influence of martin luther king, jr., and malcolm on black progression

7/23/2019 Influence of Martin Luther King, Jr., And Malcolm on Black Progression

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Abayomi Fashoro and Gerard Johnson

EDGE

December 5, 2003

Professor Bruce Lusignan

Understanding the Influence of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm on Black

Progression

While several African-Americans are content ith their social stat!s in modern-

day America, other African-Americans s!ch as "everend Jesse Jac#son and "everend Al

$har%ton contend that the &lac# str!''le for (!stice and e)!ality is far from bein'

finsished* +he history of the African-American is not the ty%ical history of the immi'rant

ho 'rad!ally assimilated into the American ay of life and 'rad!ally reached the

American Dream, rather it is a dar# history filled ith ine)!ity, o%%ression and the

str!''le to realie the American Dream* +he nited $tates of America, a nation fo!nded

on the %rinci%les of e)!ality and freedom, ironically, as b!ilt ith the blood, seat, and

tears of millions of Africans ho ere stolen from their homeland, stri%%ed of their

h!manity and sold as slaves* .ot s!r%risin'ly, &lac#s ere vieed as inferior to hites,

re'arded as less than h!man and treated orse than %lantation %ets* +he ei'hteenth and

nineteenth cent!ries fo!nd &lac#s s!b(ected to inh!mane %!nishments s!ch as merciless

hi%%in's, beatin's, and occasional lynchin's* /oever, in the 150s and 104s, many

&lac#s became tired of America4s in(!stices and decided to do somethin' to ri'ht the

ron's the e%erienced on a daily basis* An immediate effect of their determination as

the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement* +he %rimary %!r%ose of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement as to

establish e)!al %rofessional and ed!cational o%%ort!nities, as ell as le'al ri'hts, for

Fashoro and Johnson 1


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&lac#s and hites in America* Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm : ere to

%rominent leaders of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, ho instilled a sense of reli'ion, %ride,

and %erseverance into the &lac# comm!nity* +hro!'h their tireless efforts, Dr* 9in' and

7alcolm : hel%ed African-Americans ac)!ire their ;inalienable; ri'hts ori'inally

%romised to them in the


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familiar ith Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*4s, contrib!tions to the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,

fe %eo%le are familiar ith the details of Dr* 9in'4s life and the events that %ers!aded

him to become a 6ivil "i'hts activist* Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, as born in Atlanta,

Geor'ia, on Jan!ary 5, 121, to schoolteacher Alberta 9in' and &a%tist minister

7ichael 8!ther 9in' ?Timeline@*

ict!re B Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, %reaches %eacef!l %rotests*

&eca!se his father as a %reacher, reli'ion became a central idea in Dr* 7artin

8!ther 9in', Jr*s, life, and after his (!nior year at 7oreho!se 6olle'e, Dr* 9in' decided

;to become a minister and thereby serve society; ?Online@* =n 1


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the 10s, African-Americans, li#e flies, ere fied in a eb of ine)!ality and o%%ression

of hich they co!ld not free themselves* Dr* 9in' soon became tired of eistin' in an

!n(!st society, and event!ally, he decided to %eacef!lly fi'ht America4s in(!stice* Dr*

9in', hoever, as not the only African-American fr!strated ith Americas

discriminatory le'islat!re* D!rin' the sities, most of the &lac# %o%!lace !sed the 6ivil

"i'hts 7ovement as a means of revoltin' a'ainst Americas in(!stice* Dr* 7artin 8!ther

9in', Jr*, as one of the most infl!ential leaders of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, hose

%rimary aim as to create a social order ;%ermeated by love and s%irit!ality of

nonviolence as it 'ros from the J!deo-6hristian reli'ion; ?7arsh, 235@* Dr* 9in'

st!died and %reached many of 7ahatma Gandhi4s ideas, s!ch as %eacef!l %rotests and

boycotts, as means of %ers!adin' the America to abandon its discriminatory le'islat!re*

>n A%ril


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15, hich rid states of ;all las %rohibitin' African-Americans from castin' their

vote in all %!blic elections; ?Civil Rights Movement@* =n addition to these or#s, Dr*

7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, also f!rthered the advancement of &lac# .ationalism and

ed!cation* =n a variety of his s%eeches and ritin's, incl!din' ;= /ave a Dream; and

;+he .e'ro is Ho!r &rother,; Dr* 9in' %romoted &lac# .ationalism and ed!cation as he

told African-Americans to remain %ersistent in their str!''le for e)!ality* Dr* 9in'

!nderstood the reality of the &lac# sit!ation in America and he believed that &lac#s co!ld

most effectively im%rove their stat!s in America thro!'h ed!cation, !nity, and, most

im%ortantly, reli'ion*

Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, hoever, as not the only African-American, ho

desired to better the stat!s and conditions of &lac#s in America* 7alcolm 8ittle, later

#non, as 7alcolm :, as another &lac# 6ivil "i'hts activist, ho hel%ed lead &lac#s

o!t of America4s shado of in(!stice*



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ict!re 2B 7alcolm 8ittle, later #non as 7alcolm :, %romotes social e)!ality

thro!'h any means necessary*

7alcolm : as born into a loer-class family in >maha, .ebras#a, on 7ay 1,

125, and he later moved to /arlem, .e Hor#, here he lived for a 'reat %ortion of his

life* As an adolescent, 7alcolm : became ;a h!stler, sellin' dr!'s and brin'in' hites

to %rostit!tes; in /arlem ?Martin Luther King and Malcolm X@* Actions s!ch as these

ere merely the be'innin' of 7alcolm :4s criminal activities, and event!ally, the %olice

ca!'ht and convicted 7alcolm : for b!r'lary* While on trial, the (!ry ;as more

interested in 7alcolm :4s relation ith a hite oman than in the b!r'laries;

?Martin Luther King and Malcolm X@* 6onse)!ently, 7alcolm : received ten years,

instead of to years, for his criminal offense* As a res!lt of this &lac# o%%ression,

7alcolm : s%ent a 'reat %ortion of his life hatin' hite %eo%le* While in (ail, 7alcolm

: became a faithf!l adherent of the 7!slim faith and the .ation of =slam, a &lac#

or'aniation that des%ised hite %eo%le* After servin' his ten-year (ail sentence,

7alcolm : became a member, and %rominent leader, of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement*

D!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, 7alcolm : %ersistently %reached se%aratism and

%hysical retaliation a'ainst hite o%%ressors* D!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,

