M<tbod> for E>1'''''U~ Riok of (.1l<aucal I.jury. Hum.aD .0<1 NOD·b...." 8_ .0<1 Ew>y.......£do",""" \' B, v""t, 0 C euUer.D 0 Ho<l.o<I 0 e, P<.UllC 19S1 SCOPl:

Evaluation of Tests to Predict ChemicalInjury to Ecosystems: Microcosms

John W. HlIckabee

ABSTRACT

Prolocols for testing ...nob'Ohc chcmlCal' "'leased Into the environm.m areneeded 10 a5SeSlthe potemial hannfuleffttts lhe)" ma)" ha.,'e on non-human biolaand ttO$)"1ttms. E'is\lng protocols are orten too <implisuc for extrapolalion or100 complex for a...ly<is, MICrocosms rna)" coostilule a useful protocol forlesung chem;cals because lhe)" <tnke a balance he""'een theoe ''"'0 exlrem... Amicrocosm is an .'perim'Dlal pr.paration rangIng In complexlt)" along acon"nuum hetween bi........y scal. and fi.1d plot ""ale The poinl OD lh.continuum ",h.re a mICrOCOSm pr.paralioD lies d.pend. upon the hypolhesis orquestion helng add"'ssed. The current slatu. of microcosm methodolog)' is 10ftux. bUl a number of ideas are em.rging On "hlch mo51 ,",orkel'$ are inagreemen" lh. m.lhod " holi"lC: th. method should nol he .mployed aloDe. but,-alher 10 conju""tion "'ith appropriate malh.matical models and validali"nexpenmenu; tbere is an in.'.,..., relationsbip bet"...n realism (complexily) andpr«ision (r.plicability) in microcosm performa""•. No Consensus },., eXlslSconcerning tbe follo"'ing aspects of microcosms: r.p.....ntativ.nes•• i.e" theexlenl 10 "hicb results un be e"rapolaled (and ,heref"re the ",lue "fmicrocosms in ""reenlng prolo<o!»: slandardiulion ofdeslln; and appbUI:HllI)'of .}'nthetic (gnOIObt011C) microco>nU.

I ISTRODllCTION

Tbe need 10 de,-elop protocols for tbe evalua'ion of cbemlcals released into Ibe."'Conmenl by mining. manufacturinl and other industry'. and by go.-.m·mentalactivilies becomesdear by merely conSldenng tbe" number: at least 1000nev,ly s}'mhesized cbemical compound. appear e'-ery year It is obviou. that thepotenual for ecol"gical and human health impairm.nl is larF. and Ihat Iheresour= needed 10 adequatel)' choncterize a111b"'" subslances a", formidable.An efficienl means for copmg "'lth Ibis problem is "idel)' l<>u&!il. and Ihemicrocosm technique has been suUesled as one possible l00L

'"

Toxicology, lh~ .11><1) of lwmf~l ~lf~m of chemica\~ on life, i~ a~ old asakh~my, bUl ~n.'ironm~ntallo.icolo&j' (callwth,s for lack ofa bell~r nam.) i' a.recent as~logj' i' is s,ill in it, infanC} Th. fOSpon.. oforganISm' 10 ..noblOlicchemical. in cla..icallabora,ory prepara,ion, (for .xampl., a fisb in a lank) mayporhaps al"',,)'s diff~r from lhe respon.. of lhe sam. orpnlsm "pos«Ilo lhesam. COnct'n,rallon of ,he .hemlCal in ilS .n.'ironment To assess .n,'ironm.nlal.ffeclS, ....hich ,ubsum. 10x1C010&lCal .ffocl' of ••nobIO';c ch.micals. an .xper·im.nlal,.'t sj'...m beyond laborato'}' scale i' r.quired.

11 " no", appa..nl tbat ,h....ul« of tmln) laboTa'or}-scal••xpenm.n"_includmg C"alua\lon of 'oxici'y, of,.n di'crge from the fOsulls of fi.ld·scal•••poriments dosignWlo in'-.slipl' lhe sam. pb.nom.non, Romen!'. (1911)..suits suUesled 'ha' lh. "Zn rolcn,ion_,ime b}' laboralory O)'st." diff.redfrom lhal of oy"'" in lheir na'ural habltal. Till" ai. (1979) pr...nlwe.'idencelhal ''Tc did not beha,'. In the naluralen,ironm.nl a, laboralo'}' <ludi.. ",'ilhpolled plan.. 'UUe"w, Expenm.nl' b) Hoffman., 111. (1982) sho.....d lhalplants exposed under field .ondiuon. indeed aet:umulated far I... -T.,han lhelabora'or}-"",le expenmeots had sho""n Many otber exam pl., of such meon_sisIC""ies Can be ferre'ed Out of lhe e",'ltonmenlallilerature

Should we SUSpecl lhal labora'o'}'·"",le ••penm.n" a" Inappropna'. for~n,'ironmcnlal toxicology and 'hal 'ru,h lies mostl}' ,n fi.ld ""inS? II is lhe\I.-ide,prew impact of pollu'ion, includinSlhe concomilanll.gi.lation dC''Cloped10 cope Wilh 'I, lhal has produced a need for ,h. lel"ng ofcbemical .fflu.nts a,fi.ld-scale (i" , lhe "'ale of nalur.), Single-.pecie, laboralory l...inll (blo,,,,ay)simply cannot be quantiuui,'CI)' ~'Irapola,ed to .ffec" of tb. ,ubs...""" orsubslances in queslion in lhe ecOi)'stem, In addition '0 ,h~ plelhora of second·orMr and lo....~r .lfec.. alonglheconcal<na,ion, Oflh. food .....b. an e'.-en mO'"prapnalic mall~r ma)' obscure lh~ sisnifica~ oflhe mul'" stocks oforgani.msadap'ed '0 lhe laborator} rna)' respond 10 xenob'otics SO diffe",ntl}' from WIld(nalural) slocks that the ",.ul" of lei" ",ilh laboralory stocks may bemeaningl...

