BIHRM

NATURE. SCOPE AND BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

DEFINITION

The Word ‘psychology’ is derived from Greek Words, ‘psyche (soul)’ and ‘logos

(science)’ Thus literally it means the ‘science of the soul’ But to be a science, it must be able to

demonstrate the phenomenon on which observation and experimental methods can be applied.

But “soul” or “mind” or even “consciousness” can never be demonstrated nor even be

observed. Thus the definition of psychology as science of “soul” or “Mind” or consciousness

had to be changed as the science of “behaviour” How, as science of behaviour, “psychology

deals with responses to any and every kind of situation that life presents. Human psychology is

concerned chiefly with such activities as per receiving imagining, feeling, thinking

remembering, and acting. Psychology attempts to collects, organize describe and to some

degree explain and interpret the facts of experience and behaviour. “owing to the obvious fact

that the environment is always changing and the human organism is always changing, and

absolute science of human behaviour is a impossibility. There are however, no absolute

sciences; even physics, Chemistry and Mathematics are far from being exact. Science is

relative” Since Psychology is far from being an exact science, this is even more true of it. It is

an emerging science.

The ultimate aim of the psychologist is to make predictions about behaviour.

Predictions help in controlling and developing behaviour.

METHODS :

Having agreed on aims of psychology, the psychologists must decide upon the ways of

collecting date for prediction. The methods generally applied for the purpose are :

1. Methods of Observation: (i) It may be Introspection or Subjective Method when

observation is made by looking inward upon one’s own mind. The method has the merit of

giving us firsthand information and knowledge of what goes on in our mind it has the

disadvantage of not knowing what is true of other minds.

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(ii) Extrospection : Observation may be made objective by looking out wards upon the

external expressions of mind of other people / animals. This method helps in inferring the

mental processes of other people / animals from observation of their outward looks, gesture.

2. Experimental Method : The experimental method of psychology teaches us to define,

the real problem, relate it to known principles vary certain aspects in the conditions while

holding others constant, make hypotheses, collect and analyze data, and verify other

hypotheses. The experimental method requires the we conduct experiments in ways that allow

for repetitions and for control. It requires that we under stand the variables involved.

LIMITATIONS

In the Laboratory it is relatively easy to design experiments so that they can be repeated.

Some experiments can also be designed in industries easily and can be repeated. However, may

industrial problems are so complex that repetition under exactly similar conditions often is not

possible. This, of course does not mean that experimental methods should not be applied to the

industrial problems. It does mean that Industrial psychologists have to be aware of the

limitations.

However, we may say that psychology is concerned with mind as well as its expression

in behaviour. It must combine all methods, together to get a fuller picture of the behaviour

under study so that effective prediction, as far, as possible may be made. It must, there fore,

combine introspection with objective observations and be supported by experimental method

where ever possible.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology has many branches now. Some major areas are :-

1. General Psychology : Mainly deals with development of mental concept of human

beings with emphasis of the changes that take place during different periods in the life span.

2. Physiological Psychology : Mainly deals with the relation between mind and body chemicals and their effects on human behaviour.

3. Abnormal / Clinical Psychology : Mainly concerned with the individual, and

primarily in helping him become more adequately adjusted to his environment.

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4. Animal Psychology : Studies the behaviour of lower animals which contributes to knowledge of human beings.

5. Child Psychology of Development Psychology : It studies the gradual development processes of the child from very conception.

6. Educational Psychology : It is primarly concerned with the factor leading ot effective

acquisition of knowledge on the part of the learner and effective teaching on the part of the

teachers.

7. Social Psychology : The main concern is the study of group behaviour. Behaviour of

man in society, It applies the methods and techniques of psychology to the measurement and

the prediction of social phenomena, such as attitude formation, prejudice and group behaviour.

8. Industrial Psychology : “The branch of applied psychology which concerns itself with

the application of psychological methods and results of problems arising in the industrial or

economic field, inclusive of the selection and training of workers, methods and conditions of

work etc”. A dictionary of psychology James Driver. Industrial psychology is a branch of

psychology. Psychology is the science of human mind and deals with human behaviour in

work environment.

According to Harrell “Industrial psychology is the scientific study of people at work, It

includes certain principles of understanding people and the application of certain techniques of

dealing with people”

It can be regarded as and aid to human resources management, because its object is to

make the work interesting and inspiring so that every worker puts forth his best. It is connected

with changing the attitude of the worker in such a manner that he may find “leisure in his

work” It seeks to give the worker the greatest amount ease, both physical and mental at his job.

The worker feels tired and becomes less efficient not only on account of overwork, but

also because of mental uneasiness reflected through irritability, annoyance anxiety fear,

resentment etc. “Remove these, increase interest, improve general ‘metal’ atmosphere, and

complaints of overstrain will mostly vanish” says Myers.

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Nature and scope : When a manager organizes human relationships in an industrial under

taking, he has to take into account not only the physical needs of the workers but also their

psychological requirements. This is necessary because every human being has not only a body,

but also a mind. The mind of the worker functions through impulses, emotions and passions all

of which combine together to influence his attitude and behaviour.

In the ultimate analysis, it is the attitude of the worker toward his work and his

employer which determines the results of his efforts. If a worker does not feel happy at his job

either because he has no taste for it or because it is so repetitive that it is tedious, he is likely to

adopt on indifferent attitude toward his work.

Similarly, if the worker is not satisfied with the treatment meted out by his employer he

will develop grievances against the employer and will not be able to do his best for. The

concern. Every human being his certain instincts, which are the “essential springs of all

thought and action” These instincts require satisfaction.

If they are not satisfied, the individual concerned is bound to feel dissatisfied and even

frust – rated with his job and environment. The behaviour of an individual is governed and

controlled by such powerful instincts as fear, anger, love hatre, pride and curiosity, whether in

industry or in the social life at large.

If a worker cam clan credit for creating something prefect, if gives his a feeling of pride

which inspires him to work with greater enthusiasm. On the other hand, if the credit gores to

some body else, his instinct for pride and self-display may be hurt and he may cease to work

with enthusiasm.

Assumptions of Industrial Psychology :

The are two fundamental assumptions, under laying industrial psychology.

1. Individuals differ from each other in degree through not in kind.

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2. Human behaviour is caused and does not occur automatically be itself. Let us examine

the implication of these assumptions and their relevance to industrial psychology here:

Individual differences : The most fundamental assumption on which industrial psychology is

based is the existence of differences among individuals. Research has established clearly the

fact that individuals differ in personal characteristics and these differences create difference in

work performance and behaviour of individuals in industry.

Even when several people are working on identical machines, it will usually be found

that there are differences in their productivity.

Individuals differ in physical build, in appearance, intelligence, in aptitudes, in

personality, in interests, in motivation, in physical skills, and other traits. They differ also in

their training, education, and acquired knowledge and job skills.

Cause of Human behaviour : The second fundamental assumption that industrial

psychology makes is that human behaviour is caused by needs. A need first appears as a want

in the sense that an individual feels the lack of some thins that causes him to be dissatisfies and

restless, it then becomes his need and he seeks to fulfill it through certain actions and

responses, which constitute his behaviour.

Behavior is directed toward the fulfillment of satisfaction of certain needs, which

become predominant in man at anytime, to take a very elementary sample, an individual, has a

want when he feels hungry. He decides that the needs food to satisfy this want.

Then he makes those responses by which be can procure food. In other words he

behaves in a way that he can get food and satisfy his need and his want.

Once the need for food is satisfied for the time being. Some other need (say, the urge to

meet fried and share time with him) may become dominant and the individual then engages in

behavior that will satisfy this urge.

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The well-known psychologist Maslow gives the following classification of the

psychological needs of man.

1. Physiological needs (breathing, sleeping, reproduction etc).

2. Security needs (against pain, accident, uncertainty etc)

3. Security needs (need for association with others).

4. Ego (for respect, reputation, prestige etc).

5. Self-realization (need to realize one’s potentialities to the fullest extent possible).

These categories of need are arranged in a hierarchy with the second categories arising

after the first has been met to a considerable extent and third assessing after the second has

been satisfied reasonably well and so on.

Application in Industrial Management : Industrial Psychology is a useful aid to the

efficient management of the human factor in industry. Over the years, the psychologist has

made a place for himself in industrial organizations. The findings and, techniques of Industrial

Psychology have been applied with benefit to the following areas of industrial management :

1. Selection and Placement: One of the most important factors in industrial efficiency is

the selection of the right men for the right jobs. This calls for a systematic analysis of the job

requirements to determine the criteria for successful job performance. On the basis of these

criteria, predictors of job success are determined. The available candidates for a job are then

evaluated in terms of these predictors and their individual differences in trials like intelligence,

aptitude, dexterity, skills, abilities, interests and personality characteristics are measured. For

this purpose, industrial psychology offers a whole array of tests. By the use of psychological

tests and systematic planned depth interviews, the best incumbent for the given job is chosen.

Industrial Psychology has helped to make selection more systematic and scientific and less

open to hit and miss methods, thus saving industrial organizations from frequent changes in the

work-force and ensuring maximum efficiency and job satisfaction to individual employees.

2. Vocational Guidance (Counseling) : The aim of Industrial Psychology is to help in the

perfect adjustment of men to jobs so that they can attain the highest levels of productivity and

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derive pleasure and satisfaction from their jobs. Such adjustment can be attained through the

use of the scientific methods of selection arid placement by industrial firms and also by the

choice of prosper vacations by men. This necessitates a systematic analysis of personal traits of

an individual and matching, it with the requirements of different jobs to which he will be best

suited. Vocational guidance may be arranged by the Employment Exchanges or Counseling

Bureaus manned by specialists. Counseling in an industrial firm may be required for workers

who have problems with their work, fellow-workers or supervisors. The attempt, in such cases,

is to find out causes of the maladjustment of an employee and the remedy that can be used to

make him well-adjusted.

3. Training of Development : Much of the human effort in an industrial undertaking

may go waste if the workers are not proficient in the proper methods of work. A worker can

acquire proficiency on a job by undergoing systematic training. Since training involves

learning on the part of the worker, industrial psychologists have been trying to develop and

apply principles of effective learning to industrial training. Not merely this, psychologists have

also developed new methods of training for the workers (like teaching machines, programmed

learning, vestibule training, etc).

4. Employee Motivation : The psychologist proceeds on the assumption that human

behavior is caused and does not occur automatically. The causes of work behviour (human

behaviour at work) are the needs of motives that drive or impel an individual, to behave in a

way that increases his productivity. Industry psychology probes into human behaviour at work

to determine the conditions in which a worker feels motivated and works willingly and

wholeheartedly to maximize productivity. Industrial psychology has contributed significantly

to the productivity movement in industry by identifying and the management to motivate

employees can use highlighting the financial and non financial incentives. It has also brought

into focus the role of supervision and leadership in motivating workpeople. In this, he has

derived considerable assistance from the sociologists and anthropologists. Since Industrial

Psychology seeks to sustain the motivation of the work people so as to ensure higher

productivity, it has been concerned about problems of fatigue, boredom and monotony also and

has made useful contributions toward the fixation of work periods and rest pauses.

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5. Employee Attitude and Morale :Industrial Psychologists have been trying to examine

the relationship between the attitudes of the employees and their performance. They have also

gone into the process of attitude change from the point of view of raising levels of individual

group productivity. An outstanding contribution of Industrial Psychology to better

management of the human factor in industry is the analysis of morale and job satisfaction the

over all attitude of satisfaction or otherwise with the job and work environment on the part of a

work group. Psychology provides useful aid to management through the identification of the

dimensions or the factors of morale and through the development of the techniques to measure

employee attitudes and morale.

6. Job Evaluation and Merit rating : To the industrial psychologist also goes the credit

of developing suitable scientific bases of basic wage-rate fixation and employee performance

appraisal. Job evaluation methods developed by industrial psychologists aim at determining the

relative worth or value of the different categories of jobs so that a rational wage structure can

be built up. Merit rating techniques are designed to achieve a systematic appraisal of the worth

of each employee in terms of his ability and performance for the purposes of promotions,

transfers, counseling etc.

7. Human Engineering (Ergonomics) : An important aspect of industrial psychology is

human engineering (also called ergonomics). Whereas mainly the engineers seeking to increase

productivity by improving upon the equipment design have guided traditionally industrial

management, human engineering focuses attention on the man-machine relationship, work

environment, work-place layout with the object of giving the worker the greatest amount of

ease at his job. Thus, traditional industrial management treated the job and the equipment and

environment as given and required man to adjust to these, human engineering has brought out

the possibility of improving the work performance of men in industry by designing jobs and

equipment and changing work environment to suit the operator. In developing human

engineering, Industrial psychology has humanised industrial management and opened the way

to a much fuller utilization of the human factor in industry.