7alcolm : believed that ;hites ere inherently the enemies of .e'roes; and !nless

&lac#s %rotected themselves, hites o!ld contin!e to !nmercif!lly #ill &lac#s

?Goldman, @* Abo!t one year %rior to his assassination, hoever, 7alcolm : altered his

beliefs re'ardin' hites, and he ac#noled'ed the %ossibility of brotherhood beteen all

races* >n Febr!ary 2, 15, 7alcolm : as assassinated in /arlem, .e Hor#*



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Altho!'h 7alcolm : altered his o%inions concernin' hites, many of 7alcolm

:4s ideas ere vital to the s!ccess of the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement* 7alcolm :, !nli#e Dr*

7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, did not directly hel% to chan'e America4s discriminatory

le'islat!re hoever, 7alcolm : hel%ed &lac#s create their on identity* 7alcolm :

instilled ideas of &lac# .ationalism into the African-American comm!nity, hich

com%elled &lac#s to have %ride in their &lac# c!lt!re and challen'e America4s notions of

;e)!ality*; D!rin' the sities, many %eo%le sim%ly considered 7alcolm : a radical

&lac# activist, b!t in reality, 7alcolm : as far 'reater than a radical* 7alcolm : as

an ins%iration to a myriad of African-Americans, str!''lin' to re'ain their Iinalienable

ri'hts* 7ost of 7alcolm :4s %hiloso%hies concernin' &lac# .ationalism and !nity are

still %ertinent to today4s African-American comm!nity, for the &lac# str!''le for e)!ality

is not yet com%lete, and in order for today4s &lac# comm!nity to advance f!rther in

American society, they sho!ld incor%orate some of 7alcolm :4s ideas into their beliefs*

%on eaminin' the or#s of Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, 7alcolm :, and the

conditions of the %ast, one may )!estion the develo%ment or de'eneration of Dr* 7artin

8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :4s notions of &lac# .ationalism and ed!cation in today4s

&lac# comm!nity* Additionally, one may also )!estion the manner in hich the

%ro'ression or disinte'ration of these ideas have benefited or hindered today4s &lac#

comm!nity* &lac# .ationalism is the first, and %erha%s most essential, conce%t that one

sho!ld analye in order to %ro%erly eval!ate the %ro'ression of &lac#s in America* 7any

%eo%le, &lac#s and hites ali#e, often misinter%ret the definition of this conce%t beca!se

they strictly relate &lac# .ationalism to 7alcolm :4s ideas of &lac# se%aratism and

violence* >ne sho!ld act!ally define &lac# .ationalism, hoever, as an ideolo'y hose



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%rimary tenets %ossess &lac# I%olitical, economic, and c!lt!ral a!tonomy either ithin or

from hite; America ?&ron and $ha, 23@* nderneath the %rimary s!b(ect of &lac#

.ationalism, there also eist vario!s s!bcate'ories, s!ch as economic and comm!nity

&lac# .ationalism* +hese to s!bcate'ories are fairly similar in that economic &lac#

.ationalist contend that African-Americans sho!ld %ractice economic a!tonomy ithin

their comm!nity, hile comm!nity &lac# .ationalists ar'!e that &lac#s ;sho!ld control

and s!%%ort comm!nities and instit!tions here they %redominate; ?Dason, 0C@*

Altho!'h many %eo%le are familiar ith most &lac# .ationalist ideas, s!ch as these, fe

%eo%le are #noled'eable of the ori'ins of &lac# .ationalism*

+he notion of &lac# .ationalism is not a ne conce%t to America, b!t instead, is a

dee%-rooted %hiloso%hy, hich ori'inated in America d!rin' the late ei'hteenth cent!ry*

7any of the early &lac# .ationalists accent!ated ;the in(!stice and hy%ocrisy of the

American %olitical system and the br!tality and vicio!sness of slavery; ?Davis and

&ron, 2


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:s efforts in the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement* While many African-Americans believe that

Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :4s ideas concernin' &lac# .ationalism remain

%rominent in today4s &lac# comm!nity, others consider &lac# .ationalism a less

%ertinent iss!e in modern-day America than it as %rior to the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement*

rior to the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement, there as a vast division in American c!lt!re*

Whites tended to %!rchase their 'oods from hite oned stores, and &lac#s tended to

%!rchase their %rod!cts from &lac# oned stores* +h!s, by sho%%in' at African-

American stores and residin' in almost entirely &lac# comm!nities, many African-

Americans, d!rin' the sities, ehibited a de'ree of &lac# .ationalism thro!'h their

;ethnic %ride and aareness; ?/enry, ne of the

%rimary 'oals of the &lac# anther arty as to hel% African-Americans become more

%rominent fi'!res in America, and thro!'h their militant %rotests, marches, and

cam%ai'ns, the &lac# anthers, as ell as other &lac# .ationalist or'aniations,

!ltimately hel%ed &lac#s inte'rate into the American c!lt!re*



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ict!re 3B +he &lac# anther arty Emblem

As one eval!ates &lac# .ationalism ithin today4s &lac# comm!nity, one may

notice that the ma'nit!de of &lac# .ationalist ideas is )!ite similar to that d!rin' the

sities* Altho!'h many of the renoned &lac# .ationalist leaders are no lon'er alive,

there remain n!mero!s &lac# .ationalist or'aniations in America* Act!ally, there are

more &lac# .ationalist factions and leaders in todays &lac# comm!nity than there ere

in the sities, b!t todays &lac# .ationalist or'aniations and leaders see# less %!blicity

than those of the earlier &lac# 'enerations* 6ornel West is an eam%le a %rominent

African-American leader and &lac# .ationalist, ho does not receive m!ch %!blicity, b!t

he remains a si'nificant and infl!ential &lac# leader* =n addition to the increase of &lac#

.ationalist leaders, s!ch as 6ornel West, there are also lar'er amo!nts of &lac#

.ationalist or'aniations in modern-day America, for %ractically all of the &lac#

.ationalist %arties from the sities, s!ch as the &lac# anthers and the .ation of =slam,

remain in eistence* =n addition to these %arties, there are ne &lac# .ationalist



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divisions, s!ch as the .e &lac# anther arty* 7oreover, a recent st!dy shos that

ei'hty-fo!r %ercent of African-Americans %!rchase most of their 'oods from &lac#

oned b!sinesses, seventy %ercent of African-Americans believe that their children

sho!ld st!dy some ty%e of African lan'!a'e, and nearly fifty-si %ercent of African-