AhhouSh lhe need for field-scale ..stmg «<ms to be w.1I accepled b)' bolhapplied and lh,ofOlK:al ecololli<ls, the difficulli~, of fi.ld-scale leiling a",formidable R"ul15 are oflen complicalw by SO m~ny unmea,ured rel~tion,h,p'

thal conclu,ion' of onl~ lhe gr"..." and .implest na'ure can be drawn, P~flutp'

the mosl pe,,'asi"e Impedlm~nt '0 'he condU(:, of proper field ilud'ei, bo""" er> iscost.

Tb,s is lhe dilemma of the en'ironmenta.1 to.ti<:olog.." lbe experimentalparadrpns av..labl. for lh. in'''ligalion of ,h. beba"iour and effects of••nobiotlC chemicals ..~ ~nh~r '00 "mpliStic or '00 compl.~ (and cosily). ThemICrocosm lhe"'fofO appeared 10 be an 'deal method for c<:o'o~lCology.

Ther. ha"e been SO man}' dmm\lOn5 of 'mICrocosm' lhal il could be 'UU"IW'ba' th< idea n..lf IS 100 fllZZ~ 10 be of vllue ,n sciemifically nsoToa,expenmemation, ThIs is und''''llIndabl., InasmU<:b a, man) diClionaoo.

£t'al""ricn of Tms Ia Pm/ier Cltemical Injury 1<> u<>syste1fl4 639

ordinanJ) ,he final ubiter in .""h Irullle.., off., a confusmll mIxture ofmeamngsand nuances frem one "olume to another. MM' ,",,,,ken, howe,'.r, soom '0 seize,h. common thread of rhe concept of 'li,tl. ,",orld', a mlniarur•• and in this sense.a model. net comaining all Iheelemem, of'he "hole, and '0 reah>;e thatth. t.rms'microc",m' and 'macroco,m' are not rhe antIpodes of an epistemologlCltl.phere, All"In. nOl aU dK:1I0nan.. "ill help mtx:h he,., u~pt ro provide an Id.a'ha' 'mac,ocosm' refen; to a un"el'$O (,n this case, an OCOS)'Slem) and i..hus no, I

larlle mierOCMm. ClarificatIon oft.rminol"l)' is required ifrhe concop" a,. '" hec1eu For inSlanee, ,he n.ololli,m 'mO$OCo,m' has recen,l) en'erW ,he ,'erna­cular, p....umobly as a s)non)m for 'medium m>crocosm' HO"""Of, 'llI>Cfo­cosm' i. quite .ufficlent; all ,ha, is required to he a mlCTocosm i' to he a mode\;that I$. (rtdur'i<> ad abswilum) min'" a, bst one: .Iemen, of the ,,'hell:(uni".....). The poinl ..ill he made helo.. 'ha' Ih. dOSllln of a mK:roc",m.xperlment should folio" from the h)po,hesis '0 be t.,led, or a' least "j,h.pecific objec'i"., in mind; Ih. 5ize of experimenlal preparation rm~m')should nOl be presele<led and ,h••xpenm.nt d""llned accordinlll), Theconcop'",,1 problem i. r.sol,ed "'hen one ""nsid.n "ha' .hould be, but often "nOt, obVlous: ,here is a continuum of .xperimental paradliJ'\' from ,he Slmple«posslbl. bench scale to ,h. mOS' complex fi.ld scale (Goldstein, penonalcommunication). The choice of'he paradliJ'\-'h. POlO' on 'he con'inuum--is afu""'ion of ,he ques,ion (hypo'hesi,) heinll asked,

A microc:osm, in the prcsen, sense, is an upenmen,al p'eparallon ranll,nll,ncomplexit) be' ..""n labora,o,y bench scale and fi.ld scal. Th. specific desiJII ofa m>crocosm, 'ha' IS, ,he .ubse, of ,h. ecosystem that" to be modelled and tested,"ill be determln.d b) Ih. framinll of th. hypoth••i. '0 be ..".d.

11 follow. lhal ,he choice of sale a, "hich one d""gR' a microcosm i. a 'rade·offbet"'""n ,implicit)', ,h.refore replicability; and complexit), ,h.refore realism,Mos' ofth. hterature seems to allr"" Ihatth. pi"otal IiSue In ,he d"illn and lISt: ofIhe mief"",,,,m 'e<hniqu. i'lhe qucslion of ,he sale of'he subset ofan cco'y".mo"er "hich on. can moin'ain .xperimen'al precision and .,ill den"e useful.reahsti<; ,nformatlon.

Z CURRENT STATUS OF MICROCOS.\l RESEARCH

To ..",ew Ih. field of microcosm resear<:h is '0 re,'ie,,' ,he ..'ork in ccos)'''.m'hco])', ecolOllY, IimnclollY, microb,olol!Y, 10,1 SCI'nee, phy.ical and b,o­chemiS/])'. ,o,icolog,v;" becomes pomtl.... IO .nume.... funher. Clearl), ,h.mIcrocosm technique has appealed 10 a la,ge segment ofem·ltonmcnl\ll sciencecommuni'Y· It .. ,h. purpose oflhi. discussion 10 ..plote lhe commollllliu.. ofthe Io<:hniqo. lt5 applied by th. "ariou, di""plll'cs, ra'her 'han '0 p.....nt adiscussion or,ndivldual r"ult. or an .xhllusu," litera'ure ,C\'ie..·.

Th~re ha"e be~n ,ncr.1 rtttnt documems slCmmmll from lla,herini' ofrcsear<:hefl, "'ho use microcosm ,ochnique:>, a, "hich ,he 'tal.-of·lh.-art .....s

assesse<:!, The "ariOIl$ ....of~sbops and symposia lIa\'e bUIll upon one another, andtbe allendccs and aUlbors ov...rlap considerably. Thero ....as perbaps an 'l'>e\1lab1eredundancy, bUI a clea' prog........as evidenl as ,ur:ceedlng mults werepresemed, It is nOl lhe purpoK bero to diKus> and crilique lbe microcoomlil<ralure, but 10 auemp' 10 di'hl from lbe mO<l moenl work a wmh<''' of aw'orking ltwory and methodology of microcoom e~perimentalion 'ha' can beuseful for ecot<l~i<:ol<ln

