

His reign (1246-1266) was a period of increasing court intrigues and weakeningroyal authority. This state of affairs again invited attacks from Mongols.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmood was fortunate to have Balban as amir hajib. Balban was a

man of strong personality and most of the state business was being run him.

Balban was son of a Turkish noble of the Ilbari tribe. He was captured by theMongols and sold in Baghdad to Khawaja Jamal-ud-din Basri. Later in 1232 he was

taken to Dehli and sold to Iltutmish.

Under Nasir-ud-din Mahmood Balban paid attention to restore the central authority.

In 1247 he punished the Khokhars and Jats of the Salt Range who had assisted the

Mongols. In 1248 he undertook several expeditions against the rebellious Hinduchiefs of the Doab.

There was a strong fortress called Talsandah near Qanauj. Balban conquered this

fortress after a severe battle. The territory between Kalinjar and Karah was cleared

of rebels. In Mewat, south of Dehli, he crushed the Meos. Next to be re-occupiedwas Ranthambore.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmood married one of the daughters of Balban and appointed himmalik naib (Lord Lieutenant of the Empire) with the title Ulugh Khan. His brotherSaif-ud-din was appointed amir hajib.

The jealous nobles succeeded in poisoning the ears of the Sultan against Balban

who removed him from the office in 1253.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmood now appointed Imad-ud-din Raihan, a converted Muslim,

as wakil-i-darand entrusted him with the powers enjoyed by Balban.

The Turkish amirs were soon disillusioned and again rallied around Balban and

marched towards Delhi. The Sultan came out to oppose them but an armed conflictwas avoided when the Sultan agreed to dismiss Raihan and reinstate Balban in his

previous position in January 1255.

Qutlugh Khan, governor of Awadh and Kishlu Khan, governor of Multan andUchch combined their forces and marched towards Delhi to oust Balban from

power. They were utterly defeated. Kishlu Khan fled back to Uchch while Qutlugh

Khan was never heard of.

Kishlu Khan got in touch with Hulagu Khan and the Mongol army invaded Punjab

and was ready to cross the River Sutlej. The Sultan sent a large army to counter the

threat posed by the Mongols who retreated before the royal army could arrive.

In 1260 Balban inflicted crushing defeat on resurgent Meos of Mewat.


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In early 1260s an envoy from Hulagu Khan visited Delhi. This was in reply to a

friendly overture made by Balban. The Mongol envoy was given an impressive

reception. Armed men numbering 200,000 foot and 50,000 horse with banners andother equipment were assembled in the new city of Kilokhari near Delhi. They were

drawn up shoulder to shoulder in 20 lines. The Mongol envoy was awestruck by the

grandeur and majesty of the Delhi Sultanate. During the reign of Nasir-ud-din Mahmood the attempts were made to bring the

principality of Lakhnauti under effective control but only with limited success.

In 1252-53 Mughis-ud-din Yuzbek was appointed the governor of Awadh, Biharand Bengal. He extended his boundaries in Bengal by conquering Radha and Nadia.

Mughis-ud-din Yuzbek announced his independence from the central authority.

After his death Arsalan Khan became the ruler of Awadh.

On the death of Arsalan Khan his son Tatar Khan succeeded him with the title ofChief of All the Maliks of China and the East.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmood fell ill in 1265 and died on Feb. 18, 1266.

Nasir-ud-din Mahmood was known to earn his livelihood by copying Quran.

Balaban succeeded Nasir-ud-din Mahmood as Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Balban early in1266.

Balban enforced recognized forms of court etiquette strictly.

Balban claimed his descent from Afrasiyab, the legendary Turanian hero of

Shahnama. He gave Persian names to his grandsons: Kaikhusrau, Kaiqubad,

Kaikaus, Kaimurs.

Balban was always serious in his public life. He was known to be a strong and just

King who kept the country safe from the Mongol invasion.

In administering justice he never cared for the position of the person. He gave

exemplary punishments to the Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun and HaibatKhan, the governor of Awadh for their offences.

Balban strengthened the system of newswriters(barids) reported to him the

activities of the local officers.

Because of the fears of the Mongol invasions Balban did not pursue the policy of

conquests so rarely left the capital.

His cousin Sher Khan, the governor of the frontier provinces of Multan andDipalpur, proved to be a great obstacle for the Mongols.

After the death of Sher Khan Balabans eldest son Muhammad was appointed the

governor of the provinces of Multan and Dipalpur. The district of Samana was

separated and put under his second son Bughra Khan.

The Meos had recovered from the early actions taken against them and had

resumed their notorious activites of plundering the travelers etc. In the years 1266-

67 Balban got the jungles cleared and drove these culprits from their hideouts.

The Doab between the Ganges and Jumna was also made safe by appointing

Muslim soldiers there and maintaining new posts.

In 1268 he suppressed the insurgency in Katehar (Rohailkhand).

In 1268-69 Balban led punitive expeditions against the Jats of the Salt Range and

restored order in the Punjab.

In 1279 the combined forces of Muhammad and Bughra Khan inflicted heavy

defeats on the invading Mongols when they had crossed the Sutlej River.


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In 1279 Tughril declared independence in Bengal and adopted the title of Mughis-

ud-din. He defeated two armies sent by Balaban. This enraged Balban who led an

expedition himself in 1280 and put and end to it by killing Tughril and hissupporters.

Balban appointed his son Bughra Khan as governor of Bengal.

In 1286 his crown prince Muhammad died in an encounter with the Mongols on theLahore-Dipalpur border. The news of the death of that remarkable prince broke the

heart of the Sultan but he kept his composure.

Muhammad was a cultured, noble and courageous prince. He patronized men ofletters like Amir Khusraw and Amir Hasan Sijzi.

Being quite old now himself Balban summoned Bughra Khan to come to Delhi.

Bughra Khan spent sometime with him but then went back to luxurious life of

Lakhnauti. This act of his was disliked by Balban who now nominatedMuhammads son Kaikhusraw as the next Sultan.

Balban died in 1287.

