influencing air quality with comprehensive planning and ordinances - dfh usa - 2007

8/14/2019 Influencing Air Quality With Comprehensive Planning and Ordinances - DfH USA - 2007

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DESIGN FOR HEALTHUniversity of Minnesota | August 2007

Planning Information Sheet:

Influencing Air Qualitywith Comprehensive

Planning and Ordinances

Version 2.0

DESIGN FOR HEALTH is a collaboration between the University of Minnesota and BlueCross and Blue Shield of Minnesota that serves to bridge the gap between the emerging

research base on community design and healthy living with the every-day realities of local

government planning.

AnnForsyth


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Planning Information Sheet: Influencing Air Quality with Comprehensive Planning and Ordinances

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www.designforhealth.net

Design for Health

Design for Healthwww.designforhealth.net

2007University of Minnesota

Permission is granted for nonprofit education purposes

for reproduction of all or part of written material or images,except that reprinted with permission from other sources.

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Design for Health is collaboration between the University ofMinnesota and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Minnesota.

The following people were involved in the development ofthe Planning Information Sheet Series:

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Contributors: Dr. Ann Forsyth, Dr. Kevin Krizek, Dr. CarissaSchively, Laura Baum, Amanda Johnson, Aly Pennucci

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Thanks to Active Living by Design for helpful comments.

Suggested Citation: Design for Health. 2007. PlanningInformation Sheet: Influencing Air Quality with

Comprehensive Planning and Ordinances. Version 2.0.www.designforhealth.net


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Overview

Design for Healths Planning Information Sheetsseries provides planners with useful informationabout opportunities to address importanthealth issues through the comprehensiveplanning process and plan implementation.

The series addresses a range of health issuesthat are relevant to many communities and canbe efficiently and effectively integrated intolocal plans and policies. This information sheetprovides insights for planners in understandinghow air quality relates to health and thebuilt environment, and points to innovativeapproaches to planning for air quality.

Key Points Both indoor- and outdoor-air quality are

important to human health. Key pollutants

include: carbon monoxide, sulfur, nitrogenoxides, carbon dioxide, lead, and other airtoxins and volatile organic compounds(VOCs). For more information about specificpollutants, visit the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) at www.epa.gov. Theprimary health consequences associated withair quality include mortality, respiratory andcardiovascular health, and cancer (Frumkin etal. 2004). Breathing in air pollutants from ozone,

particulate matter, nitrogen oxide, and sulferdioxide can cause reduced lung function,which may trigger symptoms, such aschest pain, coughing, throat irritation, andcongestion. Breathing in air pollutants canalso exasperate existing health problems,such as bronchitis, emphysema and asthma.People with existing lung disease[s],children and older adults are at greater riskof being affected by air pollutants (EPA2006a).

Carbon monoxide causes health problems,

because it reduces the level of oxygen thatis delivered to the bodys organs. Anyperson breathing in high amounts of carbonmonoxide risks damaging his or her centralnervous system, which can create visionproblems and reduce a persons ability tofunction physically and mentally. Peoplewho have existing cardiovascular diseasesand are exposed to low levels of carbon

monoxide may experience chest pain andreduced ability to exercise. Symptomsassociated with their existing disease mayincrease or become exacerbated (EPA 2006b).

When lead is absorbed, it is distributedthroughout the body where it can affect

organs and tissue. Exposure to lead cancause damage to the kidneys, liver, brain,and nerves; cause high blood pressure andincrease heart disease. Symptoms associatedwith lead poisoning include muscle aches andjoint pain, lung damage, difficulty breathing,and diseases, such as asthma, bronchitis andpneumonia. Children, infants and unbornfetuses are at greatest risk of being harmed bylead contamination (Yu 2005).

Air-quality concerns are commonly associated

with vehicle pollution; however, they are alsoassociated with other human activities andclimatic or topographic conditions. There arethree main categories of air pollution: areasources (e.g., dry cleaners and gas stations),mobile sources (e.g., cars and trucks) andstationary sources (e.g., factories and powerplants). Area sources collectively representindividual sources that are small andnumerous and that have not been inventoriedas specific point, mobile or biologicalsources. The main reason not to treat themas point sources is that the effort required togather data and estimate emissions for eachindividual facility is great, although emissionsper facility are small. (EPA 2001). Weatherconditions and topography can exacerbate air-quality concerns, when pollutants are trappedby mountains or moved from one area toanother as a result of wind currents.