Gillett and Wilt (1979) pr""nled 'he mullS <If a "'orbhop conv-ened as a pan<If a ,ymposium in 1977 (Win" 01.. 1979) to ..'alnale lhe use of lermtrialmicrOC<lsms, p"","nl and futuro. f", t"ling chemIcals In the envi'<lnment, Asecond s}'mposium "'as held in 1978toconsider tbe broad 10pic of microcosms inecological "","arch (Gi"y, 1980), Se'eral workshops "'ero held on the topic'Methods for Ecolollical Toxic<ll<lgy' and Ihe resulls c<lmpiled io a report(Hammons. 1981), A SImilar compilalion (",thoul "'orbhops). "T"ting forEffects of Chemical, on Ecooystems', was ediled by Cairns (1981). Finally, a"'o.kshop, 'New Perspc<:liv'es in Ecoto~;coloB}", considered toxicology in ane«05)"lems cootexl (L.,in, in preparalion). Althouih a few coolributors ,,'erecommon to alllh"" effons, lhe total numbe' ofcontribulors wa, Wo...ral SCoro.The objeclives of each documenl are some" hal different, but lbere are sev'eralpoints ofagreemem common to all seven. and no major di,"-grecmenl aooutlheuse <If microce»ms In ec<ltoJticology.

2.1 Mkro<osms: D.fin;tio.s ud Pr;aeipl...

The symposium 'Microcosms in Ecological Research', held in 1978, i' lhe secondofthetwo principal rompilali<lns ofmicrocoom research pertlnenlt<l tbe presenleffort. Atth<luslt tbere is no s}'mhesis pape" tbere are 52 papers discussingmICrocosm Itwory, aqualic mIC'OC05mS <If sev'eral types, and term'rial micro·cosms.

In the editorial pref""", Giesy (l980) a........ the field from his o"'npenpcctiv..., Accordmg to Giesy, the firsl pnOClple of mic'OC05m ~sigo is 10 bea""re Ihat the technique is holislIC, Tn.t ", one ,hould deSJgn 'from lhe topd<lwn', ,,'o,lang oUltbe hierarchial slruclure and mainlaimng lhe mtegnlY <Ifclosely relaled prOCCSIe1. The opposIte melhod, 10 be av'oided, "'ould be 10

include in a single conlained experimentsever.l componems not d<lsely relatedin a natural ecosystem, Th" idea d<>es seem 1<1 be reftected In mosl of lbesj'mposium papers and therefore represenls a comensus opinion about h<lw t<lconduct ecological "","arch in mICrocOSmS,

MicrOC05msare models. 'ronctptual and operallooal bridges' as G,esj (1980)puts it, bel"''''''' tbe SImplicity of tbe laboralOf)' test and lhe comple..ly <If lhenalural ecosyStem, As models, microcosms should nol be emplo}'ed alone; lhalis. appropriate 'alidal;on v...nficalion e~penmenlS in la'oo""<lry <lr field, and aoappropriale mathematical model are, in some combinalion, required before the

E,'a].."IWn of TnlJ 10 Pmlkl Cltemi~ol In)lU)' 10 E~o.ySltm.< 641

mults ofa mlCrocosm study can be a<X:uratoly asl<:SS«j In ,~rms of~xperimentalprecision and realism,

Lcflk' (1980), followIng Cas"'e!! (1976), disllnlUishes bet,,·..n models (in ,hIScase microcosms) that predICt and mo&l. that explain. The laner. heuri'ticmodds, ar~ tbemsel"es of two classes: exploratory, Of inducti'-e, and h)'pothesl'_testing. or deducti"e, The lim class, indUCti"e, can pro,'ide data needed to design,peclfIC 0' deducti,.. ~xperimen" (tbe ,"",ond class) ,,-hich ,,-ill provide C<H>elu­sions of a qu.antnative natu~, directl)· applicable to the natural ""os)'''em,

The fact that microcosm' are physical models renders classllkation schemesun"·ieldy. and the difficul')- of reprtSenting lhe technIque In such a mannerfollOWS from 'he differences ,n lhe ecosyslem processeo thatlhe microcosm areMsigned 10 lest For example, ,t can be u..fullO comrasl microcosms as large OTsmall, aqualIC (lotic, lent"', OT marinel or .ermlrial, open or closed, anilkial ornalural, inductive or deducti,.., and on and on

Classificat'on of microcosm., .hen, should be lhough' ofas a Convemence andno' a descrlp,or oflhe paradIgm, I. ,.apparentlhal .."eral oflhe classifiers couldapply '0 one paradigm, e.g.. larae clo..d natural 10'IC dedUCti,'~ mICTocosmStructural relationships (biomass diotribu.ion •• air rna.. trajectories, for ..am­ple) are nOt amenable [0 m>erocosm preparalions_ FunctIonal ...Iation.h,ps(rates. fates. dynamics, for eumple) are amenable. and it is thus al.he process100'el tbal models of subsc" of <cosy'stems can be buill for the testing ofCCO$)'Slem-level hypolheses_

Inasmuch as microcosm' a ... model' of .pecific ",,'''y'stems, il i. difficult toapply .he mullS of a ai'-en m,CrocOSm ..perimem '0 o'her ecos)'Stems_ Th,ssuUesls lhal lhe u.. of microcosms for screcnmg purpolCS IS quile limited. Oneappr();llch to circum,..m tbis problem is the construclion ofanillcial Of syntheticmICrocosms. The syn,he'IC lfor lack of a bell~r word) mtCrocoSm technique waspioneered by Metcalf and hi. associates (1971a,b), and by Taub as reported inTauband Crow(l980) and Taubel 01. (1980)_ The u.. ofsy'nlhelic componemsto put togetber a microcosm (also called a gnOlob,Olic mICrOCOSm) has theobvious advanta~ of p'o'idinS bener statistical replicabilny. Immediatelyapparenl is tbe question of reali'm and the ",olalton of tbe pnoclple of 'topdown' ecosystem subset model ins,

Adequa'~ ,eplicability of microcosm preparations "'itb natural ralher thansymhetic components has been d~monstraled, cven lhough 'he "anabtlity ofmicrocosm expenmenlS is a function of lhe complexity of lhe design, StudieslCSunSlhe experimenlal "aliabihty of microcosms ha,.. tncluded.he establish­ment of duplicate expenmenlS (Huckabee and Blaylock. 1974) and the abiltty ofaqua,IC mlC,ocosm, to 'track' or follow lhe process un"", consiM"llon in tbenatural environm.nl (PII<¢n e' 01" 1979),