8. Accident Prevention : According to the findings of a psychologist, 98 per cent of the

accidents in industry involving injury to workers or resulting in deaths are preventable. He also

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found that only about 10 percent of the industrial accidents are due to distinctly physical

factors such as faulty equipment or bad building conditions. This shows how important

psychological or personal factors are in any program of accident prevention. Industrial

Psychologists have made a significant contribution to the development of safety programme

and the preservation of the valuable human factor in industry by analyzing the factors that

make certain individuals more accident prone than others. They have also been able to suggest

positive ways and means for reducing accident – proneness.

9. Human Relations : For a long time managers and industrial psychologists both

regarded an individual employee as the unit of motivation and work performances it was

believed that if the individual employee was taken care of problems of motivation and

productivity would be automatically settled. This assumed that workers are individuals each

pursuing his own interests and the workforce in an individual organization could therefore be

compared with a rabble (dump of loose materials).

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN MODERN INDUSTRIES

Psychology is the science of behaviour. It deals with the study of human behaviour.

Human behaviour is of vital importance in every industrial activity, in the production and

consumption of goods as well as in the rendering of services. Industrial psychology is

interested not only in the man at work in factory, but in the salesman on the road and the girl at

the desk in the office. It is the study of people producing goods, or directing the activities of

the large corporation.

The reasons for studying human behaviour in industry arises from the fact that more

leaders of modern industry are coming from the rank of university graduates. Leadership is

business in becoming more demanding and the person without a liberal education is

handicapped in getting the kind of position from which he can move upward in any business

organization. The study of human side of management of supervision, is the province of

industrial psychology.

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Whether we work directly or not, as consumers and as citizens we find our lives

influenced on every side by industrial changes. We are concerned with labour management

conflicts because its consequences often touch our pockets; we are concerned with

technological advances and their effect on the production or goods because this determines our

material welfare; and we are concerned with the problems in industry, to at least some degree

because many people we known work there.

Man’s behaviour thus plays a part in all phases of industrial life.

LELECTION :

The psychologist who work in industry is interested not only in day to day problems,

but also in long range programmes dealing with the effective utilization of human resources.

The problem of fitting men to jobs is one of such issues that requires of know how to

analyze abilities and this is purely a psychological problem. To make the proper fit, however,

the job must also be analyzed so that the abilities to look for, can be known. If the abilities

required for particular job are too complex, the psychologist may co-operate with an engineer,

in re-organizing the work so that job is redesigned to utilize a greater degree the abilities that

are available.

The selection programme by which the recruitment process is implemented has three

underlying principles. If these principles are adhered to the apparently complex system may be

amenable to an optimum decision. These are (i) principle of selection ratio (ii) Principle of

Individual Differences and (iii) Principle of prediction.

The Principle of individual differences implies, therefore, that effective selection

requires the assessment of the whole man in relation to the total job situation, To ignore one

category of individual differences is to invite future Problems in the forms of inefficiency,

maladjustment, absenteeism and low job satisfaction. To over emphasize one category, such as

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cultural difference at the expenses of another such as mental ability is to court mediocrity and

high turnover.

Since the psychologist or the employment specialist deals with intangible human traits

such as intellectual capacity or emotional stability, etc. that do not permit direct, sensible

measurement he faces a difficult situation when he attempts to determine how much of what

trait an applicant possesses. However, by comparing the individual’s performance to he

average performance of a specific group on certain will defined tasks, he can derive a set of

numerical term that imply “below average” “average” and “above average” performance on

these tasks and terms of this group. When the tasks and the group are relevant to some aspect

of the job situation, the derived information is quite meaningful.

TRAINING :

Teaching or training men for jobs is another purely psychological problem and one that

requires a fundamental knowledge of subject of learning. From laboratory work the

psychologist has found out how people learn and how they can be trained more economically.

The question of utilization of human resources in industries leads inevitably to think of

training. Individuals need to be taught to perform in specific ways in order to accomplish

certain aims. The aims must be specified and the behaviour of individuals must be shaped and

modified so that they can perform the tasks required as members an organization “shaping”

and “modifying” are the key works and they define the meaning of training and indeed of all

education. This is what training and this is what training institutes and education systems do.

They begin with individuals who behave is in ways which are defined as thew end products of

the training programme. Improving a man’s adoption to his work increases both his efficiency

and his satisfaction with the job.

HUMAN RELATIONS :

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Human relations is an important part of the subject of social psychology. The adjustments that

employees make to each other and to the supervisor are greatly influenced by the supervisor’s

behaviour.

The psychologist has discovered the basic principles underlying good supervision.

Training supervisors in leadership and in face to face dealings with employees is an important

part of their development.

The will to work is largely a psychological problem. The economic incentive of wages

is not sufficient to gain co-operation, for the will of man cannot be bought so cheaply. Even the

decisions of higher management cannot be reduced to a profit motive. Prestige, freedom of

choice and security become the more precious, once the basic needs are satisfied. The

psychologist has discovered many things about the needs of the worker in his struggle for

status for recognition and for the elements that lead to job satisfaction.

ACCIDENT :

Even the problem of industrial accidents has a psychological aspect. The engineer may

design safety devices, but he must design them so that the men will use them. After this part of

the problem is solved, many others remain. Some people will have accidents despite all

mechanical precautions. Safety habits, considerate supervision and proper placement of men

are psychological tools for accident.

EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT :

Another important area of industrial psychology currently receiving mush attention

involves development of executive leadership. Modern business has expanded so rapidly that

there is a shortage of people for middle management and top executive jobs.

The industrial psychologist usually holds a staff position, largely advisory, which

enables him to apply knowledge wherever they are needed. He helps to improve safety

programmes and the works with the engineer on the human relation aspect of equipment

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design. He assists the office of the public relations in its interactions with consumers and with

the community in which the company operates. The industrial psychologist may draw up a

plan for the executive development of newly recruits on one hand and discuss the problem of

aging employees the other. From personnel selection to training from supervision to job

evaluation, from career planning to labour relations, the industrial psychologist moves in a

wide and every varying scene.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND THEIR SIGNINFICANCE IN INDUSTRY

Individual differences was the first problem to be studies in industrial psychology and

has been studied more than any other psychological problem in industry. Psychologists have

long been interested in determining the ultimate cause of individual differences among people.

Usually the psychologist divided the major causes into two general categories of heredity and

environment. These upholding one point of view have often minimized or even completely

ignored the possible influence of the other factor.

The advocates for the doctrine of heredity in the matter of individual differences

maintain that the capacities, the inclinations, and the accomplishment of and individual are

determined primarily by his inheritance. It has no relation with training, economic advantage

etc. but depends totally upon “natural gifts present in the family, and passing from generation

to generation.

The other group the advocates of environment in matters of individual differences opine

that there is no real evidence of inheritance of human traits. It is the surroundings and training

the environmental conditions of life that “make the man” Dr. Watson an ardent behaviourist

writes “Give me an dozen healthy infant, well formed, and my own specified world to bring

them up in and I will guarantee to take and one of them at random and train him to become any

type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, chief and yes even beggar man

and thief, regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors” It

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has also been found through various experimental studies that the environmental plays and

important role in determining the mental level and behaviour of the individual.

However it seems probable that both factors are usually operative but their relative

importance differs markedly in the determination of different personal characteristics. The

variability of human race results from the interaction of heredity and environment Neither

nature nor nurture alone can explain the wide rangs of differences in mental traits so

characteristic of the rece, but heredity appears to be the determining factor in accounting for

individual differences.

The people differ from one another is especially apparent from their physical

appearance. That differences are likewise present in the abilities of man is also a commonly

recognized fact. The principle of individual differences simply states that each person has own

unique characteristics that enable him to do some jobs and prevent him from doing others. For

clarification the differences have been grouped into five arbitrary and not necessarily exclusive

classifications :

i) Physical Differences : Obviously, people differ in such physical characteristics

as height, weight, sex, age and outward appearance. Other important physical

differences that are not so obvious include heart functioning, blood pressure, visual

acuity and reaction time.

ii) Mental Differences : People different in mental capacity in individual ability to

learn specific skills such as typing, piano playing, in problem solving ability, and such

other cognitive processes as memory and discrimination.

iii) Cultural Differences : People different in environmental experiences that lead

to the acquision of specific attributes based on the cultural or social group in which they

have matured. Such differences include education, work experience, social and family

customs, religion and athnic traits.

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iv) Ethical differences : Families differ in their behavioural norms, values,

and ethical standards and in their convictions about what does and does not constitute

good conduct.

v) Personality Differences : People differ in personality that is social behaviour,

temperament, and emotional reactions to event in their environment.

The principle of individual differences implies, therefore, the effective selection

requires the assessment of the whole man relation to the total job situation. To ignore one

category of individual differences such as mental ability is to invite future problems in the

form of inefficiency, maladjustment, absenteeism and low job satisfaction. To overemphasize

one category, such as the cultural differences at the expense of another such as mental ability is

to court mediocrity and high turnover.

The crux of the selection programme therefore depends, in the first palace upon

knowing what kind of human characteristics are required for successful performance on each

of the various jobs; and it depends, in the second place, upon being able to identify or measure

such characteristics at the time of employment.

The measurement of ability has been done mainly by I.Q tests which are composed of

several separate mental factors, such as :

i) Verbal factor measured by vocabulary.

ii) Numerical factor, measured by spead and accuracy in addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division.

iii) Perceptual factor measured by abi8lity to discriminate small differences in visual

designs.

iv) Reasoning factor, measured by figuring out relationships.

v) Spatial factor, measured by the ability to imagine the way objects are arranged in

space.15

vi) The special aptitudes tests such as Mechanical aptitude tests clerical aptitude

tests, of manual dexterity and finger dexterity are uses in industrial selection processes.

vii) Interests are an important determinant of the individual differences that are

reflected in performance at work. Successful persons in the same occupation have to a

large extent the same interests.

viii) Personality :

Temperamental and non-intellectual personality traits are extremely important in some

jobs. In those of executives and salesmen, they would appear to be of particular importance.

Furthermore emotional and personality difficulties are often the cause of much of the turnover

for even routine jobs.

IMPORTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES :

The importance and the nature of the variation between people, is not generally

appreciated. Many believe that practice makes perfects; yet no amount of practice on the part

of one man will make him as proficient in his work as a little practice will make another.

Since marked differences in ability do occur, it can readily be seen that proper selection

alone greatly increases production.

Thus in terms of the mutual interests of both employees and management, it should be

the goal of personnel policy to place individuals on jobs in which their individual potentialities

can be realized in the form of satisfactory work performance.

Probable Questions :

1. What do you mean by principle of Individual differences ?

2. What are the main areas of individual differences ?

3. What is the importance of differences in industry ?16

4. How can you derive benefits from individual differences ?

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY ATTITUDE

Attitude has been described as “learned readiness to react in a certain manner which

normally involves in part of symbolic act. That is to say a certain object or situation will

provide the individual with a framework within which he can react. In other words, an attitude

is a way a person tends to feel, see, or interpret a particular situation. An attitude is intangible,

it is determined by another from the way a person acts or responds to situation.

An attitude is neither (i) motive, nor (ii) r5esponse. Attitude refers to probable direction,

not the behaviour itself. Attitude is not a drive or force, as a motive is but simply state of

readiness to respond.

Attitude is not simply getting along with people. It is much more. It is an outward

manifestation of wanting to be helpful and useful to the enterprise and to other employees. It is

reflecting a wholesome feeling from inside. It stems from both the personality and mental

outlook. Giving not getting usually characteristics a good attitude. An individual can have a

good attitude and still differ with superiors on policies and decisions, but outward actions and

speeches of the individual show respect for the decisions made and co-operation in carrying

them out.

The kind of a person and the quality of this life, both at work and away from work, is

strongly influenced by his attitude. The atmosphere is which on lives is determined more by his

attitude than anything else. One person may always be looking to the past, ignoring the present

and future. Another is viewing everything in the present and future; nothing is looked upon in

the perspective of the past. One has fairly fixed ideas about certain types of employees and

another considers each of then on individual merit. One individual will look upon mistake as

total and permanent losses, while another view them as opportunities from which a great deal

can be learned.

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Two major types of attitudes :

Attitude are generally classified as (i) positive or (ii) negative. A positive attitude is

directed toward a given object, that is, a person, policy, group, event or institution, whereas a

negative attitude is directed away from a given object.

Frequently, positive attitude are classed as “Construction attitudes” Positive attitudes

are characterized by the reaction of “YES” it can be done”. This is the direction to take “and”

Let us advance along these approaches” In contrast, negative attitudes have been termed”

“Destructive attitudes” Because, they emphasize possible hurdles or stress the view point that

the objective cannot be attained. Expressions typifying this attitude are “This is a poor labour

contract and will no doubt give us plenty of trouble” and “Right now our organization structure

is strong, but I fear our positions next year at this same month.