The Clean Air Act of 1970 is the primarymechanism for regulating air pollution

impacts, and has been amended to increaseefforts to improve air quality. This lawprovides air-quality standards (NAAQS)for criteria pollutants, including carbonmonoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, ozone,particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide (EPA2006a). These are the six most common airpollutants that put human health at risk.Regions that fail to meet the federal standardsare designated as non-attainment. The


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pollutants come from a variety of sourcesand efforts to reduce them are primarilymanaged at the state level. These plans specifypolicies, incentives, permitting, monitoring,and other programs intended to reduce thecriteria pollutants. Policies and programsfor addressing other air-quality impacts are

provided at the federal, state, regional, andlocal level (Barr 2004; Reitze 2001). Air quality may be addressed in

comprehensive planning in many ways.Approaches include: (1) creating an air-qualityelement, (2) integrating it into traditionallyrequired elements, such as natural resources,land use, housing, transportation, or publicservices; and (3) creating supplemental plansrelated to climate change or public health.

Key issue areas that planners can consideras they begin to address air quality throughplanning policies include: promoting bufferingand landscape standards, developing

ordinances with evidence-based thresholds,separating some land uses to protect certaingroups, and creating ordinances and overlaydistricts that focus on polluting uses, such asdry cleaners and airports.

Air Quality is not an isolated issue; rather, it is

tied to many other health topics covered in theDFH materials. For more information, see thetable below

Understanding Air Quality

For planners, the existing research offersinsights related to addressing mobile sourcesof air pollution, area and stationary sources ofair pollution, and specialized populations andplaces. Before recommending approaches forintegrating air-quality considerations into localplans and ordinances, it is important to provide afew key details for thinking about how air qualityrelates to the built environment.

Design for Health Planning Information Sheets Addressing Air Quality

DFH Planning InformationSheet:

Topics covered related toaccessibility:

Link:

Influencing Air Qualitywith ComprehensivePlanning and Ordinances

Mobile, stationary and areasources of air pollution Specialized populations and

places Indoor Air Quality

http://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.html

Promoting Accessibilitywith ComprehensivePlanning and Ordinances

Multimodal transportationsystems

Transit planning Specialized populations

http://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.html

Supporting PhysicalActivity throughComprehensive Planningand Ordinances

Pedestrian and bicycle plans Community design

http://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.html

Building Social Capitalwith ComprehensivePlanning and PlanImplementation

Mixed-use development Density Transit-oriented environments Pedestrian-oriented

environments

http://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.html
http://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/socialcapitalissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/physicalactivityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/Accessibility.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.htmlhttp://www.designforhealth.net/techassistance/airqualityissue.html


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Mobile Sources of Air Pollution

Addressing pollution from mobile sources is acomplex matter, with planners typically focusingon influencing land-use patterns and travelbehavior. For vehicle-related air pollution: landuse is linked with travel behavior (trip time, triplength, community characteristics, and speed);travel behavior is linked with vehicle emissions;and air quality is linked with health (respiratoryand cardiovascular issues) (Frumkin et al. 2004).Sprawling land-use patterns contribute toincreased reliance on the automobile and, thus,increased emissions (Handy 2005). Increasesin trip length and trip time further contributeemissions impacts (Frumkin et al. 2004). TheTexas Transportation Institutes estimates, infact, that vehicle miles traveled on major roadshave more than doubled between 1982 and 2003(Schrank and Lomax 2005).

As the Key Question on air quality states, the

Clean Air Act of 1970 is the primary mechanismfor regulating air pollution impacts, and has beenamended to increase efforts. In 1991, Congressadopted the Intermodal Surface TransportationAct (ISTEA) that authorized the creation of theCongestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ)Improvement Program that focused on the linkbetween planning for transportation and healththrough more multimodal options (United States

Department of Transportation 2007). For moreinformation on CMAQ, visit http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/cmaqpgs.

Even in central cities and higher-density areas,the U.S. Federal Highway Administration(FHWA) has concerns about the dangerous air

quality, particularly for active individuals, suchas cyclists and pedestrians (EPA 2006) since theyoften exercise outdoors and often near roadwayswith congestion; this leaves them susceptible tosome respiratory illnesses.