Three experimenls with duplicalC mic'ocosms were condll<:ted to te" lheability of excised stream-bank microcosms to indicate .he dlSlnbution ofcadmium, me...ul)". and ..Iulum In ocosj'St.m companmenlS over a 6-monlh

642 M~lhodl /0' £j'Im<'''ng RiJk 0/ Clwmi<,,1 Inju,y

penod. The' anablllt) ofeach cxpenrnem "'as determined by d..trocli.-e mass­halanct: expres>ed as lhe percenlage of rad,oi$OIOpe of lhe element in queslionrelalned in each ..:os)"stem comparlment The percentagedislribution ofbolh Cdand Hg in lhe major compartmenls ($Oil, >edllnenl•. walC, and Ulnk line,) "'"ali

found 10 "a,) b} 1m than 12\ In the 1"'0 duplicate preparations bUl lhenuxlmum ",,,,ahility in thc t..o S< expenmCnts was only 3 ~~. The$< results 'ho""lhal rates and roules of Cd, Hg and S. lran'pan (and by impllcalion of olhermClals a. wcll) ,n duplicalc microeo<m P"PR,allons art Constanl enough 10pro"ide a '·alu.able assessment tool,

Pill.on ~I 01, (l919) .howtd Ihal mannC mICrOCoSmS could be made 10 >'eryd05CI)' simulalc certain biologt<al and ch.mical condItions in an adjacent bay.Th)' found llull chlorophyll... COnttntrll;on in lhe ,,'at.r of nine microeo<mpreparation, o.-er the cou,se of the lest Wert as "mllar 10 on. anolher a. lhey",cre 10 Ihe source walcr from Nan-agan$<tl Ba)', Allhough complex multi''llnatestatislical analy,is "';U essential in interpreling the resuhs, Pilson n 01, (1979)conduded lhal Ihc mICrocosms "'." of 1o,," cnough ,"anabilllY 10 p,o,;dca<!equal. tools for ecological and bloch.mical experim.nts. Ho"'C'·e,. lhere is noo p,iwi rcason ",hy • h)'polh<-sIS could nOl be pose<:Ilhal ",ould be of":O$)'1temrcle"at><:e and llull could be t..led in a ,ynlhClic 'ystem. Th. di"inclion belweena bioassay and ...mple mlCroc",m IS herc...,n 10 blur.

Are mIC'OCoSmS. synlhelic or nalural. sUllable models for Ihe rOulInc",r..nmi of pol.nlially toxic chemicals? ProNbly nOl, alleasl nol YCI, lhe1c'dof compl.xil)' of lhe simple't mlCroco,m IS more than needed for a 'ye,' or 'no'ans",e, 10 thc que<lion of polen11al for Iulnn and lhus of lhe need for more,pecific ."aluation. An approprial. gen.nc malh.matlCal process mod.1. wilhbolh biogeochemical and loxi<:olollical module<. "ould help identIfy the bc<1paradi"". Such a gen.ric model would ser"e ;u an organizer for lhe appropriater.search, much of "hich could be od••lly accomplished ""h Sllc'Speclficmic'oeo<m prcparallOuS, Th mod<1hng of biogeochemlslry IS sufficlcotly.d\'llnccd lbat slICh modul.. arc already allulnd. Ho""."e,. adcqu.al. tn.ri<:o.l"ilcal models ar. no1 yel a"ailabl., NC".rth.I.... approprial. biogeoch.mical\'lInables (for .....mpl•. "'llter qu.anlity, wil properlie<. uplake ra1e•. residC'nct:tImes. d.puralion ral.'.•tc.) for loxicologicallesllng can be oblaintd cutTCDlly.

An i..u. dosely rdated to SCrttnlni in m",wcosm desill" is "andardizalionHarte tl aJ, (1980) daim Ih. 'landardization of certaIn design and operallonalprocedures would pro\1dc systems that rcpl>:alc "'cll and beh"'e morC likeulurll systems, On lhe Olher hand, Giddinp (1980) ariues agalns, <landardiz·alion because '.ach 5C1.nllSl cr.al.s hIS own .~pen"",nlaIIOOls In a processinwl"ing car.ful r..>oning. mlunion. and <X:Casional lups of fallh',

Th lac~ of agreem.nt on Ihese ,"'Ues IS apparent in contradictions beN'ccnse'..ral aUlho" in Giesy (1980) who claim .It<malcl) lhat mIcrocosms are usefulor not uscful for 10X>:lty "'1$. useful or nol useful fo' .ssesSlng fate ofchemicals.•hould 0' 5hould not be u>ed 10 predlCl ..:os)'s..m 'esponsc 10 chem",al., I PJ'<'f<t

Et'olU<Jlicn of Trsrs 10 Predkl Chemical /njWTf 10 Eeosyslmu 643

not to list ,pecific reference' here so as to a"aid unmtended im'idlOUSoompan$On,

2.2 i\!le.oros"" la Proell..

Gillell and Wilt (1980) discu.. six primar)' terrestrial microeosm wpes:

(1) ph~·..cal model ecosystem (here used more rcstrieti"el~' than the mOre",dus,,'e definition of 'phy,ical moden.

(2) terrestrial micrOOO$m chamber,0) plant-soil~"'atermicroeosm.(4) soil e<>'" microcosm. and(5) soil e<:os)'Slem rcsl"fometor

These t)"J'e$ have rettlved most auention because re,ults obtained with them. ordose ,'ananlS of them. hav'e been published as repons 10 the tOl'hmcal literature(for reference. see G,Uell and W,U, 1980).

Gillen and Will (1980) offer a coDCise enumeralion of the advantages anddis.adv"ntaSes of microcosm tOl'hnlqUO$ O,'er bioa... )'s and fidd tests.

2.],1 Am'anr••

'I. MicrOOO$ms can demonstrate ;ntera<\Ions "ithoul mk to larger sys·tems, such a, b,omes or popula"ons.