Most objectives are accomplished far more effectively when positive attitude prevail

than when negative attitudes are dominant. Managers should therefore strive to have positive

attitudes and develop positive attitudes in their sub-ordinates. This is essential in maximizing

managerial actuating works. Optimism is matter of attitude. Managers must first think they can

before they can. Success and victory thrive under the influence of positive attitudes. The

attitudes. The world belongs to those who have positive attitudes, energy knowledge, and

adventuresomeness.

Formation and development of attitudes :

Attitudes are learned or acquired during daily life experience. People are not born with

attitudes. From infancy on, a person acquires traditions, beliefs, opinions and knowledge, all of

which helps to formulate his attitudes. Attitudes are acquired in one or a combination of three

ways.

a. First in past experience which is used to assist in evaluating and subsequently

either accepting or rejecting the new situation into one’s system of though.

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b. Second, acceptance of the attitude of the group of which a person is a member.

Group codes and unwritten agreements not only guide and shape the group but give support to

each member individuality. Certain conventions, habits and attitudes are required in order for

the individuality to possess fully accepted membership.

c. Third and last is statement of an authoritative source. When a person is

confronted with a situation about which he is expected to have an attitude but about which

situation he has limited a background or knowledge, he may accept an attitude based upon the

word of an authority. What constancies and authoritative source depends upon the person

involved. To one person a particular individual may be considered an authority, but to others

the individual would not.

An exceedingly complex pattern of influences tends to make up a particular attitude. It

is not a question of simply combining three or four factors to produce an attitude, nor of

exposing several individuals to the same patterns of influences in order to form similar attitude

among those individuals.

Attitudes develop from the influences of emotions, perceptions, social factors, economic

forces and motivations. Attitudes are not necessarily related to the education and the

intelligence of the person or the facts of the situations. Many attitudes are founded more on

emotional than on rational basis.

An employee’s attitude is influenced by such things as the position and reputation of the

enterprise, its policies and practices, the opportunities for advancement, the thoroughness of

training, the caliber of leadership, the type of work done and the amount of compensation. The

work situation is extremely vital in attitude development and frequently is thought of as the

inclusive area which gives rise to attitudes. But the work situation is by no means the only

area.

The influence of social forces is of tremendous importance in attitude development. For

example, if an employees ‘parents, wife, and children, are wholesome, understanding and co-

operative, it is quite likely that the employee will have a constructive and sincere attitude

19

toward his work. On the other hand if his family is quarrelsome and a great deal of

dissatisfaction is usually prevalent, the employee will frequently reflect this attitude in the kind

and quality of work he does. The motives aroused with an employee by his children what he

wants for the, his plans for their future, his interests in their activities frequently means that he

will have a favourable attitude towards his job because he seems that through his employment

the means for providing his children are achieved.

Government is another important consideration in the determination of attitudes. Some

view observance of the law as a necessary social control for the greatest overall good; others

have the attitudes that most laws are probably necessary but many have little value and can

perhaps be violated if it is so desired. This attitude may be carried over by employee to his

place of work so that company rules and regulations are looked upon in various degrees of

seriousness by an employee.

The mode of living likewise helps shape attitudes. Some concentrate their entire efforts

upon getting material possessions, their attitudes encourage the acquisition of goods, position

and influence. In contrast, others believe in giving, not getting. Their attitude encompasses the

fundamental truth that one cannot get until he learns to give and thus they divided genuine

happiness and lasting satisfaction from his attitude.

Outgrowths of experience are of major consequence in determining attitude. To a

significant degree, a person feels and thinks toward on object. A lawyer’s attitude toward

prosecution might differ widely from that of a social worker. Being in close association or

experiencing almost daily experience to a situation or activity tend to influence one’s attitude

toward that particular circumstance or entity.

Frames of reference :

Frames of reference are also of vital importance in the existence and development of

attitudes. What is associated with an object or is referred to in connection with it helps to

determine the attitude toward that object. Whether an attitude is favourable or infablurable

depends upon the judgment in terms of the frame of reference. If the reference is highly

20

desirable, the attitude will be favourable, and coveresely a reference of low desirability will

result in an unfabourable attitude.

Importance of attitude in Management :

Attitude is an extremely important concept in the managerial work of actuating A

person is often descried in terms of his attitude. It includes a great many things and frequently

is an important as ability, if not more so. Competence may deemed not only outstanding talent,

expert, training and wide experience, but also a co-operative attitude. A person having limited

ability and brilliance but possessing an attitude which is pleasant and fair toward other

employees might well advance to managerial positions of greet importance.

Every employee reflects his attitude towards his work in his daily affords. If he nervous

any faulty attitudes, his work will show it, and further more, it will affect the efforts of these

associated with him. There appears to be little doubt that the must frequent handicap of a

manager is a faulty mental attitude or mental sets which consist of such things as believing an

objective cannot be attained, lack of confidence, conceit, jealousy, fear, narrow mindedness,

fallacious thinking and personnel prejudices. Attitudes permitting such traits do not make the

task unattainable, but they render achievement more difficult.

Attitude is also important because it holds the key to job satisfaction. When each

individual obtain genuine satisfaction from his work, the task of management is lightened.

Attempts are being made to keep the employee satisfied means of various benefits. Such

as pensions, group insurance, vacationary pay etc. These benefits are all desirable and fulfill

certain social needs, but genuine employee satisfaction comes from finding real satisfaction in

his job. Fundamentally that is what every employee actually seeks, although at times he may

not fully recognize it.

Attitude is the key that either opens or closes the employees mind to the proper service

motive installed by competent managers. Work is as much a mental attitude as it is a concrete

21

thing. Without positive attitude toward his work is an important reason for keeping him from

obtaining employee satisfaction from his greatest potential his job.

Research studies have confirmed that individual and group attitudes are commonly the

difference between a highly successful work group and one that is not between a high

production until a low production unit. The individual or group that believes it can succeed,

that the mission can be accomplished his leader knows what he is doing are most likely to be

most effective. It is the right king of attitude that makes the difference.

Changing Attitude :

There is little question that managers can influence employees attitudes. The old adage

that employees reflect the shadow or perhaps more appropriately the light, of the top

management group’s thinking illustrates the same point of view. Persons are influenced

favourably or unfavourable by examples provided experiences permitted, frames of reference

supplied, encouragement of certain motives and the discountenance of other forces.

However, efforts to strengthen, modify or eliminate attitudes must handled expertly and

with great care. Human being usually resist any attempt to change their attitude. People

become set in their responsiveness. This tough mindedness is not more inertia or laziness but

an active resistance to influence.

Why does a person resist a change in his attitude? Primarily because of the attitude is a

personal entity and exemplify a certain prize, affection or innermost readiness of the individual

to response sociologists are the term “ego-involves” explain an attitude which is clung to by an

individual because he likes to think of himself as one who has this particular attitude.

In other words, the self-evaluation and strong desire to retain a present attitude depend

in great measure not only on the possessor’s confidence in that attitude but also in it being

favourably responded to by others.

22

A person will normally defend his attitude when it is challenged Usually challenge is

viewed as undermining something deemed important because values of one’s ineffective

involved. The greater the ego involvement of the person, the less the likelihood of gaining a

change in attitude by means of arguments.

An existing attitude represents the outcome of a balance of motives supporting the

attitude. Some of the motives export a strongest influence upon an altitude than do others. In

order to change an attitude it is usually best to weaken the supporting influence. Other

approaches such as frontal efforts to substitute new influences in order to counteract old ones

are generally ineffective. The removal of accustomed influences meets resistance and arouse

defenses.

The weakening of supporting influences can be attempted in various ways. Among the

more common is to provide facts and knowledge which can be evaluated. The attempt here is

to stress greater rational consideration than emotional Supplying export of authoritative

explanations or view points along with the reasons for such view points can also be employed.

In some cases, it is effective to get the individual to review his experience, to become more

aware of what it means, and to re-conceived relationship of the individual with the reference

group, that is, to reduce the ego-involvement by lowering the favourable respondence of the

group to the attitude. Possibly the best way to achieve this so to talk with the group, request,

their co-operation and support and appeal to the group a favourable decision. It is frequently

less difficult to away a group than an individual. This is true for several reasons.

Firstly, When members of the group change the attitude, the individual can see that a

change on his part will not reduce his relative ego-involvement.

Secondly, changes or acceptance of persuasive efforts are of ten more effective on a

group than on an individual, the influence of mob-psychology and group motivations being

exercised.

Thirdly, the attainment of an atmosphere of high enthusiasm, helpful for indicating

changes, can best be reached with a group.

23

Some suggestions for developing favourable attitude :

1. Have a wholesome, practical outlook on life and your fellow employees. Think

optimistically, show enthusiasm, be genuinely interested in the other fellow, expect mistakes

and misgivings but do not become depressed by them.

2. Take the constructive side of issue :

Speak, wife and act from the positive view-point, Stress confidence and progress, avoid

fear and retrospection. Keep looking until some good is found and then figure out the best

manner to utilize this good. Emphasize what to do and what not to do.

3. Associate with those who are successful :

The people surrounding a person can exercise great influence upon him attitude. If they

are experiencing full, rice, helpful lives, they serve as a favourable motivation and tend to

encourage a person to greater and better accomplishments. It is difficult for an individual to

maintain an unfavourable attitude when all those around him have a favourable attitude.

4. Give other the feeling of importance and self-worthiness :

Permit others to participate, their opinions, build up their self confidence, and let them

know they are doing something worthwhile. Practice the philosophy of giving, not getting.

Talk about the individuals astute accomplishments and his sagacity in arriving at the proper

decision, but refrain from talking about him.

5. Feel deeply about certain values on life :

A human being must have an outlet for his productivities; he must have a deep sense of

responsibility for certain attributes of his own choosing so that he can anchor the whole of his

activities around what constitutes to him a meaningful target.

Probable Questions

1. Define attitude and mention the different types of attitudes.24

2. How attitude is formed ? Can attitude be changed ?

3. What is frame of reference ? How it influences or affects attitude ?

4. What is the importance of attitude in management?

5. How to change attitude and what is precaution ?

6. Give some suggestions for development of favourable attitudes.

BIHRMINDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

JOB SATISFACTION

The terms “employee attitude” Job satisfaction” and “Industrial morale” are in many

instances used interchangeably. But according to Blum they are not synonymous. An attitude

may contribute to job satisfaction since the latter is comprised of a number of attitudes.

Similarly job satisfaction in not the same as industrial morale although it may contribute to

morale. Job attitude is the feeling the employee has about his job, his readiness to react in one

way or another to specific factors related to his job, Job satisfaction dissatisfaction is the result

of various attitudes the person holds toward his job, toward related factors and toward life in

general.

INFORMATION ABOUT ATTITUDE :

Information about employee attitudes may be obtained from the following sources :

1. Formal Communication Channels :

Assessment / analysis of employees feeling toward their jobs and factors related to the

job, made by the foreman and supervisors is one of the most important sources of information

of employee attitude.

2. Grapevine Channels :

Rumored Attitudes are a part of all organizations. However, the information that rumors

carry becomes altered and often distorted as it makes its upward movement. More dangerous

25

still are the attitudes communicated by the grapevine, for they may reflect only the extremes.

Within this structure, attitudes of the majority of the workers never get impartially expressed.

3. Behaviour Manifestations :

Some of the behaviour manifestations such as griping on the job, slow downs, early

quits and excessive absenteeism are true revealers of attitudes. But it is already too late by the

time such manifestations are evidenced and the damage is already done.

4. Interviewing :

This has been one of the main means of getting information of employee attitude. In the

guided interview, there is an attempt to get answers to predetermined questions.

5. The Questionnaire :

The questionnaire technique is economical and also has certain advantages of

objectivity of measurement providing for a quantitative treatment of responses. Answers may

be obtained through check lists, multiple choice questions, yes on answers.

Factors related to job attitudes :

The following are the ten major factors related to job attitudes :

1. Security :

The Factor deals with the steadiness of employment, where the manager or worker feels

he has a reasonable chance of working under conditions of company stability. The man with

security feels that he is valued by the organization and that he has the abilities and opportunity

to keep his job. Security is a strong reason for liking a job and is generally mentioned first by

both men and women as contributing job satisfaction.

2. Opportunity of advancement :

This factor ranks high in importance, particularly to the person striving for upward

mobility. The results of many attitude surveys show that the lack of opportunity for

26

advancement is frequently a strong reasons for disliking a job but rarely is opportunity for

advancement mentioned as contributory to satisfaction. Men are much more expressive in

giving importance to this factor than are women. However, there is some evidence that there is

a decrease in the importance of the advancement factor with increasing age.

3. Company management :

Whether we deal with the size of the organization, reputation, earnings, or public or

public relations, the employee believes that a good company is one which helps him fell some

stability in his job. Like security it contributes substantially to the employee’s satisfaction. In

terms of occupational level, there is some evidence that the high the skill level, the greater the

satisfaction with the company.