There are a number of potential health impactsassociated with mobile sources of air pollution.First, motor-vehicle emissions are the primarysource of most fine and ultra-fine particles,which are particularly dangerous, because theycan deeply embed themselves within the lungs

(Hitchens et al. 2000, 52; Frumkin et al. 2004,69). Health impacts are of particular concern forthose living near major roadways. As outlined inDesign for Healths Air Quality Key Questionspaper, for example, a study of 5228 peoplefound that those living within 50 m (164 ft) of amajor urban road or within 100 m (328 ft) of ahighway had circulatory disease mortality ratesassociated with indices of ambient air pollutionat the subjects residence and with residentialproximity to traffic (Finkelstein et al. 2005, 481).

Establishing a recommended buffer distance fromroadways for air-quality purposes is difficult,as results from the literature are mixed. Werecommend a buffer somewhere between 200mand 500m (656-1640 ft) of major roads, sinceresearch indicates that particles drop quickly toa background level within this range. Studies,while mixed, also show that barrier walls orlandscape buffers can mitigate the spread ofair pollution from major roadways; while it isimportant to know that vegetation is capable

of absorbing air pollutants, its ability to do sodepends on plant species, pollutants, wind,climatic factors, etc. (Khan and Abbasi 2000).

Housing located near freeways is subject to problems with air

quality, potentially leading to respiratory illness. This

example is of newly constructed housing in Minneapolis

MetropolitanDesignCenter
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/cmaqpgshttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/cmaqpgshttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/cmaqpgshttp://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/cmaqpgs


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Other Air-quality Sources

In addition to mobile sources of air pollution,planners also should be concerned aboutstationary or point sources (e.g., power plantsand industrial facilities) and area sources (e.g.,airports, unpaved roads, agricultural feedlots,forest fires, fireplaces, and lawnmowers).Pollutants released from stationary and area

sources include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxides,carbon monoxide, benzene, mercury, and dioxin.Many large stationary-source emissions arerequired to obtain Title V permits, as regulatedby the Clean Air Act (EPA 2006d). Carbon dioxideis, of concern, commonly discussed in terms ofits relation to global climate change, with indirecthealth effects; we focus more on direct healtheffects, however, in this information series.

Air-quality issues with more direct health effects

include ozone, according to the California AirResources Board (CARBa) and others. This isa concern for susceptible groups, includingthose working or exercising outdoors; children;and persons with preexisting lung diseases,such as asthma and chronic pulmonary lungdisease (CARBb 2005). Ozone is not emittedmobile or stationary sources. Rather, it is createdby a chemical reaction through the mixing ofhydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, particularlyon days that are sunny, hot and have calm winds(CARBa 2005).

Finally, indoor-air quality is another area ofconcern. While not as closely tied to landuse, transportation and other decisions thatplanners are typically involved in, indoor-air quality can be associated with buildingmaterials and site selection. Indoor-air pollutantscome from: outdoor environment, buildingmaterials, combustion of fuels, clothing andfabrics, consumer and petroleum products, soil,pesticides, herbicides, humans, animals, etc.(Cook 1991). Indoor-air pollution is primarilyreduced and prevented by increasing indoor-air ventilation and circulation (Cook 1991). Interms of site selection, it is important that pastuses of properties are evaluated, particularly forformer industrial sites, including explorationfor chemicals used at these sites through soilsampling and air-pollution measurements toensure the site is appropriate for the planned use(Litt and Burke 2002).

Specialized Populations and Places

In addressing the various air-quality effects andpollution sources described above, it is importantfor planners to be aware of the potential forimpacts on particular populations and inparticular locations. Air-quality concerns arenot the same for everyone. Rather, specializedpopulations are at greater risk, includingchildren and the elderly (Houston et al. 2006).Concentrations of susceptible populations inlocations, such as schools, daycare centers,playgrounds, long-term health-care facilities,rehabilitation centers, hospitals, and retirement

homes, are of concern (Houston et al. 2006; SouthCoast AQMD 2005, 26).

Those living in minority and/or high-povertyneighborhoods may also be particularly sensitiveto air-quality impacts, as they often have higherlevels of chronic diseases, such as asthma, whichmake them more susceptible to the impacts of airpollution (Houston et al. 2006). These people/groups are often called sensitive receptors.Often, their conditions can be exacerbated byexposure to poor indoor and outdoor air quality.

The issues and examples identified above pointto a significant concern for planners interestedin environmental justice . Environmentaljustice is commonly defined using the EPAsdefinition, which states that, EnvironmentalJustice is the fair treatment and meaningfulinvolvement of all people regardless of race,color, national origin, or income with respect

These suburban homes potentially have poor air quality.