2, Microcosms provide indexes of temporal and spallal distribulion lhalsuuest when: and "'hat to look for reprding fate and effect' ofchemicals in the natural eD\1ronmenl,

3. Microcosm ,)'stems are practical and COSt effOl'l!ve f"r eumIDln!:hundreds or thousand' of chemicals.

4 Microcosm' provide an intermediate Slep in "erifying the predietiv'eprocess from ,imple laboratory tests to what mIght be expected in thecomplexities of the field,

S. If a comparative approach is used among Chemicals. conditions andt)'''"' of syst<m', mlCfOCOSms may perm" .....lualion of effOl'IS incompl<x s)'Stems al an earl)' $lage of in"estigat;on, asain increasingpredictability of the scfttllina proce>$.

6. Microcosm tOl'hnololY leads 10 a fundamental a~l)'sis of processes andproblems. givins a broader perspecliv'e to interact,,,ns and potentialeffOl''' "f cla.... of ch<mlCals "n .)'Ste"" and providing a benerundemanding of system relation,hlps.

7. Microcosms prO\'ldt informallon that is more useful, or more din:<:ll)applicable. to IUld. "safo" manufaclunnS. use and dISposal practicesthan do laboralory tes" alone.'

1.1.1 DiJildrilllr~fJ

'1. /¥licrocoslf\$ are nOl self-luSUlinma and are too shon·hed to de·mon'lral. a number ofocoloplysi$1ldkanl pro<:eW':l. such II natural.u=ion or oth.r muhigen.ralion-multi,pecl" ph.nomena,

2, Simple propeni.. are n>OSl readily m.asored in 1... complex 'yst'lf\$;how.'·....imple Iystems provide aoo<l prediclion only to lhoe exlentlhal"'. rocognlZe how l!lese prOperhe, Inte"",. In ecosysleml.

3, NOI allsianificam proo:essos of a aiv.n .nvironmenl or ""osy".m can beilKll>ded in a panicolar microcosm.

4. Biolop:..l effects and chemi<:al disposition can be indicaled only in arelati'" sense m mlcrocolms; ... do nol know how att\IflItely these are..8e<:ted in oc:atioa from the field 0' biome 10 th. microcosm.

5. A m."ocosm 'Y'llem " only II osefolll lhe hypo,h"l$ lhal ,he 'YSlem1'''0: it i' limIted by lhe ",lidily of lI.omption, and the sum of theprecision of leehnlqo.. osed 10 t..l ns operahna hypolhesis,'(Reproduced by permi..ion of the US Depanmenl of Energy)

Gillett and Win (1980) single 001 poim 6," abo,.. for empha.i" lheimporlance of designmg microo:osm .xpenmenl$ based upon a specific hypoth_.... aboul loxicant chemodynamics and ocosy".m r..ponse

Sev.ral k.y proo::esse> or """,,)'st.m ch.modynamics w dl"''''sed by G,llenand Will (1980) as raClors '0 he consid.red in ,h. r ming of hypothesesamenable to lhoe microcosm l""hniqo., ThO)' caulion tbat lran'pon ofchemical.in microcosm preparations soffers from dtflicuhies r.laled to oc:ale (soil d.plh, airftow. temperatore ,>"le.)

TransformatIon rUClions of ch.micals In microo:oslf\$ are consid.red byGilleu and Witt (1980) 10 be among ,h. proce>oes more amenable 10 stud)' inmicrocosm pr.para'ions, Th. on. drawback is lh. apparenl lack of reali.m mphOlOlytic reacllons in m;eroc",ms,

Bioacromolalion i' on. of ,he .lronger ind,cators of po'emial for ..:ologtealharm by a ch.mical. and G,llen ar>d Will (1980) claIm tbat in ,pite oflbe reponedinsensitivily of ,errest";al mlCTOCoon< lO b,oaccomulatlQO pr~. certain soilparamel.... can provide an a""ural• .,lIma,. of bioconcemration

Whelhe, or no, a chemical causes d.tnmenUlI blolopcaJ .ffeelS i' the mainreason for concern about Ch.mICals In Ihe en,ironm.nt, and il foliow, lhalmicrocosms. if lhel' a.. lO be of value 10 lh. a....'m.ol ofcb.mical injury lo lheenvironment, must be useful for .lodies of eff""',, Ho"'.....r, lhis a..umplioncarri., a heavy load of o'·.rsimplifi<:alion, MICrocosm prepara'ions m''lUlblyd"'.rg. in 'ime from ,h• ..:o'ys,.m lh.y r.p....nt. Therefor•• lbe informalion lobe gained. if .nvironm.nt.aliy relevant. mUSI be plhered in days or ",ed,..perhaps a f"" monlhs, at best. Microcosm. a.. perforce u..ful for ,horH.rm.ffects, no, for chronIC prO<:essos operahnt 0""' monlh' or y.ars. Sy'tempr<>Ce'Sse' lhal ha,·. beeD studied ..';Ih microcosm pr.paration, inclode .nergy

Et:oll4Jli()lf oj Tem 'a Pmlirl CMmkal Iltjllfy Ia £Cosysle.... 64S

~Iationshlps, nutrient cycling, and chem,,'al tra",formatJons, Populalion inter­aClion. tn.t ha>'e been studied ,,-ith micro<:mm preparauons "'l:luM plant­IDlt:robe inl<rac'ion.. arthropod population lnleractions, and predator preyinteraclLons,

G,llen and Will (1980) speak of the u...ful"... of microcosms '0 e"alu.atellt'Ult elTe<:ts (routes, chemical species or transformation products, mteraction."'ith dietaf)' and olher components of the natural en,';ronment, etc,) insubt:hronic tests. They report that in .pi" of Ihe fact that man) of 'hemechanism' are unkno"'n, the 50il core micforosm showed the greatc.. potentialpromi... for determinIng terreslrial ecos)'..em >'Ulnerabilit) to chemical damage

St>"ral research recommenda'ions are presented b) Gilleu and Witt (1980).The confe,....' su""orions fell in two di"rlltnt groups: 5tandardization andimpro>"men' of technolog)', In the fmt Qtelii0r)'. Ihe aettnt ,,'as upon routineSt:rttnmlii of re.u1ated chemical'. and ,n the oecond u'th trad...off, hetweensystem replicability and ~alism. The incorporation of mathematical modeUlnlii,,"s ~prded as essential before microcosm preparations could be fullyexploited,