Americans %artici%ate in &lac# only or'aniations ?Davis and &ron, 2


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African-American ;men and omen e%ressed a stron' desire to learn,; b!t most &lac#s

did not have the same ed!cational o%%ort!nities and reso!rces as hites ?&ron and

Donahoo, 55


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a res!lt of &lac# children not receivin' the same )!ality ed!cation as hites, most

Americans ;e)!ated African Americans * * * ith limited intelli'ence; ?7eacham, 5K5@*

&lac# schools also did not have the same amo!nt of technolo'y as hite schools beca!se

&lac# schools received less national f!ndin' than hite schools*

=n today4s African-American comm!nity, hoever, st!dies sho that there is a

'reater %ercenta'e of African-American st!dents enrolled in secondary %!blic schools

than there ere %rior to the 104s* Within the %ast decade, &lac#s have also e%erienced

;loer dro%-o!t and s!s%ension rates,; hich once more s!''ests that there are more

&lac#s in school today than d!rin' the 10s ?Willie,


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attend historically &lac# colle'es for a variety of reasons* Generally, IAfrican American

st!dents ho attended inte'rated hi'h schools *** tend to enroll in %redominately hite

!niversities; ?French and $eidman, 510@* "e'ardless of the colle'e that African

Americans %refer to attend, the statistics concernin' &lac# colle'e enrollment remain the

same* %on eaminin' the increase in the %ercenta'e of African-American 'rade school

and colle'e st!dents, one may reasonably concl!de that &lac#s are %ro'ressin' in the

ed!cational strata beca!se more African-Americans have the o%%ort!nity to access the

same ed!cational reso!rces as hites in today4s society than d!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts

7ovement* Active efforts by colle'e recr!iters to recr!it talented African-American 'rade

school and hi'h school st!dents to selective colle'e instit!tions and Affirmative Action

%olicies that ma#e colle'e admission officers sensitive to race also contrib!tes to African-

Americans 'ainin' access to the same ed!cational reso!rces as hites* =nterestin'ly

eno!'h, Affirmative Action, a %olicy desi'ned to hel% narro the achievement 'a%

beteen minorities and hites, threatens to !ndo some of the or# of Dr* 9in' and

7alcolm and other 6ivil "i'hts or#ers*

One of the most controversial topics today in America, tends to polarize Blacks

and Whites. Recent legislation involving Affirmative Action such has Prop. 54, always

exposes the racial tension caused by Affirmative Action, usually revealing whites to be

opposed to legislation strengthening Affirmative Action and Blacks in favor of it.

Affirmative Action has recently come under scrutiny with the Supreme Court Cases

dealing with the University of Michigan Law Schools admissions policies. The plaintiffs

in these cases are claiming that the their Civil Rights are being violated because they are

being discriminated against in favor of lesser qualified Blacks as a result of the



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University of Michigans allegeded quota system designed to obtain diversity by

increasing the percentage of Black students at the school. Although the Supreme Court

has not made a landmark decision with regards to Affirmative Action since Bakke vs. the

Regents of the University of California, their decision on the legality of the University of

Michigans admissions policy will be a major decision that will have a large impact on

Black advancement and access to opportunities traditionally open only to whites.

Ironically, a policy designed to give minorities equal access to the same opportunities as

whites with the help of Civil Rights leaders like Dr. King, has become an issue along

racial lines that may reverse the strides he made for Blacks. Although abused in some

cases and clear that the practice of Affirmative Action deviates from its intended practice

and is therefore a problematic policy, it is still essential for selective schools to have an

Affirmative Action policy to ensure that qualified Blacks are considered for admission

and are able to receive their high quality of education so that their progress continues to

steadily increase.

In order to understand the importance of Affirmative Action, one must consider

its origins, its benefits, its weaknesses, and why it threatens to reverse the racial

understanding developed between whites and Blacks during the Civil Rights Movement

and the work of Civil Rights activists. Although no quick and easy solutions exist, it is

clear from the bitter debate regarding Affirmative Action and its applications in college

admissions that there is a strong need to reconsider it as a policy to create equality of

opportunity between whites and blacks. Judging from the racially divisive nature of the

debate, one may conclude that it may need to be restructured as a policy to yield better



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results and more importantly, one may conclude that there is a need for our country to

engage in more discussion regarding race relations.

The concept of Affirmative Action came about in the early 1960s during the Civil

Rights movement, a time when Blacks began to make their denial of their constitutional

rights by whites known to the rest of the nation and demand not only an immediate end of

their second-class citizenship, but also a demand for more rights that were promised to

them under the 13th, 14th and 15thamendments. Because of the work of Civil Rights

leaders like Dr. King, Reverend Jesse Jackson and Julian Bond, the government began to

take notice and initiated the first steps to address the grievances of minorities and the

gross inequalities the existed between Blacks and whites at the time. On March 6, 1961,

newly elected President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925, which

established the Presidents Committee On Equal Employment Opportunity. The

Presidents Committee On Equal Employment Opportunity was created to end

discrimination in government and government contractor employment based on race,

color, religion, sex, or national origin. In the Order, President Kennedy mandated that

The contractor will not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment

because of race, creed, color, or national origin. The contractor will take affirmative

action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during

employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin (Kennedy (1)).

+his as the first time in the contet of civil ri'hts that the 'overnment !sed the term

Iaffirmative action, hich referred to ta#in' the necessary action to eliminate the then

ides%read discrimination based on race*



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.ot satisfied ith the eistin' le'islation re'ardin' race relations and former

resident 9ennedys !nillin'ness to challen'e his racist $enate, 6ivil "i'hts leaders

met ith resident resident 8yndon &* Johnson re'ardin' the %li'ht of &lac#s in

America* +he res!lt of this meetin' and %ress!res %!t on the 'overnment by 6ivil "i'hts

leaders led to the 6ivil "i'hts Act of 1rder 0125* +itle =, $ec* 0 mandated that I.o %erson in the

nited $tates shall, on the 'ro!nd of race, color, or national ori'in, be ecl!ded from

%artici%ation in, be denied the benefits of, or be s!b(ected to discrimination !nder any