4. Wages :

When this factor is ranked with nine other job factors employees give it fourth place. It

is interesting that employers generally rank this factor near the top when they are asked what

the employee wants. Wages are more important to men than women worker4s, and are

generally more important to factory workers than to office workers.

5. Intrinsic aspects of the job :

There are many reasons why people like their job simply for the sake of the job. One

may like it because he has the right ability and training for it. Another may like his job parse

because it brings him recognition, third person may like his job because it is easy, gives him

an opportunity to travel, or is free of tension and pressure. Whatever the reason, what the man

does at his particular job contributes to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

6. Supervision :

To the worker his supervisor is an equally strong contributor to both satisfaction and

dissatisfaction. Women seem more sensitive to supervision then men, but for both bad

supervision can be a primary reason for absenteeism and labour turnover.

27

7. Social Aspect of the job :

This involves such needs as belonging and social approval. This factor contributes to

both satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the employee. A man who feels himself a member of a

productive, cohesive group is happier with his job than is someone who finds himself a misfit.

The social factor appears slightly more important to women than to men. It is relatively

independent of age and occupational level.

8. Communication :

Communication means the formalities of conveying information, giving orders / turning

out annual reports. The lack of good communication may be a reason for disliking a job, but it

is never a reason for liking a job. Good communication means the opposite of being ignored.

The factor of communication seems to be more important at the higher educational level.

9. Working conditions :

Temperature, lighting, ventilation, cafeteria, toilets and the like have been found to be

equally contributing to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Working conditions are

substantially more important to women than to men. Hours are more important to men than any

other specific aspect of working conditions; but among women, especially married women this

aspect has even more significance.

10. Benefits :

Employee benefits such s retirement provisions, medical facilities, leaves vacations and

holiday etc. are a standard part of most jobs. They contribute to satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

In short it may be said that needs fulfillment and positive attitudes and intrinsic aspect of jobs,

are the contributing factors to job satisfaction.

The extent and nature job dissatisfaction :

28

The average figure of job dissatisfaction found in varying industries (USA) is around

13% age as a factor has been shown from twenty three studies. In general, job satisfaction is

high among young workers but tends to go down during the first few years of employment.

People who are dissatisfied with their jobs are less outgoing and friendly, are more

emotionally unbalanced, and show more boredom, daydreaming and general, discontent than

the satisfied workers.

Effects of attitudes on productivity :

A number of research studies found that workmen with positive job attitudes showed

higher productivity than those with negative attitudes. The basic consideration is that high

productivity accompanies high morale only when the attitudes of the group is very cohesive,

when the atmosphere is friendly, and when belonging to that specific work group is highly

desirable to its members. It has been found in a number of studies that workers with positive

attitudes have less turnover and absenteeism than workers with negative attitudes. It is also

found that workers with positive attitude out-produce workers with negative job attitudes,

when the psychological climates favour high production, where there is a good supervision,

and where the employee really wants to produce and get ahead.

Aspiration and productivity :

Morse pointed out that employee satisfaction was a function not only of how much a

person receives from the job situation, but also of where he stands with respect to his level of

aspiration. When the environment provides little possibility for need satisfaction, those people

with the strongest desires, or highest aspirations will be the least happy. In another way “The

greater the amount the individual gets the greater his satisfaction and at the sometime the more

the individuals still desires, the less his satisfaction” (Morse) As the person grows older, the

need for pay and job status increases. This can lead to job dissatisfaction when the discrepancy

between levels of aspiration and possibilities of attainment gets too great.

Probable questions

29

1. What do you mean by job Satisfaction ? Is it synonymous with industrial morale ?

2. Which is more convenient and effective and why ?

3. What are the main sources of obtaining employee attitude ?

4. What are the factors related to Job attitude ?

5. What are effects of job attitudes on production ?

BIHRM

MOTIVATION

Basically the topic of motivation deals with the question of WGY animals and human

beings do what they do. People work because they what nice things. They save because they

want security. They fight because they are threatened. Most people describe the cause of their

behaviour in terms of goals toward which they are striving.

Practically all behaviour, everything we do learning, working studying playing solving

problems, even perceiving has a motive followed by reasons. Responses are determined not

only environmental conditions but also by states within the organism needs, wishes, wants and

they are generally directed toward some goal or goals. Motives are said to be needs, which

create drives and learned behaviour is drive reducing.

Some motives or needs are called primary needs because they are not dependent on

learning for their basic motive force (although learning may affect the social expression of

these drives). An example is, hunger, a primary drive to obtain food which is based on

unlearned biological needs. The primary motives such as hunger, thirst sex and pain avoidance

are closely co-related with physiological states.

Other, motives, sometimes called secondary motives / drives are learned or acquired

desires for particular goal such as power, money, attention, approval, acceptance, achievement,

30

living standard habit of smoking etc. The most important point here is that motives needs, or

desires impel the individual to action.

Classification of Needs :

A number of attempts have been made by psychologists to classify and categorize the

various human needs into levels to relative importance concerning their impact on motivation.

The theory that has received the highest degree of acceptance is that of Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs, The essence of this theory is that the overwhelming majority of normal human being

have certain common, basic needs which can be grouped into five levels and arranged in a

hierarchy of strength as follow :

Self-realization needs

Ego / Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

Physiological needs

Biological needs

1. Physiological needs or biological needs : Hunger, Thirst, Sex and so on (bodily

need fulfillment).

2. Safety needs : Protection against danger, Threat, Deprivation and so on.

3. Social needs : Belonging, Association, Acceptance, by others, Giving and

receiving friendship and love.

4. Ego or Esteem Needs : Self esteem (Self confidence, Independence,

achievement, competence, knowledge) and personal reputation, (status, recognition,

appreciation, respect).

5. Self Actualization or Self Fulfillment needs : Realizing one’s own potential,

self development, creativity.

Man’s needs are arranged in a series of levels – hierarchy of importance. As soon as

needs of lower level are by and large satisfied, those on the next higher level emerge and

demand satisfaction.

31

The tasks of modern management are to obtain facts, plan, direct, co-ordinate and

motivate. It is of little use for the management to carry out other actives of getting facts,

planning and so on, if people who are supposed to carry out plans, are not motivated to do so.

Under coercion they may have to do the task but it is no substitute of or voluntary action. One

may drag a horse to water but cannot make it to drink.

Since productivity is closely related to motivation, we may define productivity as :

Productivity = f (Material input x Human input).

Human performance of human input depends upon ability and motivation. We may say :

Human performance ability motivation.

The motivation on the other hand is the function of social condition, individual needs

and physical condition. Schematically :

Motivation = f (Social condition x Individual needs x physical condition).

Social factors influencing motivation :

1. Due recognition as an individual.

2. Prais for good work.

3. Prospect for future development.

4. Pay as high as the going rate for the same type of work elsewhere.

5. Selection of best qualified employees when required.

6. Proper training and familiarization with company’s objectives.

7. Reasonable amount of work and satisfactory working condition.

8. Friendly and helpful criticism for correction of error.

9. Fair grievance handling.

10. Jon security and freedom from unjust reprimand.

32

11. Mutual sacrifice, participation in group activities, experience of progress towards goal

and confidence in leaders.

Physical conditions motivation productivity :

1. Good working space and sating arrangement.

2. Proper lighting essential for health safety and efficiency. But5 strong lighting strains

worker’s eyes causing fatigue which reduces interest for work.

3. Well ventilation, healing and cooling has a definite effect on physical comfort, mental

attitude and fatigue. Hot and humid atmospheric condition has adverse effect on efficiency.

4. Noise causes annoyance to workers and hinders concentration. Unnecessary noise must

be avoided.

5. Regular supply of materials.

6. Good maintenance of machines.

7. Rest pauses providing good food and comfortable lounge during rest period reduces

fatigue and help from favourabel attitude towards the company

8. Prevention of accidents.

9. Work simplification.

10. Motion economy.

The importance of various needs or wants which motivate man was expertly expressed

by prof. Doughlas McGregor as follows.

“Man is a wanting animal as soon as one of his needs is satisfied, another appears in its

place. This process is unending. It continues from birth to death. Man continuously put forth

the effort works, if you please to satisfy his needs A satisfied need is not a motivation. This is a

fact which is …………. Ignored in the conventional approach to management of people”.

We may define individual need as function of :

F (experience x education x cultural background x level of aspiration x perception x general

economic condition x and personal situation)

33

McGregor “X” and “Y” Theory

The bulk of current managerial principles, according to McGregor, has been directly

derived from the first set of assumption, theory X. These assumption are :

1. The average human being has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if he

can.

2. Because of this human characteristic of dislike for work, most people must be

controlled directed or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort

toward the achievement of organizational objectives.

3. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility,

has relatively little ambition and wants security above all.

The assumptions of theory x and the approaches to motivation and supervision which

result from it may indeed be what exists in many organizations. Pressure through the use of

rewards and the threat of punishment has been used to achieve company objectives.

Pressure has bred counter pressure, and subordinates have reacted in way detrimental to

organizational efficiency. To achieve the desired behaviour, management hashed to impose

still more restriction, a vicious cycle has been set up and the assumptions of the theory seems

to have been confirmed. Management has regarded employees as indolent, without ambition

and resistant to change and responsibility.

But theory X does not reflect man’s inherent nature , rather such behaviour in man in

part the result of management philosophy and practice. McGregor himself regarded theory X

as an extreme and as an unacceptable set of assumptions about human being.

Theory “Y”

The accumulation of knowledge about human behaviour from many specialized field,

has lead to further research regarding the validating of conventional managerial assumptions.

34

From these date McGregor derived a new set of assumptions what he called theory “Y” These

assumptions of McGregor provide a better example of human nature and therefore indicated

the need for different managerial strategy in dealing with people.

1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as lay or rest.

The average human being does not inherently dislike work Depending upon controllable

conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction or sources of punishment.

2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing

about effort organizational objectives. Man will exercise self direction and self control in the

servi9ce of objectives to which he is committed.

3. Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their

achievement. The most significant of such rewards e.g. the satisfaction of ego and self

actualization need can be direct product of effort directed toward organizational objectives.

4. The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept but

to seek responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition and emphasis on security

are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human characteristics.

5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and

creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly distributed in the

population.

6. Under conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the

average human being are only utilized.

According to theory “Y” many managers should near range their assumptions, thinking

of methods so that organizational and individual goals are compatible. Management should

adopt policies that promote on the job satisfaction, individual development and expression.

It is a new managerial philosophy as well as a criticism of traditional managerial policy

and action. Theory “X” emphasizes autonomy, self direction individual freedom and inner

direction. Although these conditions may be desirable for some people, others do not want and

cannot handle them and are extremely uncomfortable with too much freedom.

35

Unbridled individual freedom is neither compatible with organization goals nor is it

desirable. Sometimes it may prove detrimental. In some new nations sudden freedom from

colonial control causes virtual anarchy. Several authors like Erick from, Maslow etc. agreed

that complete individual freedom is not the answer but freedom with limits varying in

intensity.

The other criticism is that over implication of work has reduced job satisfaction. Though

it is true in mass production job, work satisfaction has undoubtedly increased may work

situations in modern industry.

When strapped of value judgments theory “X” emphasis’s dependence, domination and

control; theory “Y” emphasizes independence, freedom and permissiveness.

By encouraging independence, theory “Y” proponents expect to stimulate initiative,

contribution, involvement and creativity of organizational members, It becomes an important

means through which the employee can pursue his goals and since organizational goals are

compatible with individual goals, in his pursuits he contributes to organizational achievement.

Motivation based on fear Concept of Negative sanction :

The old concept of motivation was based on fear, chiefly relied upon negative sanction

based on fear and punishment to get the result. The workers either teed the line or faced the

consequence of losing the job. The situation however changes as organized labours gained

influence, besides organizations become larger and spread in complexity. The current emphasis

is on human relations and positive incentives.

Positive Incentives :

Motivation and morale : By inducing the workers to work and creating interest in

them for the work, ineffective time wastage may be reduced. This is usually done by upholding

morale of the workers and motivation them for higher production. The basic principle is that

every individual kikes to stand well in his own eyes and also in the eye of those whose

36

appreciation he values. The workers are favourable affected by a boss who treats them as

human being and they are motivated to work for a company where there is confidence in

fairness of the top management. The output and moral both increase when the policy of the

company is employee centered and not production centered.

Although the right to fine or demote an employee under certain circumstances remains a

tool in the hands of management for disciplinary purposes, it has now been replaced by

positive incentives and morale. This is due to growing realization that positive incentives are

more conducive to the welfare of the enterprise then negative sanctions based on fear of

demotion or dismissal. This does not mean that negative sections should be discarded entirely.

It seems neared the truth to say that as positive incentives are made effective, there is less need

to apply negative sanctions and they in any case a sanction should be reserved for individual

cases and rarely if ever used on a group. However, the complete elimination of sanction would

quickly get the administration into trouble.