The o>'er1ap in the ob)<C""es of ,he workshop reported by Gillett and Win(1980) ""ith the currenl elTort a~ broad enough to merit '1uotinlii the specificrecommendations;

2.2.3 IUcommt..Ja'ionJ jo, T..,.s/rial Mil:,ocOJm lU.sto,ch

'I. Use merence compound, in oomparati>'e tests of new chemit:a15.2. Test the chemical at the I,,'el anticipated In the en"ronmcnt, ,hen al

multiples and frat:tions of that Ie"et3. Ob'ain kmetic data (time,pace---<:oncen,ratlon profile,).4, For bi~umula,ionandbio'ransformalton stud,.s, use trophic I..'ell

f'<!ui"alent to the en"ironment modelled.S, Use ,undard orpni,ms in con"ru<:ted ml<ro<:o......6. Use al least t""o 50ilS "ith properties "i'hin different ranges. (The

follov.inlii requi~ substantial research 10 establish their 11)."''' in..andardization and to ~50I"e inconsi..encies. inl•• al",.)

7, Use unformUlated. ,..:hnical-va<!e (commercial) prodllt:u; appropriateformulations should al50 be ,ested,

8, Use radioacti>" i50lope> (major or nominal inliiredient only),9 Perform lOa" balance on chemlQlI and transformation prodll<"\s.

10. Provide determination of transformation product. '0 the Ulent ofanalylical feaslb,lny.

II. Determine lhe biolosical activity of transformatIon p.odaclS:

"The useofmicrocosms for.........",ct>emio:als that reqUlI-es the fa.. and efT«Uofchemieals in the ~YSlem be reasonably ,imilar to (and the~by predict) tha>e in theenvironments modeUed. For >...Iidation, ....nlication. mathema,ical modtlltng,

646 Mrlkods f<Jr EsIim<J'ill/J R"k of Ckern,,",,1 l"jlJr)'

ar4l1eslpl criteria, the folloll'ing art suggested:

L [DCOrporate pholochemical action,2. Ad"""e ,.ah~l~ airflo"'s,3 Simulate temperalures more accuratel)' lh,ouPOUI lbe ~)'1tem,

4 Defi"" lhe erron caused by lhe Slruclure of the ~)>Iem (q:.. "'all effe<:nand !leahng problems).

S, Develop nondoslrueti.'e plant tosa and los" of plant-soil (,htzosphere)mlerae"on, (For e~ample. inelude a plant .pecies for mUlagenicit)'le,un8.•uch a, T,aik,eiVlli" or ArabidliNJiJ spp.).

6 Establr~h ..ilona for fauna apprOpriale 10 the !leale of the ~)Stem and testobjecti\'e'S

7 Ident") parame""" of ...-producibll"y "hieh can ~"'e l$ opera"ona]criteria.

8. De'~lop both predict i... and analytical mathematical model•.9, Perform field wals spoeelfically to ,,<rif)' &CeuraC) of microcosm'

In addi"on to the conr"enc¢ proe«<.linp discussed above. lhere i. a largelilerature on microcosm' in lhe open ""enufic journals and vanou, ,nternalrepon•. Pea~ " "I. (1982) conslrucled for EPRI a \'ery u..fullabulauon (wh,ehinclude~ some pr<"iousl) mentioned contribution' in Gie.y (1980)) For aqualicmicrocosm' (Tables 1 and 2), They Include ph) sical (71 Sludies) and biologICal(70 ,'udles) eharaeteri~tre~ m,'ol",ng me'hodolog) for lhe ,esung of ,'.riou~

chemicals, Thi. tabulation pro'ides a conci.., (bul ,ncomplete) descriplion oflhefield and ",11 ~"" as an entrantt to ,he li'erature

2.3 Summar)

23.1 lhjinuiQII$

Mrerocosm..re experimental preparauons of.ullsen ofCCO'Iy>lem, lhal ran,. incomplexity alon, a continuum from laboralo')' bench scale 10 field (natural)scale, there '$ an o,'erlap al each end of the conunuum of compleXll} withlaboralory bench seale and field plo' scale

2.3.2 AdranrageJ of MieN'co"" Ttchnique V,w•• Labora,orY'J(ol, onJFIeI';",e"l, T'JliIlg of XtfJObiotic Chemieal>

Mrerocosms are more reah"ic than laboralOry lesl. and mor~ mana,.able(repl~able) than field lestl.

13,3 DiJedran/ages af Mk,oco.m Technique Campared wllh LaIxJ'ala'}'seal, anJ Fleld'sea~ T'31i1lg of X tfJObioli~ Chem~all

There is usuall) an in\'e= r<lalionshlp bel"'een realism (complexil)') andprecision (replicabilrty) In microcosm p<rrormanct, In some ,poeeial ca.." thi,

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<:"""". i 19JJ) F'I"".I ,.,.,cI .......n<! I""ool 2 ""'" ..,,.,...., AJ&o<. """,",no''''', •• ,ZlO-, ••,""..........,"""" <'_-<w,." ,,"IIy fOf 1

....1>: .n" PIR > I"""'''Of< _C"••"lu.... ('911) A"'; " ......... ,., 11 ............ ",,-' .. """",u""",,,n•. fi... 21 md"od""l. of 9 d,lk....' "-'1IO<II1u," of wat" w,," 'ose'"«·1Id ,.,;""....,... -",

...."ure of pb.k,,,,,~ .Ip" I ....k fOf ,.. I.. 6 ...... ".f!« ....,. An". 10-_ •,"""-""'"'''' re'..... ,«>n"." ....re ... ,.",nal.1Id '''''''lcd, ~

0.... ~,01 (19171 U.M"....t ......... f""" II.,..........""" .. .10....., f'tI ,,,.,11,,,<1.',,,,.~' ....1"''''f .IId'lIlII.,. ....,""""«>. _,II"

,...........,"" lioil (.-

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('91K) 1>0<.., .. ,•"''''""""I"" ('911) O. I. l. 12~................ III ...,.,.1<>0 A",,,,,,,,,,,,, ""'''''','''''''"

tn ""'d<><>f V""ndw.", r.......... _..la,,,,[1m" •• " 01 0'130) N."..,n><t' 11>, ~'''« >1 p' Ph,l<>pIon''nn. " ~

.nd ....,........ """,,_ woploA01nn, ,,,",,.,,,, I_..... ,."""",,., ....,"""",""'.m..,... ",,"""'n,"". m" ,"",n'llno ••

"

•

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., ........ 'r I• -­, -----...,-----

---

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2_4 ..... cydeo_........,_...,1-,.. _n.,..Oeoo_ .-.,. "'1.4._1-.