The nobles of Delhi, in disregard of Balbans advice, raised to the throne Bughra

Khans son Kaiqubad who was only 17 years old. Kaiqubad proved to be a pleasure seeking king. The administration was conducted

by Malik Nizam-ud-din, son-in-law of the aged Kotwal Fakhr-ud-din. At hisinstigation the Sultan killed Kaikhusraw and removed Khawaja Khatir, the wazir.

Bughra Khan wrote letters to his son to act like a sensible person but in vain.

Bughra Khan then decided to go to Delhi. Kaiqubad marched from Delhi to preventhis father to reach the capital.

A meeting was arranged between father and son on the banks of the Sarju in

Awadh. As the father attended the court he bowed and kissed the ground before his

son who was sitting on the throne. Kaiqubad was overwhelmed with emotion andhe threw himself on the feet of his father. Bughra Khan advised Kaiqubadto get rid

of Malik Nizam-ud-din.

This meeting provided the theme of one of the poems ( Qiran-us-sadain) of AmirKhusraw.

Kaiqubad, on return to Delhi, ordered Malik Nizam-ud-din to proceed to Multan as

governor. On his hesitation to comply with the order the Sultan had him killed.

The Sultan appointed a Khalaji Malik, named Firuz, as ariz-i-mumalik.

The luxurious life led by the Sultan resulted in breakdown of his health. He got a

stroke of paralysis and was on the verge of death.

Firuz Khalaji attempted to capture the throne. The Turkish nobles raised Kaimurs,3 years old son of Kaiqubad to throne with the title of Shamsuddin. They hoped to

rule themselves on his behalf.

In the confusing struggle that ensued Firuz Khalaji prevailed. He got Kaiqubadkilled and took Kaimurs in his custody.

For three months Firuz Khalaji conducted the affairs of the state as regent but

finally decalred himself Sultan with the title Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah in theunfinished palace of Kilukhari on June 13 th, 1290. This resulted in the end to

Turkish sultanate.

The Khalajis were Central Asian in origin but had lived in Afghanistan so long that

they had become different from the Turks.


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The overwhelming Turk population of Delhi initially did not like the change but the

mildness and generosity of Firuz Shah removed all prejudice against him.

Firuz Shah remained in Kilukhari for sometime but later on entered Delhi and tookresidence in the royal Red Palace of Balaban. It is said that on reaching the palace

he dismounted from the horse and wept. He expressed his unworthiness to occupy

the throne but the chaos and anarchy of the Sultanate forced him to do so. This actof his won him many friends.

Firuz Shah retained Ala-ud-din Kishlu Khan ( famous as Malik Chhajju), a

nephew of Balban, as the governor of Karah-Manikpur. Malik Chhajju was the solesurvivor of the old dynasty.

Khawaja Khatir, the wazir under Balban and Kaiqubad, was retained in his office.

Fakhr-ud-din, the Kotwal of Delhi, was re-employed.

The eldest son of Firuz Shah got the title of Khan Khanan, the second Arkali Khanand the third Qadr Khan. His youngest son was appointed ariz-i-mumalik.

His nephew and son-in-law Ala-ud-din was made amir tuzuk. Another nephew

Almas Beg was appointed as akhur beg.

Another outspoken cousin Ahmed Chap was appointed naib barbek. After about two months of accession of Firuz Shah Malik Chhajju pressed his claim

to the throne and assumed royal title at Karah.

Malik Chhajju was joined by the governor of Awadh and he marched to Delhi with

a large army. The Sultans army stopped him near Badun and defeated him. Malik

Chhajju was brought before the Sultan in fetters. The Sultan again wept and orderedthe release of the prisoners. On the rebuke from from Ahmed Chap the Sultan said

that he did not like to shed the blood of the Muslims.

He now posted his nephew and son-in-law Ala-ud-din as governor of Karah.

Firuz Shah also showed unwise kindness to the thugs and instead of punishing themthey were sent to Bengal as free people.

Such a behavior ignited seditions.

Sidi Maula, a disciple of Shaikh Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar, maintained a hospice atDelhi where large number of people were fed everyday. Khan Khanan is said to

have been of his disciples. But the hospice soon became a centre of political

intrigue, and a conspiracy to kill Firuz and declare Sidi Maula as the Caliph wasunearthed. All the conspirators including Sidi Maula were arrested.

Sidi Maula was then put to death by a qalandar at the instance of the Sultan.

Khan Khanan died shortly after Sidi Maula.

In 1290 the sultan led an expedition to Ranthambhor, leaving his second son ArkaliKhan as regent at the capital. The Sultan captured the fortress of Jain but when the

Rana fortified himself in Ranthambhor and offered resistance, he decided not

besiege it. To Ahmed Chaps objections he replied that ten such forts were notworth the loss of a single hair of a Muslim.

In 1292 Mongols, numbering 150,000, under Abdullah invaded the subcontinent

penetrating as far as Sunnam. The Sultan, who had earlier encountered the Mongolsas warden of the marches, at once set out to meet the invaders and completely

overpowered them.


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The Mongols then withdrew. Ulghu, a descendant of Chengiz Khan decide to stay

back. He accepted Islam with 4000 of his followers and the Sultan gave him his

daughter in marriage.

These New Muslims, as they were called, entered the Sultans service and were

settled in the suburbs of Delhi. Some of them returned back to their homes because

of climate. In 1292 the Sultan also undertook expeditions against Mandor and Jain territory.

Towards the end of 1292 Ala-ud-din obtained permission of the Sultan to invade

Malwa and captured it and Bhilsa. The Sultan was pleased with him and appointedhim ariz-i-mumalikand added Awadhto his charge of Karah.

While in Bhilsa Ala-ud-din heard about the vast wealth of the southern Kingdom of

Deogir.

After getting permission to raid Chanderi from the Sultan Ala-ud-din raised anarmy of 8000 and reached Ellichpur, the northern outpost of the Yadava kingdom

of Deogir, in Feb. 1296. First posing as a dissatisfied Delhi noble seeking service

with some ruler Ala-ud-din pushed on unhindered and appeared before Deogir.

At that time the main Yadava army was away with Ramachandaras son Shankara(Singhana) on a pilgrimage to the south. Ala-ud-din attacked Deogir and

Ramachandara, seeing no escape, sued for peace. Ala-ud-din concluded a treaty.