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to the development, implementation, andenforcement of environmental laws, regulations,and policies (EPA 2006c). Put more simply,environmental justice seeks to ensure that noperson is disproportionately burdened with theimpacts of pollution or other environmentalhazards. A study conducted in 1999, for example,examined the socio-demographic characteristics

of people living near industrial sources of airpollution in three different areas in the UnitedStates. This study showed that African Americansand those living in households below the povertyline are more likely to live closer to these sourcesof pollution (Perlin et al. 1999).

Several studies have found that poorcommunities and/or communities of colorare more likely to live near and be exposed toenvironmental hazards, however, findings on

whether it is race alone, class alone or bothfactors that determines these findings have beenmixed (Mohai & Bryant 1991). Additionally, howand to what extent this effects the health of thesecommunities has not been well documentedand is complicated because it is difficult to sortout other compounding factors associated withliving in poverty (e.g. access to healthy foods)that contribute to health issues (Sexton & Adgate1999).

Planning for Air Quality

Considering the information provided above, thissection provides a number of approaches thatcommunities might consider as they attempt toaddress the sources of air pollution and minimizehealth impacts for the general population as wellas sensitive populations and places. This sectiondiscusses both planning and regulatory effortsthat communities might consider.

First, one significant approach that communitiesmight use to address a number of aspects ofair quality, is to include an air-quality elementas part of their comprehensive plans. The SanFrancisco General Plan makes a clear connectionto the health impacts of air quality, noting thatair-quality standards are intended to protect themost sensitive members of the population from

chronic and acute health effects, particularlythe causation or aggravation of chronic cardio-respiratory diseases, including bronchitis,emphysema, asthma and restrictive ventilatorydisease and to protect the population at largefrom adverse, though often transitory, effects,including irritation of eyes and respiratory tract,headaches, chest pains and coughing, unpleasantodors, and impaired visibility (City of SanFrancisco 1996). The air-quality element lists anumber of objectives related to a broad range ofair-quality issues, including:

adherence to state and federal qualitystandards and regional programs,

reduction of mobile sources of air pollutionthrough implementation of the transportationelement of the general plan,

decrease in the air-quality impacts ofdevelopment by coordination of land use andtransportation decisions,

improvement of air quality by increasingpublic awareness regarding the negative

effects of pollutants generated by stationaryand mobile sources, minimization of particulate matter emissions

from road and construction sites, and linkage to the positive effects of energy

conservation and waste management toemissions reductions

Source: City of San Francisco 1996

While sports fields such as this provide importantrecreational opportunities, they are only accessible via car

undermining some their health benefits.



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Each of the objectives includes multiple policiesand also refers to additional relevant objectivesand policies in other elements of the general planincluding transportation, residence, commerceand industry, recreation and open space, andenvironmental protection. The air-qualityelement links to language related to urban-goods

movement in the transportation element, forexample, including the objective to enhanceaccess and circulation between highways,freight facilities and intermodel transfer pointson the waterfront from trucks and other servicevehicles (City of San Francisco 1996). The air-quality element justifies this connection, statingthat these policies will result in improvementof traffic flow and therefore will improve airquality (City of San Francisco 1996).

Fort Collins, Colorado, takes a similar approach.

This city, located about 60 miles (97 km) northof Denver with a population of 128,000, hasestablished an Air Quality Plan. The plan isa stand-alone document, but functions as anadopted element of the comprehensive plan, withsome of its goals and policies represented in theenvironment element (City of Fort Collins 2004).The plan addresses a wide range of air-qualityissues, including such concerns as wood smoke,ozone-depleting compounds (e.g., refrigerants),global warming, tail-pipe emissions, travel-demand management, radon, and secondhandsmoke. In addition to establishing a vision, goals,principles, and policies, the plan includes aunique feature not often seen in comprehensiveor other community plans the plan lists a setof indicators to measure progress in achievingplan policies (City of Fort Collins 2004). For eachindicator, the plan specifies the relevant policyand the intended objective. One example isprovided below:

A.3.4 Commercial and Industrial Emissions

Policy basis: Continually reduce total emissionsof high priority pollutants from commercialand industrial sources in the Fort Collins[Urban Growth Area] UGA, including [carbonmonoxide] CO, fine [particulate matter] PM,air toxins, and VOC.