Probable Questions :

1. What is a motive ? What is difference between primary and secondary needs.

2. What are the social and physical factors influencing motivation.

3. What are the Maslow’s classification of human needs ?

4. narrate the ‘X” and “Y” theories of motivation.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL MORALE

The terms “employee attitude” “Job satisfaction” and “industrial morale” are in many

instances used interchangeably. But according to Blum they are not synonymous. An attitude

may contribute to job satisfaction since the latter is comprised of a number of attitudes.

Similarly job satisfaction is not the same as industrial morale although it may contribute to

morale.

37

Job attitude is the felling the employee has about his job, his readiness to react in one

way or another to specific factor related to his job. Job a satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the

result various attitudes the person holds toward his hob, toward related factors and toward life

in general. Industrial morale is generated by the group. For the individual it is a feeling of

being accepted by and belonging to a group of employees through adherence to common goals.

In a company industrial morale is the composite expression of the attitudes of the various

individuals working there.

From the standpoint of management, the state of employee’s attitudes toward their

company and its mode of operation is a foremost issue and is commonly included under the

subject morale. According to the definition morale is the attitude of employee toward

management members, toward their jobs, and toward each other” Other stress the identification

of the employees objectives with those of the company. Thus morale concerns the state of

employees, attitude toward their company and its mode of operation.

The concept is that the extent to which an employees’ attitudes enable him to realized

maximum satisfaction of his desires with the fulfillment of the company’s objectives, the

higher the morale.

Attitudes, therefore, are very vital to morale. While many attitude influence morale,

those pertaining to the following areas are of tap importance :

a) Attitude of mangers toward other managers of the same enterprise, non-

management members and vice verse.

b) Attitude toward the company’s objectives, plans, and leadership.

c) Attitude toward the organization structure of the company.

d) Attitude toward pay, hours of work and working conditions.

e) Attitude toward the size and type of enterprise for whom as working Emp0loyee

morale may be high or low. To have high morale an individual must processes firm conviction

and values which make life worthwhile for him that he has the energy and confidence to face

the future. He must be aware of job to be done to defend or extend his store of values and his

38

values must be essential agreement with those of his group and there must be in essential

agreement with those of his group and there must be a co-ordination of effort in attaining

objectives. Good morale is resistance to frustration.

Low morale indicates as attitude of apathy or resignatice. Without goal interest is absent

or the obstacles between individual and the goal are regarded unsurmountable.

The works commonly regarded as ingredients of high moral are :

a) Team spirit describes a relationship between people.

b) Staying quality – implies that a group does not loose.

Might of its goal under adverse circumstances.

It means perseverance, confidence and standing.

Together for achieving the goal.

c) Zest - implies high motivation. When zest is present.

There is interest and excitement in performing a job.

The general picture of the morale of various work groups may compared on the basis of level

of morale as shown below :

LEVEL Zest

OF Activity Co-operation

MORALE Satisfied

Job O.K

Passive Co-operation

Job Unimportant

Work a Burden

Hostility

From the comparison it follows. Zest being the tope value and apathy the lowest value

because if implies a complete absence of effort. It must not be assumed that all members of the

group would feel the same way in any situation. Individual difference are always present.

39

Nevertheless. It is possible to think in terms of group as unit describe the way group works.

Groups have personality of their own and one can think of a groups motivation, attitude and

adjust.

Physical Factors :

The degree of high or low morale differs from person to person depending upon his mental and

bodily conditions. Inborn personality differences which brings out differences in energy,

determination emotional stability, influence stamina. Like-wise bodily conditions good health,

proper food and adequate rest also have a direct influence on stamina. Acquired personality

qualities derived from environment has a direct hearing on good morale.

Satisfaction with the company :

Such factors as company attitude to employees and society in general, the type of foreman, the

sanitary facilities, lighting, ventilation and attractiveness of the shop and many other conditions

which constitute the environment influence the morale of the workers.

Job satisfaction demonstrates high morale among those who are satisfied with the job some of

the important psychological Factors influencing high morale are :

a) Mutual sacrifices;

b) Participation in group activity;

c) Experience of progress toward goal;

d) Tolerance and freedom within group; and Confidence in leaders.

Moral Building Programme :

The first step in a moral building is to instill proper attitudes in the minds of all

employees. This is easier said than done As already mentioned, an attitude is the result of many

complex forces and to change an existing attitude requires persistent, continuous, and well

planned efforts over a long period of time, but the task can be done.

40

Second step is to measure morale to determine are areas where improvements can be made,

especially those of irritation and trouble, if any. Employee attitudes can be catalogues by

various means including by an intuitive basis, interviews, surveys, and analysis of employees,

records showing number of grievances, absenteeism, rate of labour turnover, and the like.

Some of the questions used in a survey are show below as examples:

Yes No Don’t Know

1. My Job is often dull

2. My superior keeps his promises

3. My superior knows a great deal about his job

4. I can say that I think around here

5. I have the proper tools and equipment to do my job

6 We have a poor way of handling employee

complaints

7. I take pride in working for this company

8. The people I work with are friendly

9. We have a good employee benefit programme

10. The working conditions here are O.K

Employees answers to much questions the relative standing of such considerations as

confidence in managers, adequacy or communication, status and recognition, employee

benefits, and identification with company. Morale measurement requires specialized

techniques in handling and should be performed only be a trained researcher in this field.

Improperly handled it can have an adverse effect upon morale.

The Next step is evaluate carefully the results obtained in step No.2 In this way, the

areas requiring immediate attention can be pinpointed and definite plans for correcting these

trouble sports can be evolved and put into action. Some managers advocate publishing the

results of the survey along with what corrective measures will be taken. In contrast, other

executives oppose such a practice. The decision must be based on the individual circumstances

of each case.

41

In the final analysis good morale is a by-product of competent management. Morale can

not be sought for directly; it must be improved by indirect means, that is, by improving

management. More specially the effort must constantly be toward the end that the managerial

organizing work should be the very best possible, capable leadership emphasized and

developed to all employees, and proper emphasis given to the human element in managerial

decisions.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL FATIGUE AND BOREDOM

Most people are familiar with such terms as “fatigues” tiredness” boredom” and

“monotony” These terms are used to describe feelings. There is, however, no clear cut

measures of boredom or fatigue. Psychological means for evaluating the effort expended in

work are less precise than are the physiological measures, but the reports of out feeling may

actually be more relevant than the physiological measures especially for work of non-physical

nature.

FATIGUE

Feelings of fatigue, feelings of tiredness are subjective or psychological states that may

accompany prolonged work. We might suppose that work decrements, the actual decreases in

proficiency over time, lead directly to such subjective feelings. This is not true.

Feelings of tiredness are, of course, related to physiological changes. But here are

different kinds of tiredness related to different kinds of work. A emotional upset may involve a

kind of tiredness different from that resulting from a hard day of physical labour free from

frustration. Although we have good measures of tiredness, the descriptions we can give of it

are useful in certain practical situations. One personnel Manager reports the case of a worker

who frequently complained of feeling tired on the Job. Following up on the supplication that

the man was not being accepted in his particular work group, he had the man transferred to a

42

similar job with a different group of workers. Here he soon came to feel that he belonged and

he made fewer complaints.

Another case reported by a University Counselor was that a newly married student of

twenty-four, was having difficulty with his courses. He complained of being tired each night

when he sat down to study. Though he fought the impulse, he could invariably fall asleep over

his books; finally giving up, he would retire with his lessons unprepared. His scholastic

performance brought him before the counselor. He and his wife moved out of his mother-in-

law’s home and in two weeks the symptoms of fatigue were completely gone. He was working

quite effectively.

Reduction in work output :

It is known that beyond a certain point a man’s production rate gets lower the longer he

works at a job. He may get less work done for each operation, it may take time longer to

complete some piece of work or the quality of his work may be affected. It is also known that

efforts in work and lack of precision and co-ordination occur as a result of fatigue on phycho-

metor tasks.

REST FROM WORK

It is known from experimental studies that a subject can become so tired from lifting a

weight that he can no longer move his arms until he has had a given period of rest. Recovery,

thought quite rapid at first, is followed by a long slow period of come-back. The more fatigued

we are, the longer it takes to recover.

From labor4atory studies under ideal controlled conditions and from less controlled

industrial situations has come practical principles of work which says in effect, fatigue should

be prevented by taking rest periods before the fatigue gets in.

It is generally recognized that rest pauses improve worker performance. It formal rest

pauses are not allowed, employees take unauthorized ones. It has been found in some instances

43

that these are just as effective in combating fatigue as are those scheduled by management. Just

when to schedule rest period veries from situation to situation. One way to get at the problem is

by plotting production records throughout the working period and observing drops in

production. It is important to schedule rest periods before the drops occur. It is also important

to keep an eye on production records routinely, because not all drops in production are caused

by fatigue or corrected by rest.

Rest on the job can be obtained in a number of ways. One way is to slow down activity.

Here the worker actually rests while he works. Some people resort to pacing their activities, as

most workers on a piece-rate learn to do. Day dreaming may be thought of as form of rest

which allows the person to leave his job mentally. Late starts and early quits, with interruptions

in between, are other forms of work stoppage. An of course, physical departure from the work

scene is a possible form of rest.

An important part of rest is change of deviation from the usual or routine course of

work. Deviation involves turning something away from its course, and it is most important in

combating mental stress. We know that worry can sometimes be lessened by putting something

in the place of the worrisome thoughts. It has been found through several studies that rest

pause during work are beneficial to production. In one study it was found that the introduction

of 12 minute rest pause in the MIDDLE OF THE MORNING AND A SIMILAR PAUSE IN

THE MIDDLE OF THE AFTERNOON increased the output by 29%. It also decreased the

length of voluntary rest pauses 60%. This study showed that rest pauses should be introduced

just before production to fall from its maximum.

The introduction of rest pauses which result in increased work output have been found

to have a beneficial effect both physiologically and psychologically; they improve the attitudes

of the employees toward the working situation.

The attitude of a person ahs toward his work determines to a large extent his need for

rest.

44

BOREDOM : Boredom is characterized by a lack of interest, usually associated with

repetitive work activity. It is differentiated from fatigue in that it involves the desire for change

in activity rather than for rest or relief from the work itself .

The two factors determining boredom are the amount of repetition in work and the

degree of attention demanded by the work. Jobs which require continuous attention tend to be

interesting, and those which require little or no attention leave the individual free to talk his

neighbors or to think of other things.

A practical way to remove boredom is to change one’s activity. If such a change is not

possible in the job situation itself, then a change of pace may be accomplished by taking a

hobby. The important thing involved here is the change of activity.

The bored worked is inclined to over estimate the duration of time Although a repetitive

task may not be attention demanding, the worked may have varied and discordant thoughts

during which he keeps coming back to the amount of time still to be worked. This where the

work is automatic, where there is a little or no chance for conversation and where there is little

or no personal interest in the final production its destination.

Wyatt suggests that the additional incentive and satisfaction which accompanies a

pieces a piece-rate system of payment tends to retard the onset of boredom. Quantities which

take about an hour to complete give more satisfaction than an endless flow along a conveyer,

because of the interest associated with awareness of achievement.

There seems to be general agreement that such susceptibility to boredom is

individualistic. A person who is by temper mentally lively and has a high degree of intelligence

tends to be more bored by repetitive work than the person of lower intelligence who is

submissive.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

FRUSTRATION AS A FACTOR IN HUMN BEHAVIOUR

45

Human beings wants many things to make lives meaningful, comfortable and worthy of living.

They need food, shelter, status, power, recognition, love, affection and a feeling of

belongingness etc. But all needs are not fulfilled always and easily. Some are more difficult ot

satisfy.

Attempts to obtain satisfaction of needs and desires frequently meet with obstacles,

regardless of one’s status or job. Many times these blockages are only temporary and

overcome easily. At other times, however, attempts to attain a goal are blocked time and time

again with the result that there is an accumulation of tension within the individual. This

frustration occurs because individuals have desires or motives which they want to satisfy, but

these desires or motives get blocked in some way or other. In short, it is the blocking of an

organism’s path towards a goal. This will be more clear if you look at the basic closed circuit

model of behaviour, showing relationships between causality, motivation and goal direction

(Demonstration with Transparency).

In frustrated situations the behaviour of the individual becomes emotional and

unreasonable. The characteristics of frustrated behaviour are aggression, regression, fixation

and resignation.

AGGRESSION :

Aggression behaviour occurs when one resents interference but does not react to it as a

problem. There are three forms of aggression viz: Elementary Aggression, Displaced

Aggression and organized Aggression.

The symptoms of aggression commonly found in industrial employees are (1) Excessive

criticism of management, (2) Constant Voicing of grievances, (3) Damaging of equipment, (4)

Inability to get along with others, (5) Absenteeism and (6) Joining of militant unions. The

management expresses its aggression by (1) Enforcing stricter discipline, (2) Imposing

penalties of all sorts, (3) Attaching labour legislation and (4) Opposing labour organization.