Shankara on hearing about this hurried back to the capital and attacked the Muslim

army. The timely arrival of Nusrat Khan with a contingent helped Ala-ud-din to

defeat the Hindu army. Now Ala-ud-din dictated fresh and harsher terms for peace.He demanded cession of Ellichpur and the payment of a huge indemnity.

Ala-ud-din returned to Karah on June 3, 1296.

Sultan was not aware of this lengthy campaign of Ala-ud-din. On knowing this he

was very happy and expressed the desire to go to meet him. Ahmad Chap wanredhim against such a dangerous step and advised him to intercept Ala-ud-din at

Chanderi. But the Sultan did not pay any heed to his advice.

Ala-ud-din wrote a couple of letters to the Sultan apologizing for carrying outthese expeditions without his permission and invited him to come to Karah.

Firuz proceeded by river to Karah with a few trusted courtiers while an army

followed him by land.

Ala-ud-dins brother Almas Beg, who accompanied the Sultan from Delhi,

persuaded him to meet his nephew with a few unarmed attendants as the armed

guards were likely to frighten Ala-ud-din.

On the seeing the Sultan Ala-ud-din fell on his feet. Firuz raised him up assuringhim of his continued affection. But as the Sultan led Ala-ud-din to his boat two

assassins attacked the Sultan and killed him on July 20, 1296.

There are many possibilities for the likely conspirators or behind the doormachinations involved in this assassination but none offers a satisfactory answer.

Immediately after the murder of Jalal-ud-din Firuz Ala-ud-din was proclaimed

Sultan. The division in Firuzs family helped Ala-ud-dins cause. In total disregardof Arkali Khan, the eldest surviving son, the queen-mother Malikah-i-Jahan

declared a younger son of Firuz as Sultan with the title of Rukn-ud-din Ibrahim.

The supporters of Arkali Khan at Delhi refused to recognize Ibrahim.


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Ala-ud-din lost no time and marched on Delhi with iron in one hand and gold in

the other.

At Badaun Ala-ud-din met an army sent from Delhi to oppose him but it was wonover by lavish distribution of gold.

As Ala-ud-din approached Delhi, Ibrahim came out to give a fight but the bulk of

his army deserted him. Ibrahim left for Multan with the queen-mother and AhmedChap.

Ala-ud-din marched into Delhi and resided in the Red Palace of Balban on Oct. 20,

1296.

Ala-ud-din confirmed Khawaja Jahan (Khawaja Khatir) as Wazir. Ala-ul-Mulk

was appointed governor of Karah. Zafar Khan was made ariz-i-mumalik.

Nusrat Khan was appointedKotwalof Delhi. Qazi Sadr-i-Jahan was given the

office ofqazi-i-mummalik. Ala-ud-dins brother Almas Beg was the recipient of the highest title ofUlugh

Khan, Malik Sanjar, the brother of his second wife was given the title ofAlf(Alp)

Khan.

After reorganization Ala-ud-din sent Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan with a largearmy to Multan to deal with the sons of the late Sultan Firuz. Multan was besieged

and the city surrendered. Arkali Khan, Ibrahim and Ahmad Chap were takencaptive alongwith the queen-mother. The two princes were executed while the

queen-mother was kept under surveillance at Delhi.

In 1297-98 a Mongol army, 100,000 strong led by Kadar invaded the Punjab.Ulugh Khan defeated them near Jullundhar. They appeared again in Sind in 1299

under Saldi and this time Zafar Khan defeated them and captured 2000 Mongols.

These captives were sent to Delhi in chains.

In 1298 Ala-ud-din sent Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat. TheBaghela Chief Rai Karan offered some resistance but then fled with his daughter

Deval Devi to seek shelter with Raja Ramchandra of Deogir leaving his wife

Kamala Devi who fell into the hands of the Muslim army.

Nusrat Khan then proceeded to the rich port city of Cambay and obtained enormous

booty.

Here Nusrat Khan got a handsome Hindu eunuch who later became famous asMalik Kafur.

After the establishment of Muslim administration in Gujarat, Ulugh Khan and

Nusrat Khan started for Delhi but on the way some new converts rebelled over

distribution of booty and they killed Nusrat Khans brother and a nephew of theSultan. Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan stood firm and by the beat of drums

assembled the loyal soldiers who defeated the rebels and killed most of them.

According to Barani Ala-ud-din became power drunk with his early successes andthought of creating a new religion and conquering the world like the Alexander.

The advice of Ala-ul-Mulk, the sagaciousKotwalof Delhi, prevented him from

initiating these absurd things. Amir Khusraw does not mention any of these things.

Towards the end of 1299 a large horde of 200,000 Mongols under Qutlugh Khan

crossed the Indus and advanced up to Delhi. The Sultan decided to face the

Mongols in the suburbs of Siri and went out of the city. He succeeded in defeating


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and dispersing Mongols but lost his great general Zafar Khan in the pursuit of the

enemy.

The ruler of Ranthambhor, Hamir Deo, gave shelter to the rebellious new converts.The Sultan sent Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to punish him with a large army.

Ranthambhor had a strong fortress of strategic importance. The Muslim army

besieged the fortress. During the siege Nusrat Khan was struck by a weapon anddied shortly afterwards. This disheartened thje Muslims and Ulugh Khan was

forced to retreat.

The Sutlan himself marched to Ranthambhor. On his way a rebel made anunsuccessful attempt on his life. The Sultan again laid a siege on Ranthambhor.

The siege of Ranthambhor was in progress when the Sultan heard that his two

nephews rebelled in Badun and Awadh but were soon overpowered.

A much more serious rebellion was raised in Delhi by Haji Maula, an old servant ofthe house of Balban. The Delhi populace was discontented by the aggression of the

newKotwalTirmizi. On instigation from Haji Maula in May 1301 the people of

Delhi rose in rebellion and killed theKotwal. They plundered the treasury and

raised to throne a Saiyid and compelled other people of the city to pay homage tohim.

The Sultan sent his foster-brother Malik Hamid-ud-din to Delhi. He assembled hissmall band of followers and forced his way through the western gate of the city and

was soon joined by some loyal elements who now attacked Haji Maula and killed

him. The Saiyid was beheaded in the Red Palace and order was restored in Delhi.