Objective: Reduce total emissions fromCommerce and Industry

Indicator: Tons/day of CO, PM2.5, air toxics,and VOCs. Source: City of Fort Collins 2004

The current status of the indicator also isprovided, typically showing changes in theindicator or proxy measures using historical data(City of Fort Collins 2004).

Addressing the Impacts of Mobile Sources of

Air Pollution

Planning and plan implementation effortsspecifically tailored to air-quality impacts frommobile sources include two primary approaches:minimizing the impacts created and mitigatingthose impacts that occur. Related to minimizingimpacts, there are numerous strategies intendedto decrease vehicle-related air pollution. Sometry to decrease vehicle miles traveled, such as

transit-oriented development, pedestrian andbike infrastructure, and mixed use development.Planning and policy efforts to support thesestrategies are discussed in Design for HealthsSocial Capital Information Sheet. This section willfocus on additional strategies that communitiesmight use to address air-quality impacts fromautomobiles and other mobile sources. Theseinclude making driving more efficient and lesspolluting. To mitigate impacts when they occur,strategies, such as buffers and landscaping, areoutlined here.

The South Coast Air Quality ManagementDistrict (AQMD), a regional air-managementagency for four counties in the Los Angelesmetropolitan area, provides significant guidancerelated to minimizing air-pollution impacts frommobile sources. In its Guidance Document forAddressing Air Quality Issues in General Plansand Local Planning, the South Coast AQMDsuggests sample goals, objectives and policiesfor inclusion in local plans. Among those goals is

reducing air pollution from mobile sources. Onerelated sample objective, and policies related totransportation, is:

Objective 2.1 Reduce motor vehicle trips andvehicle miles traveled.

AQ 2.1.1 Seek new cooperative relationshipsbetween employers and employees to reducevehicle miles traveled (VMT).


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AQ 2.1.2 Work with large employers andcommercial/industrial complexes to createTransportation Management Associations andto implement trip/VMT reduction strategies.

AQ 2.1.3 Cooperate with surroundingjurisdictions to provide incentives, adoptregulations and develop transportation

demand management programs that reduceand eliminate vehicle trips and VMT.AQ 2.1.4 Collaborate with local transit agencies

to: Establish mass transit mechanisms for the

reduction of work-related and non-workrelated vehicle trips

Promote mass transit ridership throughcareful planning of routes, headways, originsand destinations, and types of vehicles

Source: AQMD 2005

The City of Riverside, California, which lies inthe eastern portion of the South Coast Air Basindiscussed above, has an air-quality elementwithin its general plan. Residents experience thenegative effects of vehicle emissions associatedwith the commuter traffic that passes throughthe city. Riverside works to improve air qualitythrough various strategies that target tripcharacteristics and the green infrastructure ofits community, including: encouraging use ofalternative fuels, improving the communitysurban forest, promoting increased use of publictransit, minimizing public transportationuse, and reducing commuting, travel andvehicle-idling times. The element includes acomprehensive table with pollutant effects,federal and state standards, sources, and itshealth effects (City of Riverside 2005). This tableis presented on the following page.

The plan also includes a historical analysisof national and regional studies followed upby a discussion of the regulatory framework

(Federal Clean Air Act, California Clean AirAct, South Coast QMD), and a series of policyand implementation recommendations. Thiselement is particularly useful since it breaks airquality into issue areas of land use, urban design,circulation, and community mobility.

In addition to addressing mobile sources ofair pollution in local comprehensive plans,

communities can also use a number of planimplementation tools to address air-qualityimpacts. Buffers, landscaping and other designtools, for example, can be used to decreasethe effects of emissions, dust, dirt, and othercontaminants in the air. These tools can helpseparate incompatible uses through screening

and providing materials that absorb or filterpotential pollutants. A landscaping or treeordinance is one option that communities mightconsider. For additional information on tree andlandscaping ordinances, see Design for HealthsMental Health Information Sheet at http://www.designforhealth.net/mentalhealthissue.html.

The Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (TRPA),which regulates development and establishesenvironmental regulations around LakeTahoe, California, takes a different approach

to addressing the air-quality impacts of mobilesources. While many communities requiretraffic impact analyses as part of developmentapplications, TRPA goes a step further by linkingtraffic increases to air-quality impacts. TRPAsCode of Ordinances requires that as part of aproject application for additional or transferreddevelopment, which would result in a significantincrease in daily vehicle trips at the project area,the applicant shall prepare and submit to TRPA,a technically adequate analysis of potential trafficand air-quality impacts (TRPA 2004).