RESGESSION :

46

Regression is a break-down of constructive behavior and represents a return to childish

behaviour. In extreme cases, adults regresses to the infantile stage and are considered as

babies. Signs of regression in industrial employees are (1) Loss of emotional control, (2) Lack

of responsibility, (3) Unreasoned fear and (4) Responsiveness to rumour (5) Following the

leader etc. The management too show sings of regression when (1) Bosses refuse to delegate

responsibility (2) Do not distinguish between reasonable and unreasonable requests and (3)

Form blind loyalties for particular persons or organizations.

FIXATIONS :

The terms fixation is used designate a compulsion to continue a kind of activity which

have no adoptive value. An action is respected over and over again despite the fact that the

person knows it will accomplish nothing examples of fixation commonly meet in industry are

to be found in (1) Individuals who are unable to accept change old methods seem best and are

defended whether they concern the nature of the method of work or the nature of industrial

relations economic outlook.

who are unable to accept change old methods seem best and are defended whether they

concern the nature of the method of work or the nature of industrial relations economic

outlook.

RESIGNATION :

Resignation is frustratingly resign one’s lot to the guidance of some superior brain. All

forms of activity seem to be closed to the individual, so he surrenders. This is a frame of mind

which the oppressive rulers may desire to create. Resignation is probably a dormant condition

in which all aggression has been temporarily blocked. People in this state of mind obviously

have low morale and will remain socially neutral unless their mental condition changes. In

industry the resigned individual is one who has lost hope of bettering his conditions. He

becomes apathetic regarding his future.

47

FRUSTRATION AND SOCIAL MOVEMENT :

Frustration-instigated social movement-Any important social movement can transform

the social, political and economic structure of the country. This social trend should not be

ignored by the industrial organization.

A group of frustrated people may become organized and since aggressive behaviour

tendencies are present in such people, they may take the pattern of aggression. The study of

riots and mob behaviour also reveals the attractiveness of destructive behaviour to certain

groups of people. Frustrations and tensions on a wide scale procede these outburst and are the

underlying causes. The leader of the movement determines the form of the aggression.

The other types of behaviour which are characteristic of frustration lend support to an

organization build around frustration. Regressive tendencies make people suggestible and

easily led. The tendency to fixate makes their behaviour stereotyped that they can be made to

persist in any activity in which they started. Whether or not they will sweep away these things

which are good evil in cociety depends upon the circumstances themselves, and the leader is

the most important factor to determine the directive of the activity. The frustration instigated

movement develop into militant labour organization develops. The manner in which frustration

influences the character of a social organization may be found out from a comparative study of

the communistic and socialistic movements. Though the economic beliefs are almost similar,

the character of the two movements are different. The former is militant in nature and places

great emphasis on the overthrow of capitalism, while socialism emphasizes the bette3r life. It

seems reasonable to regard communism as primarily a frustration instigated type of movement

and socialism as largely a goal motivated type. Communism gives the frustrated people an

aggressive pattern of action rather than a promise of better things.

Because labour then frustrated is highly susceptible to being organized into a strong labour

movement, it is desirable that industry avoid creating frustrating circumstances. If it opposes

unions which have goals, it frustrated them and thus encourage the formation of militant labour

movement. The objective examination of industrial strike shows that labour movement become

more militant as attempts are mode to frustrate their activities. In industries where unions do

not have to struggle for recognition, they actually co-operate with management. In other cases

48

conciliation is the rule rather than the exception. Since the unreasonable people are frustrated

people, frustrating them further merely increases their destructive potentialities. To force them

into submission in the hope that they will eventually become resigned and give up is

psychologically unsound and dangerous.

SOURCES FOR REMOVAL OF FRUSTRATION :

1. A grievance settlement procedure through a machinery set-up for the purpose.

2. Prior consultation with the employees on any matter, which affects their interests, and

thereby winning over their confidence.

3. To keep the worker organized when the workers are recognized without any hindrance,

it naturally extends co-operation with the management.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

VORKING ENVIRONMENT

“A person is what he is because of his nature and his heredity and environment” Man’s

biological evolution changes his nature, cultural evaluation changes his nature. The

contributions of both heredity and environment are important though it may vary in degree in

different circumstances.

By environment, in its broadest sense is meant all factors or groups of factors,all forms of

energy or energy other fores internaor external that invoke activity , behaviour response from

the individual.

In industrial enterpries working environment is the most important factor for sustaining

and improving the efficiency of the worker. It is a well known fact that productivity is the

effect of individual ability and his motivation and the influence of environment in which his

performs the job. Schematically we may say that

49

P = (AxM) Where P =Productivity; E

A = Ability M = Motivation and E = Environment.

Therefore, the unhealthy and unhappy workers doing their jobs under conditions of physical

and mental strain are inefficient producers.

The total environmental factors that influence human performance my be grouped under the

following heads:

a) Physical factors.

b) Organizational factors.

c) Psychological factors.

d) Living condition factors.

The physical factors include cleanliness, ventilation, temperature or atmospheric

condition, lighting or illumination colour, noise, sanitation etc.

1. Cleanliness . Cleanliness is essential to both physical and mental health. The working

place must be kept clean of accumulated dirts and debris. Rooms, passages and must be

cleaned every day. Spittoons should be provided in sufficient number and must be cleaned and

disinfected at least once in every day.

2. Ventilation . Ventilation is required for the health and comfort of the workers which

increases efficiency. Ventilation may be natural. artificial or a combination of both. In some of

our mills and factories little have been done to mitigate the effects of heat by proper

ventilation. The workers are to go outside to recover from the unbearable heat, which affects

their efficiency.

3. Temperature of Atmospheric Condition :

Excessively high or low temperature and inadequate ventilation cause sickness, discomfort,

and low vitality of the workers resulting in reduction in productivity.

50

Although the most comfortable working temperature may be around 650F, one study showed

that the performance did not begin to deteriorate until around 900F. In high temperature more

errors occur and production drops. In low temperature production decreases and accident rate

increases.

4. Lighting or Illumination

Good lighting speeds production. It is essential to the health, safety and efficiency of

workers. Insufficient light affect eye-sight. It has been found that glare causes discomfort in

workers and affects performance.

5. Noise :

Noise has been defined as unpleasant sound. while there are indications that noise

reduces work performance, there is no clear- cult evidence in support of such a contention. If

there is high morale in a group, it may well stand grand greater noise levels without complaint

that with another group with low morale, Very high tones and extremely low tones are more

irritating than those in the middle ranges.

6. Colour :

The use of colour is an important factor governing the workers feelings of heat or

coldnees. In temperate conditions workers' comfort are influenced by repainting the4 walls and

furnishings of the work place in colours designed to give a feeling of warmth or cold.

OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Workers are most loyal and co-operative when they have pride in work in their

employers. Management striving to overcome grievances in the job environment in one way of

building up this pride. Clean and adequate toilet and wash room facilities are important factors

for high morale. Company restaurants which are clean, quiet and comfortable are conductive to

workers mind. Attractive physical appearance of the plant provide for good sanitation and

health of the workers.

HARMONIOUS EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

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Worker's behaviour usually reflects their material and psychological environment.

Reasonable wages, good human relations inside the factory, good understanding between

management and labour, correct decisions on questions of promotion and at the same time well

cared for work places, sanitary facilities much better than "good enough for a worker"

behaviour and bring about employment stability among the personnel. When relations between

employers and workers are bad. when workers fear dismissal, when workers are dissatisfied

with wages, when working hours are long, the morale of the workers becomes low resulting in

frustration and low output.

Respect of worker's feeling an dignity helps to give him peace of mind. Living

conditions outside the factory also have an influence; living in slum areas have undesirable

moral and physical effects and thereby adversely influences the workers attitude in the factor.

Probale Questions

1. What do you mean by environment? What are the groups into which environmental

factors can be classified.

2. Discuss very briefly the physical factors influences human performance.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

HUMAN RELATION & ITS IMPORTANCE IN ORGANIZATION

A new born human infant is among the most helpless of living organism, What an infant

can perform are only a few limited automatic reflex, swallowing, eliminating, crying and gross

motor movements. For sheer survival, the infant needs other people to behave in ways which

will bring all manner of need objects to him. The mother must provide food and arrange the

environment so that the child will stay alive, relatively free from pain and able to grows. As he

grows physically, he becomes more capable of learning, he needs other people as identification

models so he can become increasingly socialized. He needs, in his early days, a lot of

52

mothering caressing, holding, and social stimulation. There is evidence that without such close

mothering, his physical development will be impaired and his social development will be

deviant.

The development of children is impaired by lack of maternal love, they become more

often a social, delinquent, feeble minded, psychotic, or at the least, neurotic in institutions than

in families. The child needs other people to reward punish him, so he can learn to behave in

socially acceptable. He needs to be in contact with persons other children of his age, so he can

learn to compete, co-operate, play games and so on. Contact with other people is thus seen as

crucial for many aspects of Child's healthy development, physical survival and health; learning

of many skills important in the solution of problems and the gratification of assorted needs;

and the learning of attitudes, values, morals and social roles, essential in defining the child's

membership in varied groups.

The adult by virtue of vastly skill repertoire is much more self reliant than an infant or

young child, but still he needs other people for many reasons. Most of the satisfactions which

make life worthwhile , in fact, can be gratified only in relation to, or with co-operation of other

people.

In present day society, no man can ever hope in his life time to encompass all the skills

necessary to solve all his problems and gratify all his wants. Division of labour and

specialization in knowledge and techniques are enormously developed in the present world,

particularly in the west, so each man is dependent upon many other people for the specialized

skill and knowledge.

How this transaction takes place ? Generally the needful individual buys the knowledge

or skill from its possessors with money or anything else that is deemed of value equivalent to

the skill. where scarce the skill the higher the price.

Thus we can see that none can live and grows satisfactorily by himself alone. He needs

others in society for his growth and development. So, also grows the society in mutual

interaction of its members.

53

An enterprise is looking upon as a man made system, where a large number of people

work together to achieve established goals. Thereby they satisfy their own needs as well as the

needs of other group members.

It is, therefore, important to keep in mind that all enterprises are built to serve people

within and without the enterprise.

One of the fundamental functions of the management is actuating which literally means

the putting or moving into action. We can plan and organize but no tangible output is achieved

until, we implement the proposed and organized activities. Actuating may be defined as

"getting all the members of the group to want to achieve mutual objective because they want to

achieve them.

The actual performance of an individual depended upon his willing less and capacity to

perform. Therefore an understanding and application of human relations is basic to successful

actuating. Human relations may be defined as the integration of the manpower resources for

effective and maximum utilization by means of satisfying human wants and maintaining of

satisfactory relationships among the members seeking these human wants.

BASIC OF HUMAN RELATIONS :

The study of human relations is important because in organizational set up, people work

to achieve certain goals. By accomplishment of the work and achievement of the goal, a person

hopes to satisfy his individual wants/needs and to meet the mutual interest of the participating

group, as none can satisfy all his needs/ wants by himself. Individuals needs / wants are

however numerous and they differ widely among people.

Some important wants are :

1. Fair pay.

2. Job security.

3. Pleasant working condition.

54

4. Opportunity for development.

5. Interesting work.

6. Efficient leadership.

7. Recognition of good work.

8. Acceptance as member of work group.

The relative importance of these wants differ from individual to individual from one

occasion to another. They are influenced by individual characteristics, background, beliefs,

place in the organization etc.

IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RELATIONS

Since the managements' objective is to achieve the set goal effectively, the are to pay

attention to those human relations factors which influence their effectiveness. It is necessary

for the managers to have some understanding of pattern of behavior involved in human aspects

which facilitate in achieving organizational objects. The people of an organization represent an

aggregate of individuals brought together to do a job. They have different psychological make

up, different experience and different aspirations. Their reactions to one another, to their

surroundings to the jobs and to the supervisor usually show significant variations. These

variations are reflected in a wide variety of individual actions. An individual who is torn in

internal conflicts, who is apathetic and frustrated, and whose relation with other individuals are

disturbing to him, cannot do justice to his work. His seemingly erratic and at times irrational

behaviour stamp from the fact that employees do not shed their responsibilities, moods, and

values when they come to work. Although they may represent a "work force" they bring with

them all the fears, frustrations, hopes, ambitions, disappointments, goals and beliefs that have

shaped their personalities and their life style. Therefore, a manager who thinks in terms of

healthy relations, who attempts to understand what they are and what role they play in

achieving smoothness in operation, is very likely to be more effective than one who pays no

attention to human relations with and among his subordinates.

According to Lawrence A, the president of American management Association:

"Management is the development of people and not direction of things. If this fact were

more generally accepted, many Management difficulties would disappear. The executive or

55

manager who says that he would rather exhaust himself doing things correctly than expand the

time and patience necessary to get other people to do them correctly, is admitting that he

cannot manage".