%ro'ram or activity receivin' Federal financial assistance ?+itle =, $ec* 0@* A year

later in 15 resident Johnson delivered a commencement address at /oard niversity

and ac#noled'ed to anio!s &lac# 'rad!atin' st!dents that im%artial treatment as not

eno!'h to '!arantee e)!ality of o%%ort!nity beteen &lac#s and hites* =n his address,

he shoed that he had been listenin' to the cries of &lac#s ready for chan'e and im%lied

that the 'overnment o!ld be more %roactive in ens!rin' %arity amon' &lac#s and

hites* =n his address he ar'!edB

IHo! do not ta#e a %erson ho, for years, has been hobbled by chains and

liberate him, brin' him !% to the startin' line of a race and then say, ;yo!

are free to com%ete ith all the others,; and still (!stly believe that yo!

have been com%letely fair* L We see# not (!st le'al e)!ity b!t h!man

ability, not (!st e)!ality as a ri'ht and a theory b!t e)!ality as a fact and

e)!ality as a res!lt ?Johnson@*



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$hortly after his commencement address on $e%tember 2rder 2rder statedB

I=t is the %olicy of the Government of the nited $tates to %rovide e)!al

o%%ort!nity in Federal em%loyment for all )!alified %ersons, to %rohibit

discrimination in em%loyment beca!se of race, creed, color, or national

ori'in, and to %romote the f!ll realiation of e)!al em%loyment

o%%ort!nity thro!'h a %ositive, contin!in' %ro'ram in each eec!tive

de%artment and a'ency ?Johnson 0@*

+his Eec!tive >rder essentially made Affirmative Action national %olicy that the

'overnment o!ld be dedicated to enforcin'*

As las and Eec!tive >rders ere bein' %assed d!rin' the 10s and &lac#

st!dents ere becomin' more anio!s, colle'es be'an to ma#e more of an effort to

recr!it &lac# st!dents and racially diversify their %o%!lations* +his ne trend in actively

%!rs!in' &lac#s as not only d!e to the 'overnments determination to rectify the

ine)!alities beteens hites and &lac#s, b!t as also d!e to the vario!s st!dent %rotests

led by 6ivil "i'hts 'ro!%s li#e $t!dent .onviolent 6oordinatin' 6ommittee ?$.66@

demandin' more access to %redominantly hite colle'es* As a res!lt, !niversity officials

created %ro'rams to actively recr!it &lac# a%%licants and consider race in their

admissions %rocess by admittin' )!alified &lac#s, even if they had loer 'rades and test

scores than their hite co!nter%arts* $chools (!stified their actions by revealin' their

desire to correct %ast discrimination a'ainst &lac#s* nfort!nately, it as %recisely this

reasonin' that event!ally contrib!ted to the bitter debate re'ardin' Affirmative Action,



19/42

the discreditin' of &lac#s )!alifications and led to co!rt cases attem%tin' to decide the

%ro%er a%%lication of Affirmative Action* 7ost colle'es hoever, had different

motivations for actively %!rs!in' &lac# a%%licants* I+hey so!'ht to enrich the

ed!cation of all their st!dents by incl!din' race as a another element in assemblin' a

diverse st!dent body of varyin' talents, bac#'ro!nds, and %ers%ectives and Iin

addition, %erceivin' a idely reco'nied need for more members of minority 'ro!%s in

b!siness, 'overnment, and the %rofessions, they acted on the conviction that minority

st!dents o!ld have a s%ecial o%%ort!nity to become leaders in all al#s of life

?&oen and &o# K@* For eam%le, in 15 /arvard 8a $chool dean Erin Grisold

la!nched a s%ecial s!mmer %ro'ram for &lac# (!niors st!dyin' at historically &lac#

colle'es to %ers!ade them in enrollin' in la school* /is effort as d!e to the fact that

Ibarely %ercent of all la st!dents in America ere &lac#, and over one-third of them

ere enrolled in all-&lac# schools ?&oen and &o# K@* .ot s!r%risin'ly, this trend in

admittin' more &lac# st!dents had ne'ative conse)!ences*

As more and more &lac# st!dents ere enrolled into !niversities across the

co!ntry, hite enrollment sli'htly decreased* +his trend led to increased racial tensions

and the %olariation of &lac#s and hites on this %olicy* +he conce%t of Affirmative

Action in colle'e admissions as challen'ed in the "e'ents of the niversity of

6alifornia v* &a##e $!%reme 6o!rt case* =n this case, Allan &a##e, ho as denied

admission to 6 DavisM medical school tice des%ite earnin' better 'rades and test

scores than s!ccessf!l &lac# a%%licants, claimed that he as a victim of Ireverse

discrimination* >n J!ne 2C, 1KC , the $!%reme 6o!rt iss!ed its decision re'ardin' the

case* +he 6o!rts decision as s%lit ith fo!r (!stices findin' that the system of racial



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)!otas !sed by the medical school ere discriminatory and violated +itle = of the 6ivil

"i'hts Act and fo!r J!stices a'reein' ith the admissions %roced!re as a le'itimate

device in overcomin' %ast discrimination*

=n the co!rts decision, J!stice oell, ho rote the decision, roteB

I"acial and ethnic classifications of any sort are inherently s!s%ect and

call for the most eactin' (!dicial scr!tiny* While the 'oal of achievin' a

diverse st!dent body is s!fficiently com%ellin' to (!stify consideration of

race in admissions decisions !nder some circ!mstances, %etitioner4s

s%ecial admissions %ro'ram, hich forecloses consideration to %ersons

li#e res%ondent, is !nnecessary to the achievement of this com%ellin' 'oal,

and therefore invalid !nder the E)!al rotection 6la!se ?2CK-320@*

=n other ords, J!stice oell ac#noled'ed that s%ecial admissions %ro'rams that

discriminated a'ainst %eo%le beca!se of their race violated the E)!al rotection 6la!se

b!t ar'!ed that ta#in' race into consideration in !niversity admissions as needed to

overcome %ast discriminations* As a res!lt, Allen &a##e lost his case and the 6o!rts

decision led to a broad inter%retation and a%%lication of Affirmative Action by

!niversities* +his decision alloed !niversities to %ractice Affirmative Action at their

on discretion and conse)!ently contrib!ted to the hei'htened racial tensions beteen

hites and &lac#s* &eca!se of this broad decision, Affirmative Action has become

ab!sed by some schools, ca!sed the )!alifications and credibility of &lac#s to be