The traffic analysis must include the followingitems:

1. Trip generation rates of the proposed project2. Impacts of the proposed project on the level

of service at any impact intersections3. Impacts of the proposed project on regional

vehicle miles traveled (VMT)4. Impacts of the proposed project on regional

and subregional air quality

5. Ingress and egress characteristics of theproposed project, and their impacts on trafficflow adjacent to the project area

6. Measures necessary to mitigate all traffic andair-quality impacts to a level consistent withthe environmental thresholds, the Goals andPolicies, the Regional Transportation Plan,and the 1992 Air Quality Plan

Source: TRPA 2004


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riverside general plan 2025

The City of Riversides Air Pollutant Table (City of Riverside 2005):


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Regional and cumulative impacts identified inthe traffic and air-quality analysis are required tobe offset through contributions to the air-qualitymitigation fund. The fee schedule requires thefollowing: new residential units ($270/dailyvehicle trip), new tourist-accommodationunits or campground or recreational-vehicle

site ($270/daily vehicle trip), new commercialfloor area ($30/daily vehicle trip), and all otherdevelopment ($30/daily vehicle trip). Mitigationmeasures may be provided in lieu of paymentto the mitigation fund. Optional measures mustequal or exceed the required mitigation paymentand can include construction of transit, bicycleor pedestrian facilities; use of alternative fuels infleet vehicles and transfer or retirement of off-sitedevelopment rights (TRPA 2004).

While not focused on emissions from mobile

sources, another relevant concern is impacts fromtraffic on unpaved or unclean surfaces. Dust,or particulate matter, is a significant concernfor health, as outlined earlier and in Design forHealths Air Quality Key Questions document.The Coachella Valley Association of Governments(CVAG), representing numerous communities insouth central California, including Palm Springs,has developed a draft model dust-controlordinance. The regulations require that, Ownersof public or private unpaved roads with averagedaily traffic levels between 20 and 150 vehiclesmust take measures (signage or speed-controldevices) to reduce vehicular speeds to no morethan 15 miles per hour (CVAG 2003). Ownersof unpaved roads with higher levels of traffic arerequired to pave the road or apply chemical dustsuppressants (CVAG 2003).

Clark County, Nevada, which is home to LasVegas and has had problems meeting air-qualitystandards for particulate matter in the past, hassimilar regulations and also addresses unpaved

parking lots, requiring that they be paved or thatdust palliatives (suppressants) be used (Countyof Clark 2004). Clark County also has standardsfor paved roadways, requiring that the shouldersbe paved or stabilized with dust palliatives.The County also requires that street-sweepingequipment used on paved roadways and parkinglots be PM10-efficient, applying sufficient

moisture to the surface, to minimize dust (Countyof Clark 2004).

Other Air-quality Issues and Sources

As illustrated above, communities can undertakenumerous approaches to addressing mobilesources of pollution. There are a number ofother air-quality issues and sources, however,that concern communities. Stationary and areasources are two areas of concern. Increasingly,however, communities are addressing a widerrange of issues, including carbon dioxide, ozoneand indoor-air quality. Each of these air-qualityissues has potential implications for health andcan be addressed in local plans and ordinances. Anumber of examples are provided below.

Stationary and Area Sources:

As mentioned earlier, the City of Riverside,California, has an air-quality element in itscomprehensive plan. A portion of the elementis focused on stationary sources, specifyingthe following objective: Prevent and reducepollution from stationary sources, includingpoint sources (such as power plants and refineryboilers) and area sources (including smallemission sources such as residential water heatersand architectural coatings). It recommendsstrategies, such as assisting small businesses bydeveloping training programs related to clean,

innovative technologies to reduce air pollution(e.g., wet cleaning or CO2 cleaning in lieu ofperchloroethylene), and providing incentives tothose businesses that use clean-air technologies.

The comprehensive plan also recommends thatcommunities map their sources of toxic-aircontaminants (TACs) through various computerprograms. CARB, for example, has an Internet-based mapping tool that allows local planners toview maps showing the locations of air-pollution

sources. The plan also recommends that land-use/zoning maps be utilized to identify thelocation of facilities and transit corridors that arepotential sources of TACs and the locations ofsensitive receptors (City of Riverside 2005).