Important of human management is expressed by various statements like:-

1. “Everything in management hinges around and involves the human element.

2. “Success in management in largely a matter of :-

a) Getting competent people.

b) Giving them responsibility.

c) Telling them what you want to accomplish.

d) Explaining how to do it, and

e) Inspiring them with confidence in their ability to accomplish the objectives.

APPLICATION OF HUMAN RELATIONS

Normally employees work better and are more satisfied when they know that

management is interested in them and is concerned about their wants and welfare. They

appreciate being viewed and treated as human being and accepted as member of working

group. They participate fully where the performance is duly recognized. Employees work

towards greater accomplishments where there is some incentive always work better under

democratic leadership and they believe in what you do, more than what you say.

ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE HUMAN RELATIONS:

Favorable response to actuating efforts is obtained by treating employees as human

beings, encouraging their growth and development, instilling a desire to excel, recognizing

work well done and ensuring fair play. Achieving effective human relations require a keen

interest in human personalities, extensive study of literature available on the subject and

considerable practical experience in dealing with people. Some of the important points, which

can provide guidance in developing the ability to achieve good human relations are :-

1. Make people feel important:

Recognition and status are of prime consideration to most people. They appeal to people

because everyone has an inner desire to feel important.

56

2. Recognize individual difference:

It is important to understand the make up of each individual because the same desire,

goal and interest do not appeal equally to all members of the group.

3. Be a good listener:

And problems and hurdles to harmonious relationships are revealed if managers listen

what employees talk. Allowing the individual to talk himself out without interruption, and to

tell his entire story often results in the talker's seeing the error of his views or in agreeing to

other's valid points of view.

4. Avoid arguments:

No one really ever wins in argument. Arguments only aggravate the differences.

5. Know deep feelings of others:

All human beings usually have deep sentiments about personal attachments,

experiences, beliefs and emotions. These sentiments should not be destroyed but should be

used for creating harmonious relationships.

6. Employ question to persuade:

Most people like to talk about those subjects in which they are well versed and

interested. The questioning approach gives them opportunity to impress others with their

knowledge.

7. Abstain from domination:

Domination and use of fear for getting the work accomplished seldom groduce the

desired results as people resent being dominated. A good manager leads people. He does not

drive them.

8. Recognize most people are acquisitive:

All human beings want to get what they believe is their rightful share. If they could be

convinced that they get their fair deal and are not deprived of fair privileges, they will be motivated to

work better.

57

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

ABSENTEEISM AND LABOUR TURNOVER

Definition : Absenteeism is the failure of workers to report on the job when they are

scheduled to work. Workers who quit job without notice are also counted as absentees until

they are officially removed from the pay roll. Excused absences should also be included in

absenteeism figures as well as unauthorized time off.

Absenteeism is one of the major problems in the industrial organizations in Bangladesh.

Absenteeism and labour turnover rate is a kind of industrial barometer. High rate of

absenteeism and labour turner indicates labour unrest, production delays and high cost. Low

rate show job satisfaction which speaks of peaceful industrial climate and ensures increased

production and cost reduction. This is a test of soundness of management policies and mode of

operation. This is a test of soundness of management policies and mode of operation of an

organization. An enlightened management therefore, always tends to minimize the rate of

absenteeism and turnover.

Since we do not pay any serious attention to this problem of absenteeism and turnover,

we cannot quote any estimated cost but it may be said with convication that the loss is a

colossal one. Apart from the direct financial loss, absenteeism breeds further absenteeism and

becomes a habit, there is not only general lowering of moral but distinct loss of skill and

efficiency. Interest in the occupation and in the company is decreased. On returning to work

after absence, the worker finds it difficulot to get started and regain his old stride. His work

performance at high pace is affected". K.A Islam For calculating absenteeism the fololowing

formula may be used:

Man-dayslostAbsenteeism = x 100

Men-daysschedules

Turnover is the rate found out by the above formula and is expressed in percentage. Every

plant maintains records of days worked. Some companies keep time cards. A simple count of

unpunched cards or absence in the records may show the number of employees absent.

58

For computing the monthly separation rate and accession rate of a plant the following

procedure may be followed.

1. Find the average number of employees by adding the number on pay roll on last days of

two successive months and then divides the result by two for example.

No. on pay roll

June 30 ......................... 1950

July 31 .......................... 2050

4000

Dividing by two 400/ 2000 2

2000 will be the average number of employees for July. Separation Rate : Separation rate can

be found out by dividing the total number of employees separated from pay roll during the

monthly by the average number of employees for the month. 100 is the separation figure then

the rate is:

S.R = 100 (totalspeperation) X 100 = 5%2000

In other works, for every 100 workers employed in this plant during the particular month, 5

workers dropped off the pay roll.

2. ACCESSION RATE : Accession rate can be calculated by dividing the number of

accession for the month by the average employment. suppose 120 is the accession figure, the

rate then is :

S.R = 100 (totalaccession) X 100 = 6%2000

In other works, for every 100 workers employed in this plant during the particular month 6

new workers were hired.

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The net labour turnover rate is the rate of gain or loss per 100 workers in the average

workforce. It is the accession rate minus the separation rate. The net turnover rate is positive if

accessions exceed separation, it is negative if separations exceed accessions. In the example its

positive. It is (6-5) = +1.

CAUSES OF ABSENTEEISM

Absenteeism is a complex problem. It would be unreasonable to expect that any single

factor, such as emotional disorders, could account for all absences, such other factors as age,

organizational elemate and community conditions should also be evaluated door effects on

absenteeism. The complexity of the problem renders solution difficult. However, to counteract

the effect of high labour turnover, the factors associate with the absenteeism should first be

identified. The factors may be grouped under the following heads.

i) Personnel factor;

ii) Organization factors; and

iii) External factors.

PERSONAL FACTORS :

i) Old age.

ii) Sex.

iii) Illness.

iv) Personal Habitsalcoholism.

v) Family responsibility and family disturbance.

vi) Housing problems.

vii) Lack of proper transport facility.

viii) Agrarian background.

ix) Frequent visits home.

Old age : In one study made in the Baker chocolate Division of the General Foods company, U.S.A. It

was found that the age bracket 45 to 55 has a decidedly better absence record than either those older or

those younger. The under 35 group has the worst record of all. Distinction between kinds of

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absenteeism was also important. Older workers are absent for longer period (severity rate) but younger

workers are absent often (frequency rate).

Illness : It has been established through studies that emotional illness causes between a quarter and a

third of all absence from work due to illness. The high absence employees were found to have a lower

drive level and to be less emotionally stable than the low-absence group. High-absence group had a

greater number of record instance of emotional disorders and other disorders with an underlying

emotional basis.

Organization factors :

Some of the most important organizational factors contributing to high absenteeism and turnover are as

follows:

i) Improper selection, training, inducting and placement

ii) Lack of proper financial return.

iii) Absence of job satisfaction and security.

iv) Unfavorable working condition.

v) Lack of proper supervision.

vi) Lack of recognition of good work and career advancement.

vii) Non-availability of recreational facilities.

viii) Lack of co-operation among the working group.

ix) Lack of leadership.

x) Lack of management attitude for well-being of workers.

Induction of the new worker is the beginning of his on the job training. The induction stage is crucial

in helping to reduce costly employee turnover. about 80% of all turnover takes place during the first

three months of employment. The attitudes which promote individual job satisfaction, as well as group

morale, get established in the induction process.

In one study it was found that the workers with positive job attitudes have less turnover and

absenteeism than worker with negative attitudes.

Lack of employee participation or resistance to change also causes employee turnover.

Loyalty comes with the feelings of oarticippation. Participation in decision making is a major

factor in the morale of all levels of employees.

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External Factors: Similarly some external factors influence the rate of absenteeism and

labour turnover are:

i) Local weather condition.

ii) Political situation - strikes, hartals etc.iii) Participation in religious festivals.iv) Easy availability of medical certificates from outside, practitioners.

REMEDICAL MEASURES:

It has been mentioned earlier that absenteeism is a complex problem and complexity renders

solutions more difficult. But it is not totally unsurmountable. Absenteeism may not be eliminated, it is

true but it can however, be minimized. For that a number of measures should be adopted by the

management. The steps may be classified into three groups:-

Individual

(i) Sound selection, proper training & induction and appropriate placement should be programmed.

(ii) Proper wages, good working condition, career opportunity and appreciation of good

work should be followed as policy matters. Worker's participation should be encouraged and

allowed for creating a sense of belonging.

(iii) Housing and transport facilities recreational facilities and child care and educational opportunity to the children to the employees should be ensured.

(iv) Proper health and safety arrangements should be made.

2. Organizational :

Management should give due attention to the problem of absenteeism, find out causes and take

steps to mitigate those causes contributing to high rate of absenteeism and turnover management

should train supervisors who are the keymen in absence control by ensuring proper working

conditions, interpersonal relations and providing necessary motivational factors on the job. He has to

imposes on his workers that unauthorized absence is a serious offence. management has to make the

job more human by creating co-operative atmosphere in the plant. They should follow grievances

handling procedure to dispose off the employee complaints promptly and fairly. Management should

take steps to improve the condition so that the employee may feel that the management is genuinely

interested in their wel-being.

3. External : The employees should be properly motivated not to indulge in unauthorized

absence causing loss of production and thereby increasing production cost. They should not be

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motivated to avoid absence on avoidable circumstances. The should not subject them selves to external

pressure to absent themselves from duties. They should be motivated to place service before self. The

success of the organization is the success of the employee.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

SUPERVISION : PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

Introduction :

The work "Supervision" when considered from the Latin origin of the word, means "Seeing"

Where "Super" means 'over' and 'vision' means seeing. Thus supervision means seeing from above,

seeing the activities of the sub ordinates with authority.

Good supervision increases production and as such a supervisor is the key-man in the

managerial set-up. His method of handling his section can make all the difference between loss of

production and increasing output a good supervisor is a trained supervisor demands more than crafts

skill or work knowledge; it calls for skill in an-management, a skill which can rarely be acquired

without training. Effective supervision helps to maintain congenial working relationships resulting in

increased output of quality standard.

Basic Principles of Supervision :

Supervision is the art of working with a group of people, over whom authority is exercised in

such a way as to achieve their greatest combined effectiveness in getting work done. It is best

performed in an atmosphere of good-will and tactful cooperation of the people and the supervisor. It

requires a supervisor to acquire the skill of a democratic leader who encourages employee participation

and treats them as associates.

Experienced supervisors recognize that there are no sure and certain rules for working with

people. Human beings are individually unique and with due regard for the uniqueness of the

individuals, there are certain general principles which are used by successful supervisors as guides.

The general principles of supervision while working with people are laid down as under :-

1. People must understand clearly what is expected clearly what is expected of them.

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2. People must have guidance in doing their work.

3. Good work should always be recognized.

4. Poor work deserves constructive criticism.

5. People should have opportunities to show that they can accept responsibilities.

6. People should be encouraged to improve themselves.

7. People should work in a safe and healthful environment.

Techniques in supervising

The basic knowledge and skill with which a supervisor goes about supervising comes only with

practice.

1. How to Beging supervising

Anew supervisor needs to know all about his people - their4 schooling, their habits their

attitude towards work their ambitions.

It should be kept in mind that each individual has some unique experiences that have helped to

make him what he is. By giving due weight age to individual differences, the people should be judged

by what they do, how they think and how they act.

2. How to Give orders :

Orders should not be given in the form of a direct command. It rather be given by analyzing a

situation to the people in such a way the situation itself gives the order involving need for action.

3. How to get help from people :

The people are there under the guidance of a supervisor to do a job. He may encourage

employee participation by allowing them to know "Why" of the orders. The supervisor may also

encourage employee cooperation by placing a problem before them for finding its solution.

He should judiciously delegate authority to see that he want them to do is done the way he likes

to do it.

4 How to make decision :

A supervisor should get full facts relating to a problem fit the facts together, and give a decision

accordingly.

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5. How to criticise :

Criticism must be made in private, never in presence of a man's fellow workers. Dignity of

people is important to every man and crition should be constructive.

6. How to settle grievances :

Petty grievances may become tough, if they are not settled as early as possible.

7. How to deal the problem child :

The logical way is to talk to the man about his faults showing reasons. If talks fails, the

supervisor should go over the situation and seek for more reasons if fault persists, he should have

patience and try to gain his cooperation. If no progress is achieved, he should talk to his own

supervisor and find out the course of action.

8. How to deal with misconduct :

Although in such cases the decision has to be taken by the Personnel Department depending on

the merit of the case but the supervisor is the main person forgetting facts. He should have sufficient

information to recommend for action to whatever authority makes the final decision.

9. How to deal with inefficiency :

The supervisor is to play various roles. He always belongs to major organization groups. As

management's representatives to the employee he is to carry out company policy. As the employee's

representative to management, he has a reverse role.

Loyalty of the Supervisor

In one study it has been found that the supervisor who could understand the objectives of both

the company and the workers were rated highest by management.