)!estioned by hites, and has become a heated to%ic that has left a bitter taste in the

mo!ths of both &lac#s and hites*



21/42

Affirmative Action a%%lied to colle'e admissions, %racticed correctly %rod!ces

many benefits for %eo%le of all races* =n addition to increasin' the racial and ethnic

diversity of colle'es, it hel%s to develo% st!dents into more ell ro!nded ad!lts, %rod!ce

more ed!cated &lac#s that are )!alified for hi'hly s%ecialied (obs, and more im%ortantly

it leads to the event!al %hasin' o!t of Affirmative Action as a remedy to the dis%arity in

o%%ort!nity beteen &lac#s and hites* =n other ords, Affirmative Action ill

event!ally %hase itself o!t and allo Dr* 9in's dream to be realied*

7a(ority of the %ro%onents of Affirmative Action in colle'e admissions ar'!e that

it %rovides more diversity in !niversities* =n order to !nderstand the %ers%ective of these

s!%%orters of Affirmative Action, one m!st !nderstand hat is meant by diversity* +he

>ford Dictionary of 6!rrent En'lish defines diversity as the state of bein' varied and a

ran'e of different thin's* +o have a better 'ras% of hat diversity is in the contet of

colle'e, consider Jeffery F* 7ilems definition dran from the or# of G!rin and 6han'B

I"tructural diversit# refers to the n!merical and %ro%ortional

re%resentation of st!dents from different racialNethnic 'ro!%s in the st!dent

body ?/!rtado et al* 11C, 111@ L diversit#$related initiatives ?i*e*

c!lt!ral aareness or#sho%s, ethnic st!dies co!rses, and so forth@ that

occ!r on colle'e and !niversity cam%!ses* Altho!'h demo'ra%hic shifts or

chan'es in the str!ct!ral diversity of cam%!ses fre)!ently %rovide the

stim!l!s for diversity-related initiatives ?6han' 111b@, some colle'es and

!niversities incor%orate these ty%es of initiatives even tho!'h their

cam%!ses are racially and ethnically homo'eneo!s* L diverse

interactions, is characteried by st!dents echan'es ith racially and



22/42

ethnically diverse %eo%le as ell as diverse ideas, information , and

e%eriences* eo%le are infl!enced by their interactions ith diverse ideas

and information as ell as diverse %eo%le ?7ilem 32@*

9ee%in' these definitions of diversity in mind, the benefits of diversity are clearer* When

%eo%le are thr!st into environments made !% of vario!s #inds of %eo%le from dissimilar

bac#'ro!nds, they are forced to interact ith others that are different from them and learn

abo!t other c!lt!res if they are to be s!ccessf!l in their ne environment* +his echan'e

beteen vario!s c!lt!res res!lts in some of the individ!als racial biases bein' bro#en

don and a healthy disc!ssion of racial iss!es* +his res!lts in the formation of ne

%ers%ectives beteen the individ!als and contrib!tes to them 'roin' into ell-ro!nded

ad!lts ith a more mat!re vie on life* G!rin conc!rs hen she Iar'!es that L

diversity, broadly defined, can facilitate L better %re%aration for the many challen'es

they ill face as involved citiens in a democratic, m!ltiracial society ?)td* in 7ilem

3


23/42

sit!ation li#e the one mentioned earlier, one has to be creative in order to come !% ith a

sol!tion and overcome their differences* 6olle'es ith diverse %o%!lations %rovide

%erfect %ractice for these #inds of sit!ations and %re%are an individ!al for real orld

sit!ations as a res!lt* =f one ere to attend a colle'e made !% of %eo%le similar to them,

they o!ld not be able to 'ain the e%erience needed to deal ith %eo%le different from

them and o!ld lose o!t on the o%%ort!nity to 'ain ne ideas and different ays of

loo#in' at thin's, learned only from dealin' ith a diverse mi of %eo%le*

=n addition to diversifyin' !niversity %o%!lations, Affirmative Action contrib!tes

to the ed!cation of more &lac#s, hich leads to the increase in the n!mber of )!alified

&lac#s for s%ecialied (obs, and the realiation of self a!tonomy fa!'ht for by activists

s!ch as 7alcolm :* IFrom 10 to 115, the %ercenta'e of &lac#s a'ed 25 to 21 ho

had 'rad!ated from colle'e rose from 5*< to 5*< %ercent* L +hese trends have led to

stri#in' 'ains in the re%resentation of minorities in the most l!crative and infl!ential

occ!%ations ?&oen and &o# 1-0@* =f the n!mber of &lac# 'rad!ates contin!es to 'ro,

event!ally Affirmative Action ill no lon'er be needed since &lac#s ill be as %re%ared

as hites for com%etitive (obs hich ill not only lead to the brea#in' don of the

stereoty%e that &lac#s are inferior to hites, b!t also the realiation of e)!ality of

o%%ort!nity as#ed for in Dr* 9in's dream* J!stice &lac#m!n said it best hen he rote

in his o%inion re'ardin' the "e'ents v* &a##e $!%reme 6o!rt case I=n order to 'et

beyond racism, e m!st first ta#e acco!nt of race* ?&oen and &o# C@

Affirmative Action in colle'e admissions is only an iss!e hen it comes to

selective instit!tions, s!ch as $tanford and /arvard ho receive more a%%lications than

they can admit* &oen and &o# in their boo#, "hape of the River, estimate that Ionly



24/42

abo!t 20 to 30 %ercent of all fo!r-year colle'es and !niversities have eno!'h a%%licants

to be selective abo!t ho is admitted to their schools ?&oen and &o# 5@* =t is not

s!r%risin' hy the debate re'ardin' the le'itimacy of Affirmative Action is so bitter

'iven the hi'h com%etition to 'et into these schools, the sli'htest %ossibility that a select

fe are receivin' %referential treatment over others is 'oin' to incite the an'er of many

%eo%le* &eca!se of the above %ossibility, hites are adamantly o%%osed to Affirmative

Action in any sha%e or form* Altho!'h hites are 'enerally for the conce%t of e)!ality of

o%%ort!nity, hen Affirmative Action is offered as a tool to '!arantee that this occ!rs,

hites let their stron' disa%%roval of it be #non* Altho!'h it is common #noled'e that

hites that have felt discriminated a'ainst d!e to Affirmation Action are o%%osed to its

!se, it may not be ell #non that some &lac#s are (!st as o%%osed to its %ractice*

As a niversity of 6alifornia "e'ent, Wardell 6onnerly has itnessed ab!ses in

the a%%lication of Affirmative Action by the niversity of 6alifornia ?6@ system* 7artin