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Central city areas are ideal locations for biking and walking but also have much traffic exposing those on bikes and on footto polluted air. These examples are from Stockholm, Sweden

One area source that communities are oftenconcerned about is dry-cleaning businesses. Asdiscussed in the Air Quality Key Questions, thereare significant air-quality and health concernsassociated with these facilities. There are avariety of approaches that zoning ordinancestake to help deal with this particular issue. The

Department of Environmental Protection for theState of Maine, for example, passed a dry-cleanerordinance that all communities in Maine mustuse, entitle the Perchloroethylene Dry CleanerRegulation (EPA 2006d). The ordinance includesemission limitations, performance standards,control-technology requirements for new sources,and compliance methods and monitoringrequirements.

Ozone:As described earlier, ozone is not a pollutant in

itself, but is created through the interaction ofother pollutants, particularly under warm, calmweather conditions. There are a number of effortsthat communities can take to address ozoneproduction and its impacts. The SacramentoMetropolitan AQMD, currently a non-attainmentarea for ozone, has developed three modelordinances intended to help the region attain theNAAQS for ozone. Each of the model ordinancesincludes a different purpose statement, but thereis some consistent language related to linking airpollution, ozone and public health. The modelordinance states:

Air pollution is a major public-health concern inCalifornia. The Sacramento Region is currentlydesignated as non-attainment for the one-hourFederal ozone standard, as well as the morestringent State ozone standard. Air pollution cancause or aggravate lung illnesses, such as acuterespiratory infections, asthma, chronic bronchitis,

emphysema, and lung cancer. In addition tohealth impacts, air pollution imposes significanteconomic costs and negative impacts on ourquality of life (Sacramento Metropolitan AQMD2003).

The AQMDs first model ordinance related toidling vehicles, including all diesel vehicles,heavy-duty vehicles and off-road equipment. Inlight of studies showing the relationship betweenair pollution and fuel use from idling vehicles, theordinance requires that vehicles and equipment

not be allowed to idle for more than five minutesand cannot operate within 1000 ft (304 m) of aschool or residential area, unless the cargo willbe unloaded within 30 minutes (SacramentoMetropolitan AQMD 2003).

A second model ordinance considers greencontracting, which empowers communitiesto encourage their contractors to operate low-emission vehicles and equipment, and promoteride-sharing programs. The ordinance callsfor use or modification of a point system in

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contracting that assigns additional points tocontractors that use low-emission vehicles andequipment, and facilitate ride-sharing programs,including membership in a transportation-management association and achieving a 20percent employee alternative-commute modeshift (Sacramento Metropolitan AQMD 2004a).

The third model ordinance addresses low-emission vehicles in government fleets,facilitating the establishment of a Low-EmissionVehicle and Fleet Program. The program isintended to develop a plan for the acquisitionof low-emission vehicles by all departments,installation of retrofit devices on existing vehicles,staff training for the use of new and retrofittedvehicles, and development of a maintenance plan(Sacramento Metropolitan AQMD 2004b).

Indoor-air Quality:

Another element that planners tend to pay lessattention to is indoor-air quality, particularlysince many do not see the relationship betweenthe built environment and indoor-air quality.The City of Portland, Oregon, has taken adifferent stance and, in 2002, it released GreeningPortlands Affordable Housing, which createdpolicies designed to improve indoor-air qualityfor housing projects that use City money. Thethree keys to healthier indoor air are (2002):eliminating or reducing sources of pollution,providing fresh air ventilation and filtering the airto remove fine particulates. This manual targetsaffordable-housing developers, designers andbuilders with information about local products,building materials, construction practices,vendors, and services needed to successfullyexecute a green project. Goals relevant to airquality in this context include the reduction ofbuilding footprints, support for transportationalternatives and implementation of maintenance

and operational practices that reduce or eliminateharmful effects on people and the naturalenvironment. The plan lists a series of thresholds,including specifying solvent-free, no-VOC(volatile organic compound) or low-VOC (below50 g/liter) paints and primers and properlyventilating the building prior to occupancy (Cityof Portland 2002).

Specialized Populations and Places

As with other aspects of health, there arespecialized populations and places that are moresusceptible to certain negative health outcomes;these include: children, people with asthma,pregnant women, the elderly, those living in

poverty and/or minority neighborhoods, schools,playgrounds, long-term health care facilities,rehabilitation centers, hospitals, retirementhomes, rehabilitation centers (South CoastAQMD 2005, 26). These specialized populationsare often referred to as sensitive receptors andgiven special consideration when planning forthe built environment. This section outlinesoptions that communities might consider inaddressing the impacts of sensitive populationsand places in their community.