The Sultan now concentrated his energies on the siege of Ranthambhor. Using sand

bags to fill the moat, the Muslims scaled the walls and captured the fortress on July

11, 1301. Hamir Deo was killed.

Shortly after the conquest of Ranthambhor Sultans brother Ulugh Khan died.

Now the Sultan began to supervise the working of the government personally. He

strengthened the intelligence service. He prohibited the manufacture, sale and

drinking of wine. He himself gave up drinking.

The Sultan went further and prohibited social gatherings in the houses of the nobles

and marriages between members of their families without his permission.

Then he withdrew all grants of land which could not be justified on the basis of theservice rendered to the state. Wherever was possible salaries were paid in cash.

The main source of the government income was the state demand on agricultural

produce. He decided to raise the share of the state to the Islamic maximum of a

half.

Then he made the rule of Measurement the practice instead of actual division of the

crops. Under Measurement the land actually cultivated was measured and state

demand was fixed on the basis of schedules of average produce for the areaconcerned.

He took steps to see that the peasants were justly treated and what they paid came

to the coffers of the state rather than go to the pockets of the middlemen. Hetherefore, took steps to control the local Hindu revenue agents and officials who

had so far become rich at the cost of the state and the peasant.


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In or about 1302 Ala-ud-din sent an expedition to Warangal under the command of

Fakhr-ud-din Jauna (the future Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughluq) and Malik

Chhajju, nephew of the late Nusrat Ali.

Proceeding from Karah through Bengal and Orissa the Muslim army entered

Telingana and reached the neighborhood of Warangal. The Muslim failed to

capture this heavily fortified city. In 1n January 1303 the Sultan started on an expedition to Mewar. Chittor, the

capital of Mewar, was situated on a hilltop and was practically invincible. When the

Sultan besieged the fortress, the Rajputs under Rana Ratan Singh put up a stiff fightand resisted all attempts at the occupation of the fortress for about seven months. At

last being hard pressed, the Rajputs came out of the fortress and were defeated after

a strong fight.

The Sultan appointed his son Khizr Khan to the government of Chittor and namedthe place Khizrabad in his honor.

Following the conquest of Chittor the Sultans troops carried on protracted

campaigns in different parts of Rajputana. These resulted in the subjugation of

Siwana and Jalor. The losses suffered by the Mongols in 1299 had quietened them for a while but

Sultans preoccupation with the Chittor expedition prompted them to attack again.An amry of 1, 20,000 Mongols under Targhi advanced towards Delhi and camped

on Jamna in 1303. The Sultan had just returned from Chittor and the city was ill-

defended and ill-provided with the provisions. The Mongols blockaded the city.

Finding himself without adequate forces the Sultan retired into the fortress of Siri

and the Mongols felt free to plunder the countryside and even enter the streets of

Delhi. The invaders, however, retreated after two months probably they had not

come prepared to laying a siege.

Delhi escaped from annihilation at the hands of the Mongols and it seemed so

miraculous that the people attributed it to the prayers of Shaikh Nizam-ud-din

Auliya.

The Sultan now initiated reforms for army and defense of the state. All the old forts

on the frontier were repaired and heavily garrisoned. New forts were also

constructed. A large and permanent standing army was created. To ensureefficiency and discipline in the army a whole set of new army regulations was

introduced.

To keep his soldiers satisfied and loyal he ordered that the salaries be paid in cash

instead of land. He introduced two very important army reforms, namely, thepreparation of a description roll (chihra) of every soldier and the branding of

horses (dagh) with special marks to avoid deception. The annual pay of a well-

equipped cavalryman with two horses was fixed at 234 tankas.

The salaries of other government officials were also fixed on a modest scale. To

enable all of them to live comfortably and to the resources of the state go further he

established an efficient system of price control.

Ala-ud-din prepared a realistic tariff fixing the prices of all the commodities, food

grains, horses, cattle, cloth etc. Peasants were ordered to sell grains to the registered

dealers at controlled rates. Money was advanced to approved dealers to enable them

to purchase goods in large quantities.


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All merchants were required to registered themselves with the office of the

superintendent of the market (shahnah-i-mandi) and bring their articles to thesara-i-adl, the official market, where all commodities were presented for sale atcontrolled rates. Government assistance was given to the merchants to import

articles in short supply and not manufactured in the Empire.

The superintendent of the market and his staff kept a vigilant eye on all transactionsin the market. Hoarding of food grains was prohibited.

Due to these reforms the Sultan succeeded in maintaining a vast army of a million

horses. The people were happy because of the economic reforms and were able toget the necessities at cheaper rates.

The historian Barani has referred to a conversation between the Sultan and Qazi

Mughis-ud-din. The Qazi advised the Sultan to follow the path of the Caliphs as far

as his personal expenditures from the state treasury were concerned. The Qazo alsoinformed the Sultan that the zimmis were being treated with too much consideration

and that the troopers were being given the share of one fifth of the booty while in

the days of the caliphs there used to get four-fifth. The Qazi told the Sultan that the

punishments affilicted by him were too harsh. The Sultan rewarded the Qazi for hiscourage.

In 1305 some 50,000 Mongols under Ali Beg and Tartaq crossed the Indus andavoiding the frontier garrisons and the capital attacked the Doab and Awadh.

Ala-ud-din sent Malik Nayak with an army of 40,000 horses against the Mongols

and defeated them near Amroha. Both the Mongol leaders were taken captive andexecuted.

To avenge the death of their leaders the Mongols again invaded the subcontinent in

1306.

A Mongol army under Kabak proceeded through Multan towards Ravi and anotherunder Iqbalmand and Taibu marched towards Nagaur. Malik Kafur together with

Ghazi Malik advanced against the forces of Kabak and defeated them on the bank

of the Ravi. Then Malik Kafur marched towards the other Mongol army in Nagaurand defeated them and took a large number of prisoners.

This was the last Mongol invasion during the reign of Ala-ud-din.

In 1305 the Sultan sent his governor of Gujarat Ain-ul-Mulk against Malwa. Thearmy of Malwa under Raja Mahlak and Koka Pradhana was defeated and the

leaders were killed. Then the fort of Manda was besiged and occupied. The cities of

Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi were also occupied.