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• F tal ~;' _............ -.'1·'Ux:O.. _ •...._- ­--~_...._-""__ • 1 PO" _--.:

'poou"'--,,­'-00_'_-HoIr_...."....,.,Wialed _. 1'2«IM,oI_

1_01'<-'"_~ ,",. WMIrteO. _ium I'ht>of>l>o<..od.kd '" 'ho ,""..I _,.m01112"'''"1'. T"b·,·J6"""I<. '.,.m,•.•nd,.;,....... adoIod '0 "",I--T..b_I_~_...__I_OIl"". ) -.._....- ~,-­e-_r....-_ ....,

T... 1 CC-.I)

f ...... _w.....Ilml

G.............. 5o.tl<l ...1><0",,,,.....'... Do.Iil~ ....t<, ,.,,&0«<1 F'I&n><fII.... alp<,Wdle"",,, ('917) ~~'''' .'~I I_"'"m. ,"" ""'I""'t«! ...."". 1_10 1>..,1>0&.....;,~ "'.""~

....., ....iI. "'l ••li..." .... ,.... '001">""00"",,,m...n' ........~''''''''' loO>~yo

G..., ('971) S"..m mi<'""",," (£r.... II ....k, "'q""',, """',""","~ • "".,.-.1 •HD"'). I<.f 10,,,,, I'<"phyloo. m",o .....

tm ......... '''''"M''''' ""~ _roU'l..",b<,,,~ 60/1.<><I....", """".....1«1 leffUl,ia' orIOn" ddril.... "" .. '"",... ,

•0,1< and G,II<" 1'91\1) P1,n,«I ry< 1"" on U Dop....... od<I<d 0-"""""'. i""",,~ "-...,r"",."" .'f,lf, ""'" 'h~' "I'<"""n, "'.""""_. """h~--.",n"'" 00 ",I><, No,r ""...,........... ","to "Se«l' «1"<,«1 ."h "'" ~"',,'"'" ,tl<l .......... "'. ,...... OIdd"n r."' ........rr......'".1 mO<ruoo<m) >

Oill<" • .-0 Gil< (191o) T..."",,,,,, .."""""'" Dor 0 _ POO,,,.... "",., G,..........,.... 'l """'" p«><n' ~~ """ ma,""" "'n """". I"" ",""'ule, 1O da, ""...,od<~ moI'"",~

"Ih' "...p <)'<1<. l dayo "',m,nat_ in_ ...mmalo. bo.'<!o.

~",,,, ....Good"..,,, 01. ('972) } 1<_ or f"hh."... "1.,16 ;"" ..1~.'" Plank'"".....,.....", fuIt ~..~ ..... o<"" ,

....ed .. 6o~"I"ou" .nd fm.. 1 Jon_ (....., '.m"" ""'.,"'n) ,'l"'<'" ~·"h I} r><><>k; ,II _",'0 fioh, tJ "'''Ilnd •p>oIo '«e'" in".., len. 10 5<", ..,m'.... fpl...."" i_.'"m,..-_ ..... 50......10 ,M, .., pion' ,

Goni<o .. 01 11%9) B ...I ....II ..-."', mit«! Plo ,,,,,,,,,ok',,", b&«".. E",<II ...,"" "'"''''''''''''G",h,.. tI 01, (l91\l) 1_." f,om 2"'""" E..po.-ot'" .....,~ iIa<l".. l..ok, "....-, '0. 1..01.

"IW" K",,,,,,, .nd ....1, Itan....I': 17. _I<fiol i11",.,11) 1 tonI 1><.,.... F"""..."".,•

T.... l (Ow,) •C",,_ ,.,.".1>,,,," I:>w""", ...,.",..""" ~I<a"""1<0 No _1"....,~

G.,h"• ., ... (,on,) 0,.... «>Ion... f,,,,,, 1 O)'su, -"1 .....pIe> 1«4 104" I""". ,,' hropOO~ I""",,,, ........ i1>0,... .........n",O«! .. .od ""• .-1 '" lob .. 6 """-.,.mpb of ..,."nl _'" fI<>h of .11"""""01 "'''''0<'''''''' ",po~ ... " ...V<d, .-...oI_,.od .....,...

I", .....y .....1>

"II.. """" .od I).., ... """.1 f>Ol'opI,"U"" , J ....h f'C' 0'1''''''''"' l'h) '''''''01 ''''' • ,(19111 .......bIo.. h"'" '" J"~".I "",""kd

"",,,",,,""1 «'<'»"''''"oiL,,,".,,, "'71) """'rN,0••1",..",. An" roo",..,...o" ....,,, >

" ......,"~ 'od ,,""" "",.k ............0<>1 ,"'" lIIl'.... ,.od&<l I. " .............. So"",," od<kd ,,, llcl.......pIn trom 11.10(,. S,o<~ lOIu' ....' ..= "-Ib,,,,,", _ ..... f", ..,," Q""',,...", l,,,,"_" ... (191.') Ila"" ,,"','" "''''''''''''''" 1 ...1...,,, ..m", 1 dol' I'm,,,,,,", d.. ' ....... ",..f<n. .. id<""lInl. ",1><" "''''0''0,,,,,,1.,«1 .. ,,1> '''''*''''. f", 'od.............1,_ ....01., fi", .........,.,,"' ~"",.'", .... ~"I"", "J'O"''' Jl <JlIyo, -..... "l",,"m ""''', I .."me...... ,«",,",,«1 "<JlI), Lo,,, ...,1>0<.1<> ........ •

J• .,b, " ... ('~17 •.h) 8.0",1> '""'0<"'" ..",hod 'OO-<Ioy 01",".... I:ha,,,,,,~ "'...,..,., 11 """'" 1"<"'0',

.."I> OO"","".nd ,.. ,t..... <"""""'''''',;""""1"«1 ..·.'" J II of ""',......~ «>p<J>O<l••10k...." .. pi.. 7OJO I of "".pIt" ..... -'~ol<m,...,,1w:<I ...,,, moll""". ~...