One plan that formally addresses specializedpopulations and places is the City of Riverside,California, located on the fast-growing westernedge of the Los Angeles region. The RiversideGeneral Plan 2025 includes an air-quality elementin its comprehensive plan. It includes many ofthe features identified in the previously discussedexamples, but this plan goes a bit further inaddressing the health impacts of air pollution onparticular populations and in certain locations. Ina manner atypical of local comprehensive plans,the element makes this link through a discussionof key studies, citing relevant research.

The air-quality element cites specific studiespointing to concerns about impacts on pregnantwomen and young children, including those withasthma. The element also highlights research thatpoints to air-quality concerns for those attendingschools and living near freeways, and areaswith high traffic, including truck traffic (City ofRiverside 2005).


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Design for Health

References

Barr, M. R. 2004. Introduction to the Clean AirAct: History, perspective, and direction forthe future. The clean air handbook. Robert J.Martineau, Jr., and David P. Novello (eds.).Chicago: American Bar Association.

California Air Resources Board (CARBa). 2005.Ozone and health. ftp://ftp.arb.ca.gov/carbis/research/aaqs/caaqs/ozone/ozone6.pdf.

California Air Resources Board (CARBb).2005. Air Quality and Land Use Handbook: ACommunity Health Perspective. http://www.arb.ca.gov/ch/handbook.pdf

City of Fort Collins, Colorado. 2004. Air qualityplan. http://fcgov.com/airqualityplan/pdf/

airqualityplan.pdf.

City of Portland, Oregon. 2002. GreeningPortlands affordable housing. http://www.portlandonline.com/shared/cfm/image.cfm?id=122094.

City of Riverside, California. 2005. Riversidegeneral plan 2025. http://www.riversideca.gov/planning/genplan2025-document-title.htm.

City of San Francisco, California. 1996. SanFrancisco general plan. http://www.sfgov.org/site/planning_index.asp?id=41423.

Coachella Valley Area Governments (CVAG).2003. Draft Coachella Valley model dust controlordinance. http://www.cvag.org/depts/CV_DCO.pdf.

Cook, T. F. 1991. Indoor air pollutants: A literaturereview. Reviews of Environmental Health. 9 (3):137-600.

County of Clark, Nevada. 2004. Air qualityregulations. http://www.accessclarkcounty.com/daqem/aq/regs/regs.html.

Finkelstein, M. M., M. Jerrett and M. R. Sears.2005. Environmental inequality and circulatorydisease mortality gradients.Journal ofEpidemiology and Community Health. 59: 481-7.

Frumkin, H., L. Frank, and R. Jackson. 2004.Urban sprawl and public health: Design,

planning, and building for health communities.Washington, DC: Island Press.

Handy, S.L. 2005. Smart growth andtransporation - land use connedction: what doesresearch tell us? International Regional ScienceReview. 28 (2):1-22.

Hitchins, J., L. Morawska, R. Wolff, and D.Gilbert. 2000. Concentrations of submicrometreparticles from vehicle emissions near a majorroad. Atmospheric Environment. 34 (1): 51-9.

Houston, D., J. Wu, P. Ong, and A. Winer. 2006.Down to the meter: Localized vehicle pollutionmatters. Access. 29: 22-7.

Khan, F. I., and S. A. Abbasi. 2000. Attenuation ofgaseous pollutants by greenbelts. EnvironmentalMonitoring and Assessment. 64: 457-75.

Litt, J. S., and T. A. Burke. 2002. Uncoveringthe historic environmental hazards of urbanbrownfields.Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin ofthe New York Academy of Medicine. 79 (4): 464-81.

Mohai, P., B. Bryant. 1991/2. Race, Poverty& the Distribution of Envrionemntal Hazards:Reviewing the Evidence. Race, Poverty & theEnvironment. 11 (3&4):24-26.

Perlin, A., K. Sexton and D. Wong. 1999. Anexamination of race and poverty for populationsliving near industrial sources of air pollution.

Journal of Exposure Analysis and EnvironmentalEpidemiology. 9: 29-48.

Reitze, Arnold W., Jr. 2001. Air pollution controllaw: Compliance and enforcement. Washington,DC: Environmental Law Institute.


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