Ain-ul-Mulk was allowed to add Malwa to his governorship of Gujarat.

About the years 1306-7 the Sultan turned his focus towards the south. Raja

Ramachandra of Deogir had not only stopped paying tribute for several years but

had also given shelter to Raja Karan of Gujarat and his daughter Deval Devi.

The Kamala Devi had now married Ala-ud-din and had desired to get her daughter.

In 1307 the Sultan appointed Malik Kafur to the supreme command of the army to

attack Deogir and directed Ain-ul-Mulk and Alp Khan to help him.

Kafur defeated Ramachandra who offered to go to Delhi to pay homage to the

Sultan. Ala-ud-din received him with great honor and conferred on him the title of

Ra-i-Rayan and allowed him to ruler over his dominions as a vassal. This generous

treatment made the Raja loyal to the Sultan.


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In 1309 Malik Kafur marched for Warangal. He was helped by Deogir Raja

Ramachandra. The fortress of Warangal was made of stone and was protected by an

outer wall of mud and two deep moats surrounding the inner fort and the outer wall.

Kafur besiged the fort. Raja Pratap Rudra Deva offered stiff resistance. After a long

siege the Muslims succeeded in making a breach in the outer wall. And led a direct

attack on the inner fort. The Raja sued for peace by sending a golden image ofhimself with a gold chain round the neck and agreeing to pay an annual tribute. But

Malik Kafur insisted on the surrender of his treasure held by the Kakatiya Prince.

Raja agreed to it and a treaty was concluded. The booty included 100 elephants,7000 horses and a diamond considered by some to be the koh-i-nur.

In 1311 Malik Kafur was again sent against the ruler of the Kingdom of

Dvarasamudra. He was again helped by the Raja of Deogir. The Hoysala Kindom

was in midst of a confrontation between two rival claimants. This facilitated itsconquest by Muslim army. The Raja Ballala prepared to withstand the attack of the

Muslims but was defeated and agreed to pay an annual tribute.

With the help of Raja Ballala Malik Kafur now proceeded to Mabar (Madura)

where a civil war between two brothers Vira Pandya and Sundra Pandya had justended. The brothers united to fight against the Muslims and fought pitched battled

in different parts of the difficult and impenetrable country. After occupying a fewcities which were evacuated by the Pandaya rulers Kafur turned towards Madura,

the main capital of the Pandayas. This was also evacuated and fell into the hands of

the Muslim army.

Kafur then advanced as far as the southern extremity of the subcontinent and is said

to have built a mosque at Rameshwaram.

Kafur then started a back journey towards Delhi and reached there after 6 months in

October 1311.

The Sultan held a colorful reception in the Palace of the Thousand Pillars at Siri in

honor of the victorious general.

The empire of the Sultan now extended to nearly whole of the subcontinent fromthe Gangetic Doab to Rameshvaram in the south and from the Sonargoan in the east

to Thatta in the west.

The Sultan nominated his eldest son Khizr Khan as his heir. The marriage of theCrown Prince with the daughter of Alp Khan made this group dominant which was

not liked by Malik Kafur.

Malik Kafur sought the permission of the Sultan to go out to Deccan to deal with

Shankara, son and successor of Ramachandra who had assumed a rebelliousattitude.

Malik Kafur first defeated Shankara, and carried raids into Telingana and

Dvarasamudra. The kingdom of Madura was also attacked then he retuned toDeogir, made it his headquarters and remained there till 1315 when the Sultan

recalled him on account of his illness.

The return of Kafur to the capital gave rise to further intensification of court-intrigue in which the party of Malikah-i-Jahan and her brother Alp Khan were on

one side and Kafur and his follower Kamal-ud-din Gurg were on the other.


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Kafur had Alp Khan killed. Khizr Khan was imprisoned but Kamal-ud-din Gurg

was in turn killed by the followers of Alp Khan in Gujarat where Kafur had sent

him.

Chittor under Hamir and Deogir under a son-in-law of Ramachandra declared their

independence.

In these circumstances Ala-ud-din breathed his last on Jan. 5, 1316. Ala-ud-din was almost illiterate.

Great poets like Amir Khusraw and Amir Hasan Sijzi flourished during his time.

The death of Ala-ud-din further intensified the rivalry between the parties ofMalikkah-i-Jahan and Malik Kafur.

In this struggle Malik Kafue emerged as victorious. He managed to produce a will

of the late Sultan disinheriting Khizr Khan and nominating Shihabud-din Umar, as

child of six, as his successor. The child was according declared Sultan and Kafur acted as regent.

A policy of exterminating the sons of Ala-ud-din was pursued. Kafur sent some

agents to blind Mubarak Shah, the third son of Ala-ud-din. The prince bribed them

with some jewellery and appealed them to spare him for the sake of Ala-ud-din.This appeal had the desired effect and the agents left him and rushed to the

residence of Kafur and killed him.

Shihabud-din Umar was deposed after 6 months and Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah

declared himself Sultan on 19th April, 1316. He was a luxury seeking person and

left all power in the hands of a low born Hindu.slave, whom he had given the titleof Khusraw Khan.

Khusraw Khan undertook an expedition to the south and achieved great success

against the ruler of Warangal. On his return to the capital his influence increased

and he engineered a plot to assassinate Mubarak Shah. He succeeded in his designson April 15, 1320 when he butchered the Sultan with his accomplices.

Khusraw Khans actions generated strong anger in Muslims. The Muslim nobles

rallied around Tughluq, generally known as Ghazi Malik because of his battleagainst the Mongols.

His son Malik Jauna was in the court holding the position ofakhur bek. He left

that position and joined his father.

Tughluq had meanwhile sent out appeals to the provincial amirs to join hands with

him to put an end to Khusraws biased actions against the Muslims and Islam.

Khusraw sent an army of 40,000 to fight with Tughlaq.

Tughlaq inflicted a crucshing defeat on the army of Khusraw and proceeded toDelhi. Khusraw made a desperate attempt to save his rule but was utterly defeated

and killed.