I. Management Role :

In his scientific management roles, the supervisor is to assume the following:-

1) Technician : Frequently, employees look to their supervisors to solve their technical

problem. As a result, supervisors often become involved in extremely challenging and complex

problems.

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2) Research/analysis : Another scientific Management role supervisors are expected to

perform is that of researcher and job analyst. The employees expect supervisors to design new

job procedures and to implement them when they prove to be effective.

3) Controller : Another important role of supervisor is controlling the work group to

ensure that the appropriate work methods and utilized.

II) Human Relations Roles

The supervisor must be a person who is sensitive to employee needs and intergrates these

needs with the goals of the organization. From this point of view a supervisor assumes the functions of

a :-

1) Counselor : The supervisor is to opportunity to air their problems.

2) Linking pin : Both employee and top management view supervisors as the key linking

pins in the organization. To the supervisors own subordinate they are management. For

management the supervisors represent the critical link to the operation of employees.

3. Human relations expert : The linking pin role implies that the supervisor will serve

as a negotiator, communicator, buffer and councilor. All these indicate that supervisors need a

large measure of interpersonal or human relation skills.

4. Motivatior : One of the key functions of the supervisors is to motivated the people.

5. Trainer : The supervisor must carefully analyze the training needs of each

employee and make necessary arrangement for specialist training.

III. Functional Roles :

The supervisor must be able to organize and Co-ordinate the unite human and physical

resources to achieve the organization objectives. Four important roles are to be played as ;-

1) Leader : Employees look to the supervisor for direction. In performing the

leadership function, the supervisor can be either task oriented or people oriented.

2) Organizer: The supervisor's world can be viewed as a complex of people, job

machines, paper-work, materials objectives and goals. Each of these factors must be carefully

brought together in an organized co-ordinate manner to create an organizer.

3) Planner: As a planner the supervisor has a major responsibility for determining

exactly what the goals are, evaluating them and changing the direction of the work group if

necessary.

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4) Decision maker: Another important functional role of supervisor is that of decision maker.

The Job of the Supervisor:

1. Inducting the new worker.

2. Training responsibilities.

3. Safety.

4. The handling of grievances.

5. Discipline handling.

6. Worker rating.

7. Managing the budget.

8. Communication.

1) Inducting the new worker : The supervisor's tact to in getting the new man to talk about

himself in a free and easy way is essential to good supervisor.

2) Training responsibilities : Some training responsibility falls to the supervisor. He must

know how to prepare the best instruction sequence for the job at hand. The good supervisor must learn

the principles of transfer of training, the nature of habit interference, and what to about it.

3) Safety : Good safety practice is the responsibility of everyone, but the supervisor goes

the job of checking on the environmental and personal causes of accidents in his department.

4) The handling of grievances : In their initial stages, grievances fall to the supervisor. He

must examine them for cause, whether attributed to work climate, to wrong job placement, to

inadequate job training, to personal causes. The good supervisor soon learns that gripes are often safety

valves, not grievances.

5) Discipline handling : The supervisor acts as an analyst as he seeks the reasons for absenteeism

or lateness to work,. as a problem solve as he interprets facts that lead to correction of behaviour by

encouragement warning, penalty by layoff or demotion or finally dismissed.

6) Managing the budget : The supervisor has the role of budget manager. He must keep records -

material cost, manpower cost. He must have a working understanding of profit and loss.

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7) Communication : The supervisor is a key-man in the communication network whether

communication be up, down or horizontal.

Short-coming in Supervising

The resentment for the short coming of supervisors may be listed as under :

1. Loud reprimanding in presence of other people.

2. Favoritism towar4ds certain individuals in the unit.

3. Insufficient knowledge of the work.

4. Poor instruction - either to general not complete.

5. Deadlines not explained in advance.

6. Using employees as scapegoats for the supervisor's errors.

7. Refusal to admit mistakes.

8. Failure to support and fight for his people.

9. Over supervision, that is too close watching of everything people are doing.

10. Failure to delegate authority to his people, where needed/

11. Does not trust his people fully.

12. Never gives credit where credit is due.

13. Failure to provide adequate materials or facilities for his people.

14. Treats his people as inferiors not given for problems.

15. Cleare -cut prompt decisions not given for problems.

The autocratic leader/boss indulges in such practices as he frequently directs, commands and

controls the people over whom he has authority. Such practices should be avoided by all

means.

BIHRM

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST

There is considerable agreement, among the critics as to the definition of tests, despite

difference regarding purposes and uses of tests. Most authorities define a standard test as "an objective

sample of some aspect of behaviour"

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The term 'objective' refers to the requirement that it's administration, scoring and interpretation

are free from the individual examiner's subjective judgement. Tests are also objectives in the sense that

reliability, validity and item difficulty level are usually experimentally determined before they are put

to wider use.

Standardization in tests to uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring uniformity regarding

time limits, instructions to subjects and other details. Standardization also implies that norms or

established normal or average performance on the test are available.

Norms are determined by administering the test to a large representative group of subjects for whom

the instrument is designed. From this administration, 'average' performance as well as estimates of the

degree of deviation above below average are obtained, so that future users may draw conclusions

concerning level of performance of subjects who take the test at a later date.

GENERAL PURPOSES OF TESTS

Tests are administered generally for the following purposes :-

(I) Prediction : Tests are given to obtain a measure of ability, achievement and/or other

characteristics which will offer a solid basis upon which individuals can make decisions. Decisions

involve prediction-how well individuals will do at a later time prediction based on quantitative data is

likely to be more reliable and accurate and provide a balance against wishful thinking.

(II) Selection : Tests are used by institutions (Such as colleges, employers) and organizations to

accept some individuals and to reject others. The decision to hire an individual is a selection decision

and the decision to admit a student to college is a selection decision.

(III) Classification : Classification is an arrangement according to some systematic divisions

into classes or groups. Classification involves deciding which of the many treatments or groups, a

person should be assigned to. Examples of classification include diagnosis of mental patients, choice of

school.

(IV) Evaluation : Tests are used to assess and evaluate programmes, methods, treatments and the

like.

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TYPES OF TEST :

Tests have been classified in many ways be purpose, content, for procedure and, function as well as in

other ways, A brief description of six ways of classifying tests is given below:

(1) Standardized Versus Teacher Made Tests : Standardized tests are those administered

and scored according to specific instructions. Norms based on large samples of students are available

to comparation a subjects performance with that of others in a similar to comparation a subjects

performance with that of others in a similar population category or group. Teachers made tests are

constructed for informal pupil evaluation within the class room and usually do not have extensive

norms available.

(2) Individual Versus Group Tests : Individual tests are those administered by a trained

examiner to one subject at a time the examiner observes the subjects responses to oral questions and

assigned tasks and in addition, records the subjects responses. On the other hand, group tests are those

that can be administered to more than one individual at a time.

(3) Speed Versus Power Test : A speed test is one in which the examinee completes as m,any

items as possible within specified time limits. A power test is one in which the examinee demonstrates

the extent of his knowledge or scope and depth of his understanding with the time factor either

eliminated or provided in generous amount. Items of a power test usually range from easy to extermely

difficult.

(4) Performance Versus paper and Pencil Test : Performance tests require the subjects to

manipulate objects or assemble parts or actually perform tasks, while paper and pencil tests require the

examinee to mark an answer sheet or to provide written responses.

(5) Objective Versus Subjective Test : Objective tests require little or no judgement on the part

of the scorer, while subjective tests require the scorer to exercise judgment in evaluating the examinees

answers.

(6) Maximum Versus Typical Performance : Maximum performance tests are those which

require the individuals to perform at his best to the best he can to demonstrate his ability. Typical

performance tests are those which seek to determine what the individual usually does or most likely to

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do in a given situation. Another way of classifying test is by the purpose for which they disigned or the

aspects of behaviour they sample.

The are given below :-

1) Mental Ability Tests : Mental ability test were the first standardized

psychological tests to be developed. Ability tests measures the individuals present status

resulting from the modification of potential brought about by contact with environment.

2) Standardized Group Achievement Tests : Greater emphasis is being placed on

improving the use of standardized achievement tests. The merit of standardized test lies in its

providing.

(a) an objective independent judgment of what has been learned; and

(b) norms for evaluating performance.

3) Aptitude Tests : Warren's Dictionary of Psychology defines aptitude as "a

condition or set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual's ability to acquire

with training some (usually specified) knowledge, skill, or set of responses, such as the ability

to speak a language, to produce music ........."

Lennon defines aptitude as "a combination of abilities and other characteristics whether native

or acquired, known or believed to be indicative of an individual's ability to learn in some

particular area.

Types of Aptitude Test :

A few major aptitude areas are mentioned below:-

(i) Mechanical Aptitude : Mechanical aptitude tests cover a diversity of functions

including motor perception and spatial and mechanical reasoning factors.

Mechanical aptitude tests are frequently separated into there groups :-

(a) tests of mechanical information and experience.

(b) test of special ability; and

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(c) test of manual and finger dexterity.

4) Clerical Attitude Test : Clerical aptitude composite of abilities. Tests designed to assess

clerical aptitude place emphasis upon perceptual speed and accuracy. Rabid observation of numbers

and symbols is an important factor in the work of a clerical workers.

5) Interest Inventories :Interests have been described as one of the main factors in the learning

situation and as being the motivator of learning, It's a fact that without interest very little learning takes

place. A knowledge of the strength and direction of an individuals interests represents an important

area of his personality.

Nature of Interests :

Interests are usually defined as the "likes" and "dislikes" of an individual or the feeling of

intentness, concern or curiosity about some object. Super gives four interpretations to the term interest,

depending upon the formation about the. These are:-

(i) Expressed Interest : Is the verbal profession of interest in an object, task or

occupation. The3 individual states that he likes, dislikes or is indifferent to the activity in

question, Expressed interests re often unstable and usually fail to provide useful data for

diagnosis or prognosis, particularly per children.

(ii) Manifest Interest : is synonymous with participation in an activity or an occupation.

Examples of manifest interest are students who are active in dramatic clubs, or the accountant

who devotes evenings to operating a model railroad.

(iii) Testes interests : refers to the interests as measured by objective tests as

differentiated from inventories which are based upon subjective self estimates.

(iv) Inventoried interests : refers to the assessment of one's preference for a large

number of activities and occupations. In such inventories each possible response is given an

experimentally determined weight and weights are added in order to yield a score which

represents not a single subjective estimate, as in expressed interests, but a pattern of interests

which research has shown to be rather stable.

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VOCATIONAL INTEREST INVENTORIES

In appraising vocational interests, the usual approach is by the use of a standardized inventory.

Three such inventories are most frequently used. Tests are :-

(a) The SVIB (Strong Vocational Interest Blank) consists of four hundred items, most of

which are responded to on a "Lite" "indifferent to" or "dislike" basis. These items are broken

down into groups made up of professional occupations, school subjects, amusements, activities

types and/or peculiarities of people and self rating personality inventory. The SVIB comes into

two forms, one for men and one women. Strong has recommended that the inventory not to be

used with individuals below the age of 17 except in the case of unusually mature 15/16 years

olds.

(b) The Juder Preference Reard : is another popular interest inventor. It differs in

approach and scoring of items from the strong. Its major purpose is to indicate relative interest

in ten interest areas rather than specific occupations.

USE OF INTEREST INVENTORY

Interest inventories may be used in :-

(I) Counseling to help obtain information which will aid in educational and vocational

decision-making, to verify or confirm choice ors to open up new possibilities.

(II) as a starting point in teaching or studying the major area of occupations.

Problems in use of interest Inventory

The following are the main problems:-

i) they can be faked.

ii) many employ a vocabulary level beyond the comprehension of the examinee; and

iii) the possibility that examinees, will respond with socially acceptable choices rather than

their own true preferences.

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PERSONALITY INVERTORIES

Personality tests are most frequently designed to measure such characterizes as emotional

adjustment social relations and the motivational aspects of behaviour. They cover measures of social

traits such as relations with other persons including, for example, ascendance submission, introversion

extroversion, and self sufficiency. The number of available personality tests runs into several hundred

and it increasing every year.

Some of the personally inventories are :-

(a) California Test of personality.

(b) Edward personal preference Schedule.

(c) Guildford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey.

(d) 16 Personally factors Form A, B, C and D.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PERSONALITY APPRAISAL

The following question characterise the complexity of using personally inventories :-

(1) Are the responses of the individuals honest or trues ?

(2) Does the individual understand the questions ?

(3) How can such inventions be interpreted when actually there is no ideal type of

behaviour ?

(4) How has the inventory been validated and what is its reliability ?

Certainly the question of faking and malingering is always present. The behaviour measured by

per4sonality inventories, as contrasted to other kinds of tests, is more changing and fluid. This leads to

complications in determining test reliability and validity. The search for adequate criterion data to

establish validity is still present.

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