inflation · • demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle...

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Page 1: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Inflation

Page 2: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Defining inflation

• Inflation is a sustained increase in the average price level of a country

• The rate of inflation is measured by the annual percentage change in the level of prices as measured by the consumer price index

• A sustained fall in the general price level is called deflation – in this situation, the rate of inflation becomes negative

Page 3: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Consumer Price Index (“CPI”)

• The consumer price index is the main measure of inflation for the UK

• The government has set the Bank of England a target for inflation (using the CPI) of 2%

• The aim of this target is to achieve a sustained period of low and stable inflation

• Low inflation is also known as price stability

Page 4: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

History of CPI Inflation in the UK

Annual percentage change in the Consumer Price IndexConsumer Price Inflation for the UK Economy

Source: UK Statistics Commission

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 090

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Per

cent

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 After a long period of low inflation, the UK 

suffered higher inflation during 2008.

However, the recession of 2009 has reduced inflationary pressures and may even lead to a period 

of deflation

Page 5: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Inflation (CPI) and Interest Rates

Annual percentage change in the UK Consumer Price Index, the inflation target is 2%Consumer Price Inflation and Interest Rates for the UK

Source: Reuters EcoWin

97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 090

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Per

cent

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Consumer Price Inflation

Base Interest Rates

Interest rates are used by the Bank of England as a key weapon to control inflation.  The Base Rate fell to a low of 0.5% in 2009 as fears 

of deflation and prolonged recession 

grow stronger 

Page 6: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Two main causes of inflation

Demand pull Cost push

When there is excess demand

When costs rise

Page 7: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Demand Pull Inflation

• Occurs when there is excess aggregate demand in the economy or market

• Businesses respond to high demand by raising prices to increase their profit margins

• Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle

• Main causes of demand pull inflation– Very fast growth of demand for credit / borrowing– High levels of consumer spending

Page 8: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Possible causes of demand pull inflation

• A depreciation of the exchange rate increases the price of imports and reduces the foreign price of UK exports

• A reduction in direct or indirect taxation ‐ consumers have more disposable income causing more demand

• Rapid growth of the money supply as a consequence of increased bank and building society borrowing

• Rising consumer confidence and an increase in the rate of growth of house prices

• Faster rates of economic growth in other countries –providing a boost to UK exports overseas 

Page 9: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Cost Push Inflation

• Occurs when costs of production are increasing

• Causes:– External shocks (e.g. commodity price fluctuations)

– A depreciation in the exchange rate 

– Acceleration in wages

• What happens?– Firms raise prices to protect their profit margins – better able to do this when market demand is price inelastic

– “Wages often follow prices” 

– A rise in inflation can lead to rising inflationary expectations

Page 10: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Example of cost‐push: rising import costs

Index 2003=100, source: Monthly Digest of Economic StatisticsIndex of UK Import Prices

Goods, excluding oil, Non-EU Fuels

Finished manufactures: SITC 7 8

Source: Reuters EcoWin

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Inde

x

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Total Import Price Index

Import Prices for Fuels

Finished Manufactured Goods

Page 11: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

UK inflation and oil prices

Annual percentage change in the Consumer Price Index and monthly average for Brent CrudeUK Inflation and Crude Oil Prices

Source: UK Statistics Commission and IPE

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

0.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.55.05.5

Per

cent

0.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.55.05.5

Consumer Price Inflation

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

US

D/B

arre

l

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Crude Oil Price

Page 12: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Inflation ‐ Costs and Consequences (1)

• Money loses its value and people lose confidence in money as the value of savings is reduced

• Inflation can get out of control ‐ price increases lead to higher wage demands as people try to maintain their living standards. This is known as a wage‐price spiral.

• Consumers and businesses on fixed incomes lose out because the their real incomes falls ‐ employees in poor bargaining positions lose out 

Page 13: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Inflation ‐ Costs and Consequences (2)

• Inflation can favour borrowers at the expense of savers – because inflation erodes the real value of existing debts

• Inflation can disrupt business planning and lead to lower capital investment

• Inflation is a possible cause of higher unemployment in the long term – because of a lack of competitiveness 

• Rising inflation is associated with higher interest rates ‐ this reduces economic growth and can lead to a recession

Page 14: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

What is Deflation?

• Deflation is a period when the general price level falls

• Normally associated with a significant reduction in economic activity (depression / slump)

• Can also occur if the economy is rapidly building its productive potential

Page 15: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Economic & business costs of deflation

• Consumer postpone spending – if they believe prices will go lower (= reduction in demand)

• The real value of debt increases – makes it harder to pay debt off

• Falling asset prices (e.g. housing)• Business profit margins fall (lower selling prices)

Page 16: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Business effects of inflation (1)

Some inflation is good for business!

Industry‐wide price rises enable revenues to grow

Growing revenues + constant gross margin = higher gross profit

Makes using debt as a source of finance cheaper in real terms

Page 17: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

What is the price elasticity of demand for the product?

Business effects of inflation (2)

Effect of inflation on revenue?

Page 18: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Price elasticity of demand

• Refers to the responsiveness  of demand to changes in price

• When demand is elastic, a price rise leads to a more than proportionate fall off in quantity demanded

• When demand is inelastic, a price rise leads to a less than proportionate fall off in quantity demanded

Page 19: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Price elasticity

• Firms with inelastic price elasticity of demand will be less affected by a rise inflation

• Some firms will be able to absorb price increases by becoming more efficient

• Price inflation will vary from industry to industry – be careful about making generalisations

Page 20: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Inflation and business costs

• A rise in general inflation:– Sales revenue should rise– But workers likely to demand higher pay to compensate for consumer price inflation

– Labour intensive industries more at risk

• Input cost inflation– Cost‐push inflation will vary from industry to industry

– Firms that need to buy significant commodity raw materials may find profit margins squeezed if they cannot pass on increased costs to customers

Page 21: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Expectations of inflation

• Expectations of inflation are important in shaping what actually happens to inflation! 

• When people see prices are rising for the everyday items they purchase they start to get concerned about the effects of inflation on their standard of living

• An initial rise in prices triggers higher pay claims as workers look to protect their way of life

Page 22: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

Inflation in the news

BBC Recession Tracker – InflationChicken in the basket of UK goods used to measure inflation (BBC news, March 2009)First UK deflation for fifty years (BBC news, April 2009)Inflation articles (Guardian)Two figures, two inflation stories (BBC news, March 2009)Understanding inflation – a user’s guide (The Times, June 2009)

Page 23: Inflation · • Demand‐pull inflation is associated with the boom phase of the business cycle • Main causes of demand pull inflation – Very fast growth of demand for credit

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