Tughluq assembled the nobles and enquired if there was any survivor of Ala-ud-dins family. There was none therefore they appealed Tughluq to become the

Sultan. He ascended the throne on Sept. 8, 1320 with the title Ghiyas-ud-din

Tughluq Shah.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah acted as governor of Dipalpur during the reign of Ala-

ud-din.

He claimed that he had fought 29 battled against the Mongols.


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After the death of Ala-ud-din the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal, Raja Pratap Rudra

stopped paying tribute to the Delhi Sultanate.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah sent his sone Jauna Khan (who was given the title ofUlugh Khan) to Warangal in 1321-22. He proceeded through Deogir and laid siege

on the fortress of Warangal. After a long siege the Raja sued for peace offering

immense presents and annual tribute but before the agreement could be reachedthere was some trouble in the Muslim army which forced Malik Jauna to return to

Delhi.

Malik Jauna led a second expedition to Warangal in 1323. This time fortress wasoccupied and the Raja surrendered. The name of Warangal was changed to

Sultanpur.

After Warangal Malik Jauna attacked Jajnagar (Orissa) on the eastern coast.

An inscription at Rajamundry commemorates his building of a mosque which stillexists.

Jauna is also believed to have re-conquered the Pandya Kingdom of Madura.

Soon after these expeditions a fresh wave of Mongols resulted in the invasion of

Samana. Sultan sent an army which in two successive battled defeated and repulsedthe Mongols.

Two months after the Mongol battles a Parwari revolt was suppressed.

Bengal was then practically independent since the death of Balban. The ruler

Shams-ud-din had died in 1322 and was succeeded by Ghiyas-ud-din Bahadur

Shah. But his accession was opposed by Nasir-ud-din Ibrahim.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah left Ulugh Khan in Delhi and proceeded to Bengal.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah attacked Bengal and took Ghiyas-ud-din Bahadur

Shah as prisoner.

Nasir-ud-din Ibrahim was entrusted with the government of Northern Bengal withits capital at Lakhnauti. The southern and eastern Bengal with their capital cities of

Satgaon and Sonargaon were annexed and placed under Tughlaqs adopted son

Bahram Khan.

After Bengal Sultan advanced to Tirhut (Northern Bihar). The Raja of Tirhut was

defeated and one Ahmed Khan was appointed governor.

After these expeditions the Sultan marched back for Delhi in 1325. Jauna went outof Delhi to receive his father near Afghanpur. A wooden structure was built within

3 days under the supervision of the royal architect Ahmed Bin Ayaz. The Sultan

stopped at this place for lunch after which there was some display of elephants. The

pavilion fell down killing the Sultan along with five or six other persons.

Ibn Battutah thinks that it was a plot by Jauna (Muhammad Bin Tughlaq) to kill his

father while Barani thinks that it was an accident.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah built the fort of Tughlaqabad and several otherbuildings including his own tomb.

Malik Jauna ascended the throne 3 days after the death of his father in 1325 and is

better known in history as Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

After 40 days he proceeded to Delhi and held the coronation at the palace of the late

Sultan.


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The first part of the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1335) was a period of

peace and prosperity while the second ( 1335 1351 ) witnessed rebellions and

disturbances.

Early in his reign Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had to deal with the rebellion of his

cousin Baha-ud-din Gurshasp, governor of Sagar, near Gulberga in the Deccan.

Gurshasp was defeated and took shelter with his family with the Hindu Raja ofKampili.

The Sultan sent an army against Kampiladeva, the ruler of Kampili, who was killed

in fighting. Gurshasp, however, took shelter with the Hoysala king Ballala ofDvarasamudra. As the Muslim army proceeded towards the Hoysala Ballala

surrendered the rebel who was flayed alive in Delhi.

These campaigns in the Deccan extended the boundaries of the Delhi Sultanate to

the southernmost limits of the subcontinent. The geographical and strategic situation of Deogir fascinated the Sultan. He built a

new fort there an planted a Muslim colony around it calling it Daulatabad. He

wanted to make it the second capital.

In 1326-27 the Sultan decided to shift part of the Muslim population in Delhi toDaulatabad. In particular he transferred many officials. Besides some leading

theologians and Sufis were asked to go to the new city to settle down there. So alarge number of people had to migrate. Every convenience was provided to them.

The Sultan purchased their Delhi houses and paid full prices.

Despite royal patronage the transfer involved much hardship and suffering andmany people died on the way and others failed to feel at home in the new city and

desired to go back to Delhi.

The Sultan who has gone to Daulatabad came back to Delhi in 1337 and announced

that those who wanted to come back were allowed to do so on state expense.

A portion of the emigrants chose to remain in the new place which increased the

Muslim influence in the South. Consequently when the empire disintegrated a

Muslim state arose there under the Bahmani Dynasty with Daulatabad as its capital.It remained under the Muslim sway until India annexed the Nizams dominion.

The Sultans project to build up Daulatabad as the second capital was strongly

opposed by many who were affected. The rebellion of Bahram Aiba, surnamedKishlu Khan, who was the governor of Uchh, Sind, and Multan was the direct result

of this opposition.

Kishlu Khan refused to obey the orders of the Sultan requiring him to move with

his family to Daulatabad. He gathered a large army but the Sultan advanced fromDaulatabad and defeated and killed him in 1327.

This state of affairs encouraged an invasion by the Mongols under their leader

Tarmashirin of Transoxiana. He marched with a huge army through Lamghan andMultan and proccded towards Delhi. But the invaders rapidly retraced their steps

when the Sultan pursued them as far as Kalanaur.

In 1327 just after the Mongol event the Sultan was convinced by some Khurasaninobles to conquer Khurasan.

The condition of Iran under a young ruler Abu Said favored this idea.

The Mongol ruler of Transoxiana Tarmashirin and an-Nasir, the ruler of Egypt had

also threatened eastern and western frontiers of the Persian Empire.


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The Sultan cultivated friendly relations with both the rulers of Egypt and

Transoxiana. He also colledted an army of 3, 70,000 men for this invasion.

The Khurasan expedition never materialized because of the changed politicalsituation. Egypt and Perisa re-established friendly relations. Tarmashirin was

deposed in his country by the rebels.