+ro in his essay %referential &dmissions in 'igher Education, rites a brief history

abo!t the admissions %roced!res at the niversity of 6alifornia and hi'hli'hts their

%revio!sly )!estionable %olicies to diversify their cam%!sesB

I=n the 1C0s and early 110s, a n!mber of the 6s ei'ht I'eneral

cam%!ses fo!nd that they had more, and in some cases many more,

eli'ible a%%licants than they co!ld admit* L With the a%%roval of the

"e'ents, &er#eley decided to admit half the enterin' class on the basis of

their scores on the combined $A+NGA* =n fillin' the other half, all

eli'ible minority a%%licants ere a!tomatically admitted* L in 1C1 it

abandoned the '!arantee of admission for all eli'ible a%%licants from



25/42

minority 'ro!%s* Het it contin!ed t 'ive a h!'e advanta'e to &lac# and

/is%anic a%%licants ?215@*

As a res!lt, it is no s!r%rise that des%ite bein' &lac# and %ossibly bein' a beneficiary of

Affirmative Action, that he o!ld adamantly be o%%osed to its %ractice* +hro!'ho!t his

essay One (ation)ndivisi*le he )!estions the merits of Affirmative Action and com%ares

it to a Isystem of %references and de facto )!otas ?6onnerly


26/42

c!rrent resident of $tanford niversity, rote a statement to the $tanford Fac!lty $enate

re'ardin' $tanfords commitment to diversityB

I$electin' st!dents for admission to a !niversity s!ch as $tanford is an

incredibly diffic!lt and intricate %rocess* A ide ran'e of considerations is

ta#en into acco!nt, b!t academic %erformance and intellect!al %otential

ill alays to% that list* L the consideration of race and ethnicity as one

factor amon' many in that admission %rocess is consistent ith o!r history

as an instit!tion L*

$imilar to the manner in hich schools ta#e into acco!nt hether or not a %ros%ective

st!dent is an athlete, has s%ecial m!sic ability, or is dedicated to their comm!nity race is

ta#en to acco!nt !nder the same conditions* .o sin'le factor eists that 'ives one %erson

a distinct advanta'e over another %erson* As a res!lt, it is nearly im%ossible for hites,

and moreover %eo%le of other races, to be discriminated a'ainst !nder s!ch %olices*

$tanfords, as ell as several other colle'es, commitment to academic ecellence

disco!nts 6onnerlys idea that Affirmative Action %res!%%oses &lac#s to be inferior*

Accordin' to &oen and &o#s, to former =vy 8ea'!e residents, etensive research on

colle'e admissionsB

I+he most f!ndamental ob(ective is to be s!re that the )!alifications of all

admitted st!dents are above a hi'h academic threshold* Admissions

officers see# to offer %laces in the class only to those a%%licants hom

they deem intellect!ally ?and otherise@ ca%able of com%letin' the

academic %ro'ram s!ccessf!lly and benefitin' from the e%erience ?23@*



27/42

$ince Iacademic achievement and intellect!al %otential are considered before race, those

minorities that the !niversities 'ive s%ecial consideration to, and %ossibly acce%t, are (!st

as )!alified as the hite a%%licants* +herefore, hen %racticed correctly, the a%%lication

of Affirmative Action does not %res!me that &lac#s are inferior to hites li#e 6onnerly

ar'!es, instead, it ma#es admissions officers more aare of the fact that there arein fact

)!alified minorities that may contrib!te to the intellect!al and %olitical develo%ment of

their cam%!s*

/oover =nstit!te Fello $helby $teele is another &lac# scholar, ho o%%oses

Affirmative Action* =n addition to com%arin' it to a %ro'ram of racial %references li#e

6onnerly and believin' that it distills a sense of inferiority !%on &lac#s, he feels that

diversity is not a s!fficient reason to !tilie Affirmative Action* =n his boo#, Content of

Our Character+ & (ew ,ision of Race in &merica, he ar'!esB

I-iversit#is a term that a%%lies democratic %rinci%les to races and c!lt!res rather

than to citiens, des%ite the fact there is nothin' to indicate that real diversity is

the same thin' as %ro%ortionate re%resentation* +oo often the res!lt of this on

cam%!ses ?for eam%le@ has been a democracy of colors rather than of %eo%le, an

artificial diversity that 'ives an ed!cation %arity beteen &lac# and hite

st!dents that has not been achieved in reality* L only 2 %ercent of &lac#

st!dents 'rad!ate from colle'e ?$teele5 - @*

$teele believes that Affirmative Action is a ty%e of hando!t 'iven to &lac#s in an attem%t

to s!%%ress the '!ilt that many hites %ossess as a res!lt of the in(!stices committed

a'ainst &lac#s* /e believes that the dis%arity that eists beteen &lac#s and hites that

are covered !% hen &lac#s are admitted to schools !nder Affirmative Action* =f one



28/42

ere to eamine the Avera'e $A+ scores of minorities vers!s those of hites, or even, if

one ere to scr!tinie the %robability of admission beteen &lac#s and hites 'iven their

$A+ scores at selective instit!tions, one o!ld be inclined to concl!de that on avera'e,

&lac#s are not as )!alified as hites and are 'iven an !nfair advanta'e over hites*

Mean SAT Scores of Matriculants at Four selective Institutions,

by Race, 1951, 1976, and 1989

117

19

118

1!"! 1!#51"9! 1!""

0

200


29/42

0P

20P


30/42

$i-Hear Grad!ation "atesR

"ace 7=+ $tanford /i'hly

$elective

$elective 7oderately

$elective

8ess

$elective

All

=nstit!tions

&lac# C0*3P C1*CP 55*2P 3C*P 3


31/42

Fi'!res 2 and 3 reveal that altho!'h on avera'e, &lac#s are admitted ith loer $A+

scores than hites, &lac#s are as ca%able as those hites ho have hi'her test

scores, and f!rthermore, &lac#s often ecel and s!r%ass their on e%ectations

hen faced ith the challen'e of overcomin' the ri'ors of colle'e life* As a res!lt,

!%on collectively analyin' Fi'!res , 2, and 3, it is clear that $A+ scores are rarely

a le'itimate %redictor for an individ!als %erformance in colle'e instead, other

factors m!st be loo#ed at, in con(!nction ith $A+ scores, to more acc!rately

%redict an individ!als s!ccess in colle'e* Fi'!re 3 dis%roves $teeles idea that

diversity %rovides a false a%%earance of ed!cational %arity beteen &lac# and

hite st!dents* Altho!'h, %arity is not f!lly achieved, the 'a% is narro at selective

instit!tions and only CP nationally*

Altho!'h 6onnerly and $teele have some valid %oints in their ar'!ments a'ainst

Affirmative Action, there are a myriad of %oints hich made !s reconsider the validity of