The disbandment of the army collected for the invasion created discontent andrebellion.

The Sultan then ventured to conquer the mountainous region of Qarachal in 1328.

This was inhabited by refractory tribesmen. The army reached the mountains butthen rains broke the communication and supply lines and almost the whole army

was destroyed because of the hardships and the attacks by the tribesmen. However

the mountain chief subsequently agreed to pay tribute.

The Qarachal region, which lies between China and the Sub-continent, was nowunder the authority of the Sultan. On knowing this the Chinese Mongol emperor

sent an embassy with gifts in 1341 to the court of the Sultan seeking the permission

to build Buddhist temples in the Qarachal region.

The Sultan reciprocated by sending Ibn Battutah as an envoy to the ChineseEmperor with presents but the delegation never reached China.

Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq has won the epithet the prince of moneyers becauseof the purity and excellence of his coins.

In 1330 he introduced token currency. Silver was not in abundance and at that time

the coins of silver mixed with baser metals were in circulation successfully.Gradually the quantity of silver in the coins had become nominal. This led the

government to issue coins of baser metals with the face value of silver coins. At

that time this kind of token currency was in vogue in nearby states of China and

Iran. In China paper currency was being used. In Iran the experiment of papercurrency had failed.

The Sultan experimented token currency with copper. He issued copper token coins

and made them legal tender for the silvertankah of 140 grains.

This experiment was successful initially but soon failed. Counterfeit copper coins

soon flooded the market. This led to an anomaly that while people paid payment of

revenue in token currency but refused to accept copper coins in payment of theirgoods. The government did not make serious attempts to prevent forgery.

There was a complete deadlock in the payment situation.

When the Sultan realized that the scheme was impracticable he announced his

desire to give in exchange gold and silver for these copper coins.

This trade off caused huge loss to the treasury.

In order to make up the loss to the treasury because of a number of failed

experiments the Sultan enhanced land tax in the rebellious Doab region by five toten percent.

Although the tax was not heavy but the people of Doab had suffered because of

famine and draught and the disbandment of army for Khurasan had causedunemployment in this region also.

The tax-collectors faced stiff resistance and some of them were even killed by the

cultivators.

The Sultan then punished the rebels in the whole area from Baran to Dalmau.


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According to some historians this was beginning of the great disorders of his reign.

In most of the country both Muslims and Hindus were instigated by the provincial

governors to rise against the Sultan.

There were as many as 15 revolts from 1335 to 1351.

The causes of these revolts were varied and complex. Heavy financial losses caused

by various projects and schemes of conquest, the resultant additional taxes andfamines and droughts embittered the people against the Sultan who became more

and more severe in his treatment.

Another important factor contributing towards these rebellions was the fact that theSultan fell under the influence of philosophers, free-thinkers and Hinduyogis,

which was not liked by the orthodox in Muslims.

Many theologians and Sufis had turned against the Sultan for his pressure to

migrate to Daulatabad. According to Barani the Sultan executed many ulema,mashaikh, saiyids, Sufis qalandars, clerks and army men. Ibn Battutah has also

verified this.

Taking advantage of the situation the Hindus also made a desperate bid to reassert

their independence. The first to rise in revolt was Saiyid Ahsan Shah of Mabar, the southernmost

province of the Empire (1334-35).

The army sent from Delhi to punish him was perhaps won over and never returned.

The Sultan, who was busy in Doab went to Delhi and then proceeded southward via

Deogir and Telingana.

At Daulatabad the Sultan levied new taxes and made such heavy demands that it

created more resentment.

Just at that time a severe famine broke out in Delhi and Malwa. There was a cholera

epidemic at Telingana and the troops of the Sultan died in large numbers.

The Sultan himself became ill and there was a rumor that he had died.

The Sultan abandoned the Mabar expedition and returned to Delhi.

Saiyid Ahsan Shah declared himself independent and laid the foundation of theSultanate of Madura. This Sultanate, however, did not last long, because it was

isolated and too weak to resist the Hindu pressure.

The Hindus in Telingana, Andhra and the areas to the south of the Krishna andTungabhadra organized a Hindu movement to free the place from the Muslim

domination.

Started under the leadership of one Kapaya Nayaka, the movement was carried on

by Krishna Nayaka who organized a league of 75 Hindu chiefs of the south.

The Hoysala King Vir Ballala III also supported him with troops.

Krishna Nayaka invaded Telingana and Malik Maqbul, a Hindu convert to Islam

who was in charge of Telingana, fled from there.

Muhammad Tughlaq had appointed Harihara and Bukka, two Hindus brothers who

had converted to Islam, as governor and deputy-governor of Kampili. But under the

influence of a Hindu sage Vidyranya they renounced Islam.

Harihara founded the new city of Vijayanagar on the Tungabhadra and was

crowned king in 1336.


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Muhammad Tughlaq had divided Bengal into three administrative units and

appointed Qadr khan over Lakhnauti, Azam-ul-Mulk over Satgaon and Ghiyas-ud-

din Bahadur and Bahram Khan over Sonargaon.

Ghiyas-ud-din Bahadur rebelled and Bahram Khan fought against him and was

killed.

After the death of Bahram Khan his armour-bearer Fakhr-ud-din declared himselfindependent at Sonargaon in 1338. In Lakhnauti Haji Ilyas declared himself

independent, under the title of Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah in 1342.

The severity of famine in and around Delhi compelled the Sultan to remove hisfamily and court to a hastily constructed temporary town called Swargdwari in the

rive rain tract of the Ganges not far from Qanauj for obtaining supplies of food and

provisions from the fertile area of Karah and Awadh.

He stayed there for a period of two and half years (1338-1341) during which he hadto deal with several rebellions, namely those of Nizam Min at Karah, Nusrat Khan

at Bidar, Ali Shah at Gulberga and Ain-ul-Mulk in Awadh.

Ain-ul-Mulk was an able administrator and a wise statesman under whose

administration Awadh had enjoyed peace and prosperity. But when the Sultandecided to transfer him to Daulatabad he revolted but was defeated but was

pardoned because of his past services.

The Sultan sent his envoy to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustakfi Billah in Egypt and in

return the Caliph sent him a robe of honor and manshurin 1343-4. This was the

recognition by the Muslim center. In the coins and in the khutbah the Sultanacknowledged the suzerainty of the Caliph.

The Sultan organized the department of amir-i-kuhi for developing agricultural

facilities. The attempt to revive the areas devastated by the famine and rebellion

failed because of the wrong choice of men in authority.

The Sultan had to crush the rebellion of Taghi. He pursued Taghi from Broach to

Cambay, from Cambay to Asawal, and Pattan. At last he defeated him. Taghi fled

and sought shelter with the Sumras of Sindh. The Sultan then proceeded to Thattain pursuit of Taghi but he became sick with fever and died at a place within 14

kroh of Thatta on March 20, 1351.

The death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq created confusion in the army which was leftwithout a leader. The late Sultan had employed Mongol mercenaries to help him

suppress the rebellion. They plundered the imperial camp and started for Delhi.

The military officers and religious leaders decided to elect Firuz, son of Rajab,

cousin of the late Sultan, to the throne.

Firuz hesitated but he was crowned on March 23, 1351.

Sultan Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs sister Khudawanzadah put forward her son as a

candidate but the nobles rejected him.

Khawajah Jahan, a wazir of the late Sultan, raised to throne a child about whom he

claimed that he was a son of Sultan Muhammad but he received no support. He

then submitted to Firuz who pardoned him but then the nobles convinced the Sultanto dismiss him. He was later executed.

The formal coronation of Firuz Tughlaq was held on 25 August, 1351.

The new Sultan took a number took a number of steps to put things in order.


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An amount of two crore tankas advanced to the peasants by the late Sultan was

written off.

An annual amount of 36 lakh tankas was granted as allowance to ulema andmashaikh to encourage learning and piety.

A sum of one crore tankas was granted in pensions and gifts to the poor and the

needy. Compensation was given to the heirs of those who had been executed during the

previous regime.

These steps brought the desired results and people were reconciled with the govt.and enjoyed peace and tranquility for the first time in many years.

New assessment of land revenue was undertaken on the basis of thorough

inspection and investigation.

The steps taken by the Sultan increased production and brought down the prices ofthe commodities.

In 1353 Firuz Shah led an expedition to Bengal where Haji Ilyas had declared

independence under the title of Shampud-din Ilyas Shah.

As the imperial army approached Bengal Ilyas Shah evacuated Pandua, the capitalcity, and entrenched himself in a fort called Ekdala protected by rivers and jungles.

After a brief siege the Sultan made a tactical move and withdrew his troops. As theIlyas Shah sallied forth the royal army returned and inflicted a crushing defeat on

him.

Due to the start of rainy season the Sultan cut short his expedition and cncluded atreaty with Ilyas Shah depriving him of his conquests west of Lakhnauti but

confirming him in his possessions in Bengal.

On his return to the capital Firuz Shah laid the foundation of the city of Firuzabad

on the banks of the Jumna.

Ilyas Shah died the next year and in 1359 the Sultan had to lead another expedition

against his successor in Bengal named Sikandar. He founded en route a new city on

the Gumti which he called Jaunpur after his cousin, the late Sultan Muhammad BinTughlaq.

Sikandar entrenched himself in the fortress of Ekadala which was besieged by the

royal army. After some time a treaty was concluded with Sikandar and he agreed tosend some elephants to Delhi annually as tribute.

On his way back from Bengal Firuz Shah halted at Jaunpur from where he

proceeded to Jajnagar (Orissa). With a large army he first reached Bihar and them

marching through Manbhum and Singhbhum, he reached Banarasi.

At the approach of the royal army the Raja took shelter in an Island. The Sultan

pursued him but the Rajas ambassadors met him and negotiated terms of peace.

The Raja agreed to send a fixed number of elephants annually to Delhi as tribute.

The Sultan reached back Delhi in 1361.

Nagarkot (Kangra) was conquered by Muhammad Tughlaq in 1337 but its chief

then rebelled against the central authority. The Sultan captured the fortress ofNagarkot after a siege of 6 months.

The Rai met the Sultan with rich presents and again acknowledged the authority of

the Sultanate.


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The capital city of Nagrakot was named Muhammadabad in the honor of late Sultan

Muhammad Tughlaq.

Sultan Firuz found a large collection of manuscripts in the vicinity of the temple ofJwalamukhi. One of these manuscripts was later translated into Persian for the

Sultan under the title ofDalail-i-Firuz Shahi.

In 1364 Sultan Firuz undertook an expedition to Thatta to punish the new Summarulers of Sindh who had replaced the Sumras. The Summas had made inroads into

the territories of Gujarat and Multan.

The Sutlan set out with an army of 90000 horses and a large fleet of boats waslaunched on the Indus.

The Jams, Juna and Banbhaniya defended Thatta. An epidemic broke out in the

royal camp and there was shortage of food and fodder. The Sultan decided to retreat

to Gujarat. The retreat proved to be disastrous and the army reached Gujarat after a huge loss

of men and material.

In Gujarat the Sultan dismissed the governor Nizam-ul-Mulk who had failed to

send reinforcements to Thatta. With reinforcements and fresh supplies the Sultan returned to Thatta with the new

governor of Guajarat, Zafar Khan, and encamped outside Thatta.

The Summas also arranged a strong force and the two armies faced each other for a

long time.

At last the Jams offered submission which was accepted because of the intercessionof Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan. They acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sultan by

agreeing to pay an annual tribute.

Jam Juna and Banbhaniya accompanied the Sultan to his court at Delhi.

The Sultan never really liked to wage a war against the fellow Muslims.

In 1380 the Sultan inflicted exemplary and crushing defeat on Rai Karkhu, the Raja

of Katehar (Rohailkhand), who had killed the governor of Badaun, Saiyid

Muhammad.

The failthful and able wazir of the Sultan Khan Jahan died in 1370. His son was

raised to the position of wizarat with the same title but Khan Jahan II was no way

near in talents like his father.

The eldest son of the Sultan Fath Khan died in 1376.

In 1356 the Abbasid Caliph of Egypt, al-Mutasid sent for the Sultan the deed of

indo-pak history

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