Affirmative Action in colle'e admissionsB 6onnerly and $teeles im%lied ass!m%tion that

a ma(ority of &lac#s benefitin' from Affirmative Action are not as %re%ared as hites for

the ri'ors of colle'e, and 6onnerlys o%inion that colle'e admissions sho!ld com%letely

i'nore race* +he ne'ative stereoty%es abo!t Affirmative Action, hich incl!de its broad

definition and its lac# of !niform a%%lication thro!'ho!t the vario!s colle'es in the

nited $tates, indicate that there is a need for a redefinition of Affirmative Action* =f

Affirmative Action cannot be redefined, then another system, hich has more defined

'oals and %roced!res, and better ins!res the ed!cational e)!ality beteen hites and

minorities, sho!ld be im%lemented* erha%s an administration system similar to that of

6ornell and $tanford, here race is only as im%ortant as a st!dents athletic ability, hich



32/42

is considered alon' side a m!ltit!de of other factors, hen reviein' a %ros%ective

st!dents a%%lication*

The assumption that minorities, particularly Blacks, are not adequately prepared

for college and are consequently undeserving of the same college opportunities as whites

illustrates a need for our nation to further discuss, and define, race issues. Although the

evidence demonstrating Blacks competence and comparable ability with whites exists,

stereotypes, which suggest that Blacks are only able to gain admission to colleges

through the use of Affirmative Action, remain prevalent on college campuses and

throughout the general United States population. A study conducted by Daniel Solorzano

from the University of California at Los Angeles, Miguel Ceja from the University of

California at Davis, and Tara Yosso from the University of California at Santa Barbara

provides examples of these negative stereotypes. A Black females experience revealed

that [m]ost of my experience in regards to racism have come from students Like, a

couple of our class discussions were about the whole Proposition 209 issue and

affirmative action, and [the White] students really thought that the only reason Black

students were getting into these universities was because of affirmative action. A lot of

them could not fathom that we earned our way here (67). As &lac# st!dents, e can

relate to her e%erience beca!se e have 'one thro!'h similar sit!ations in o!r lives*

Even at $tanford, e sometimes feel that e have to or# tice as hard as other st!dents

to %rove o!r orth* E%eriences li#e these, in hich &lac#s feel as if they are constantly

bein' loo#ed !%on as Affirmative Action admits, hether acc!rate or not, shos that

there are misconce%tions on both sides of the iss!e that need to be corrected, and the only



33/42

effective ay to correct these misconce%tions is to sit don and en'a'e in an o%en

dialo'!e*

Ward Connerlys idea of ignoring ones race and focusing on the individuals and

their individual humanity, we are creating equal, and thereby inviting those principles

present since the American founding to come inside our contemporary American home

(Connerly 24) is flawed to some extent. He feels that race does not accurately define an

individual, predict the fears you will have to face, the obstacles you will have to

overcome, and the strengths you will discover along your journey (Connerly 24).

Although Connerlys ideas are noble, they ignore the reality of the world in which we

live. For a majority of people, their race and ethnicity makes up a large part of the light in

which they see themselves. Without their culture, the character and personality would be

different in a variety of ways. John Ladd agrees that race is an important part of an

individual. Research suggests that social groups only become distinguished and

identified, say as races, in contrast to another group, say the majority, who regard

themselves as raceless [] it should be obvious that racial identification is a crucial

aspect of an individuals being a member of a race, or, as the case may be, of several

races. Therefore, to deny racial identification to an individual is either to deny the

existence of that individuals race or to declare it morally insignificant or morally

reprehensible (Ladd 218). The colorblind approach to college admissions that Connerly

proposes, is flawed because in addition to asking one to forget that they are Black,

Latino, or any other race, and ignoring a large part of their identity, Connerlys approach

avoids addressing the underlying racial issues in our country. Using a colorblind

approach to college admissions not only reduces the chances of increasing diversity in



34/42

colleges and accumulating the knowledge gained from interactions between people of

different races, but it also prevents people from engaging in dialogues that may help to

ultimately destroy several unjustified biases. Since college is a period where people grow

and change their ways of thinking, it is also an excellent time for people to engage in

racial dialogues and attempt to solve the racial dilemma in our country. Although racism

has always been, and may even continue to be an underlying problem in American

society, people can help to gradually eliminate racism by using casual conversations to

better understand other peoples opinions, races, and most importantly, culture.

+o concl!de, altho!'h the African-American str!''le for ed!cational, %olitical,

and economic e)!ality is not entirely com%lete, the overall stat!s of &lac#s in America

seems to be increasin' ith time, and th!s, there contin!es to be ho%e for &lac#

%ro'ression in America* rior to and d!rin' the 6ivil "i'ht, most hites discriminated

a'ainst African-Americans and de%rived &lac#s of ed!cational and %rofessional

o%%ort!nities e)!al to those of hites* +hro!'ho!t the many years, hoever, %rominent

African-American leaders, s!ch as Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :, enhanced

the ideas of &lac# .ationalism and ed!cation, thro!'h the im%lementation of Affirmative

Action, hich o%ened a myriad of doors for &lac# advancement in America* &efore

cond!ctin' this research, e e%ected to discover that since the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,

there has been a de'eneration of &lac# .ationalism and &lac# ed!cation in America* We

e%ected to discover a decay of &lac# .ationalism s!bse)!ent to the 6ivil "i'hts

7ovement beca!se there are feer o!ts%o#en &lac# .ationalist ithin today4s African-

American comm!nity* >!r research, hoever, shos that altho!'h several African-

Americans ere avid &lac# .ationalist %rior to and d!rin' the 6ivil "i'hts 7ovement,



35/42

c!rrently, more African-Americans consider themselves &lac# .ationalist in modern-day

America than %rior to, and d!rin', the sities*

Additionally, e e%ected to discover a decline in African-American ed!cation,

beca!se in modern-day America, most m!ltimedia %rod!cts %ortray African-Americans as

loer-class citiens or criminals, ho %ossess a %oor ed!cation, and in addition to these

details, the im%lementation of Affirmative Action has not 'reatly benefited the &lac#

comm!nity over the %ast decade* >ften times, African-Americans allo m!ltimedia

%rod!cts and stereoty%es, s!ch as these, to define them* +h!s, many &lac#s consider

themselves loer-class citiens, ho have no chance of becomin' infl!ential members of

society* &ased on these observations, e e%ected to discover a decline in the s!ccess of

&lac# ed!cation* "e%orts sho, hoever, that there are 'reater %ercenta'es of African-

Americans in secondary school and colle'e in today4s society than there ere d!rin' the

sities, and ith a fe revisions to todays Affirmative Action %lan, &lac#s sho!ld

contin!e to enroll in colle'e and become s!ccessf!l and %rod!ctive members of American

society* Americans, hoever, m!st contin!e to revise, and not eradicate, Affirmative

Action in order for all minorities, more s%ecifically &lac#s, to have the o%%ort!nity to

advance in American society* 7oreover, revies sho that the tests scores and

achievement rates of African-Americans in secondary schools are steadily increasin' in

many lar'e cities thro!'ho!t the nited $tates* Evidently, aside from hel%in' the &lac#s

'ain e)!al ri'hts in America, the 6ivil "i'hts activists, more s%ecifically Dr* 7artin

8!ther 9in', Jr*, and 7alcolm :, hel%ed instill ideas of &lac# .ationalism and &lac#

%ro'ression into the African-American %o%!lace, hich contin!e to flo!rish in today4s

&lac# comm!nity* African-Americans, hoever, m!st not become content ith their



36/42

%lace in society, for the stat!s of &lac#s in America remains !ne)!al to that of hites*

=nstead, &lac#s sho!ld !se the teachin's of Dr* 7artin 8!ther 9in', Jr*, 7alcolm :, and

other African-American leaders to hel% &lac#s better the conditions of themselves, their

children, and the entire nation*



37/42

Wor#s 6ited

&oen, William G* and &o#, Dere#* +he $ha%e of the "iver* .e JerseyB rinceton

niversity ress, 11C*

Brown II, Christopher M. and Sarah Donahoo. The Black College and the Quest for

Educational Opportunity. Urban Education. 36. 5 (2001): 553-571.

Brown, Robert A. and Todd C. Shaw. Separate Nations: Two Attitudinal Dimensions of

Black Nationalism. The Journal of Politics. 64.1 (2002): 22-44.

Byndloss, Crystal D. Revisiting Paradigms in Black Education, Community Control,

and African-Centered Schools.Education and Urban Society. 34.1 (2001): 84-

100.

6onnerly, Wardell* 6reatin' E)!alB 7y Fi'ht A'ainst "ace references* $an FranciscoB

Enco!nter &oo#s, 2000*

6onnerly, Wardell* I>ne .ation, =ndivisible* &eyond the 6olor 8ineB .e ers%ective

on "ace and Ethnicity in America* $tanfordB /oover =nstit!tion ress, 2002*

Davis, Darren W. and Ronald E Brown. The Antipathy of Black Nationalisms:

Behavioral and Attitudinal Implications of an African American Ideology.

American Journal of Political Science. 46.2 (2002): 239-252.



38/42

Dawson, Michael C.Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-America Politics.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.

Desimone, Laura and Matia Finn-Stevenson. "Whole School Reform in a Low-Income

African-American Community: The Effects of the CoZi Model on Teachers,

Parents, and Students." Urban Education. 35.3 (2000): 269-323.

Dlamini, S. Nombuso. From the Other Side of the Desk: Notes on Teaching about Race

When Racialised.Race, Ethnicity, and Education. 5.1 (2002): 51-66.

Fleming, Jacqueline. The Impact of a Historically Black College on African-American

Students. Urban Education. 35.5 (2001): 597-610.

French, Sabine Elizabeth and Edward Seidman. Racial/Ethic Identity Congruence with

the Social Context, and the Transition to High School.Journal of Adolescent

Research. 15. 5 (2000): 587-602.

Giddings, Geoffrey Jahwara. Infusion of Afrocentric Content into the School

Curriculum.Journal of Black Studies. 31. 4 (2001): 462-482.

Goldman, Peter. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. New York: Harper and Row

Publisher, 1973.



39/42

/ennessy, John 8* I$tatement by John 8* /ennessy, resident to the $tanford Fac!lty

$enate 23 Jan* 2003*

/enry, $heila E* IEthnic =dentity, .ationalism, and =nternational $tratificationB +he 6ase

of the African American*ournal of Blac "tudies.21*3 ?111@B


40/42

Ladd, John. Philosophical Reflections on Race and Racism. American Behavioral

Scientist. Vol. 41, No. 2, (Oct 1997): 212-23.

7arsh, 6harles* The Civil Rights Movement as Theological -rama / )nterpretation and

&pplication* 6harlottesvilleB &lac#ell !blishers, 2002*

7eacham, $h!aib J* ;&lac# $elf-8ove, 8an'!a'e, and the +eacher Ed!cational DilemmaB

+he 6!lt!ral Denial and 6!lt!ral 8imbo of African American ros%ective

+eachers*; 0r*an Education* 3


41/42

MLK Timeline* +he $eattle +imes* "etrieved Jan!ary 30, 2002, from the World Wide

WebB htt%BNNseattletimes*nso!rce*comNml#NmanN789timeline*html

Solorzano, Ceja, Miguel, and Yosso, Tara. Critical Race Theory, Racial

Microagressions and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African

American College Students. The Journal of Negro Education. Vol. 69, No. 1/2,

(Winter/Spring 2000): 60 73.

$teele, $helby* +he 6ontent of >!r 6haracterB A .e ision of "ace in America* .e

Hor#B $t* 7artins ress, 110*

+ro, 7artin* Ireferential admissions in /i'her Ed!cation* &eyond the 6olor 8ineB

.e ers%ective on "ace and Ethnicity in America* $tanfordB /oover =nstit!tion

ress, 2002*

Verharen, Charles C. Philosophys Roles in Afrocentric Education.Journal of Black

Studies. 32.3 (2002): 295-321.

nited $tates* 6on'ress* /o!se of "e%resentatives* 6ivil "i'hts Act of 1


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Willie, 6harles * I+he 6ontet!al Effects of $ocioeconomic $tat!s on $t!dent

Achievement +ests $cores by "ace* 0r*an Education*3*< ?200@B

influence of martin luther king, jr., and malcolm on black progression

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