)ohow...nd h., •• JO-.. ",",m,,"'''" "'. H,..·'b,....... ')''''''' ...,,1> l'h,,opI'ok'"" ,(L~1I1 '}-m ....,,, ,oI.m. W ..... boy ..·.." 1>"01 "r'a«<'

,"mpln rok<"l«l _k1, ,""'"•. JO ...."t,,,,,, 'ILK'. moe""'......

""'''"'''"'(lIe.,I>", pda.,em"lQ<_)

~,w>b>." ,,'" B"'h m~'"""""", ~ydu",,,, ""'k<".•1..., 1""'''''''Ku"ho" (1971)

Kdol..,.., W;'h", N..."I ..",'" .....,,, pi... C....."".....,,"& f... 9-doy P<"phl'''''. hI....lIt.... 6.'10'&<"''', ,...."-

ll~n) "U''''"t~ <"-J 'f"''' ,.....,.,,,~t... PC''''''.....'" .1..., moll."., I'=' ,IJM p'!'" .,.,...""'h _ f'WIll" ..we.! fot 1'""." 9l-doy

d.,",,,, •"_,nJ(I~Jj) ~"~·,"",,,P m"',"'""" Comp."" I....«-i. 8· "1&0<, ...."..o.,on, l (.,'lIou, hoc'"..) 0

''''''I''"""",.hlb1 ".•. _kl. C-do,k 'M" I ~" ","""" ,,0<1 C .." """"'la,00I lb., 10.""., O<lolod; d.",,,,,.....k<) ~·"h ,Ip<; H ~i'h 'O~'h.

,.,~, C .."h hoc'".. "-.u......t< (0.11<1)

K.....,m .0<111.>1111 ....1) M."'<....' ......".'" 1'..-;00" aolol""", 0( Alp<, hoc''''' , ~mo""""..." ~",dlod ........ ".'n..'>; '_''''''

,,11<1 i"",JO"'" ",,,,,,of> penod 0( 10 mon,h,.•~" ,_ hf ;""11<1",,... .h",h ph"",.1 ,h<",,,,.,

~peno>l>,,""",,""'ml ........ ",,,.,bo,,,,,,, ""'" "..<d.f,,,,,, ...."" .....,,, "".m,

K..., .... C."" R"""...,,"& "".m On< ~"I'< polo< 0( "M"('91'1) ",,,,,,,,,,,,,, '""'01"001 ."h O<lolod 10 ....,,, ..",pie>

l'....t<,..." ..«-i 00<l >tid daHy I... 10 day•bloo;' .." ..... _,

ldlk, (19n) lI.>'d' mo<,"'....... C'"...,...)'"I f", 2 ....., 0"""1&0<. hi...·....... TlP< " 10 '1'0'1<> i'"""'.'''001 ~,," .......''''f ,,'" ... b><q....., l mon'''' ,IJM. ~..,""". 1'''.'''''''. Tn'" B ".....,......,.. , for'" r-d. fo< _"""""",,' '''''''"",,,,,, Tll"'C " -~.

«m<t"y ","...... <hok" pi.. "f","'" T)'I'< IJ " ,"".hI,>!o<d m",,,,,.,.... mo',,,,.,... ...,nt"",," f,~

,._,2, 2)'<l1" ,

lorh"n""",, .. Comro"...."tol_ ",.0 pe>t"oje ,<>oJ....11<1 PIo"" ,,'" R>h, •1'971) ,"""'.... OQ ...,"'; .... r.........ooI ..m...'ooI

~.- 10 ..,,,,,,,,,, ","r.1I "" tl.If' .1 "'" .... "<hombo" b •• mod '0 ,,,,,,,,,,,1 <hombo< l......,,, <h&mll<>: "". ,,,,",..,od doy ». OQ"""

......tod .n.,- 21 do,... bh ,,,,",..t<d "" doy 10

.... >qu"" """f>"""", •.r,« doy .. ,

T.bk 2 (Co/lid,)

C"'''''101<1<>lf,,. (1911.)

N<dll'912)

N<l1l119j})

T<ff<I.l,;'I/aqua,." <1&,I ..O<l ..d ....,.....pft~... _ ",n'<"",10

T<''<>l';'llaq""'~: d.,I ..t><!.nd ....,,,.....__ It

,ft",,,,,,I.

B.o":1< ";",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,,«1 .'"h ..",k••n.... ""'.,..... f"""Tu.. p<>o'><lo.nd ..k<.

B.ol<h ""',"'_,,,,,,."'od '""" ""'k<.11"", obu.,""" f"""T.... ~,.nd ..k..

f;,h ,ftt<o<!_ """.1_ ,. feed r.. 41 n"n""y )<1&"

llwa_.....n_

o.y2 ~, ....d...alpt. ""'Ill"'" .ndpIonl.'oo """.,,, d., ll>--­_",to ..,_: <lay )(I_.,,011'" od<lod."",",..lod on <la, II

lJoy l-~, ....".,alpt, "",p",".ndpIo."oo ""~"n,, <10, l~­_.".......: <loy lO­_""olI'" _,",.. i..,od on <loy JJ

C......-.J'nl· y • -,<Iol" r.. m<;>r<, I....., w ~,~.t

d,If "", <1<1"' 1><,_._ ..'.,.,... dW ,"I"ilib"","

C......-.J'na ''''Y' 1<l&l" 1.. m<;>r< Ol••• I.....'110 ",,'d .. , ..""",,1doff......,. <1«",,«1 I><,_n_ ..'.,.,... dW......,.......bo"'"S,,,,k ""II"", _ontrnll«lhy 'i&h,.nd l<mp" 'ndn.'r..n, «1<1<1"...... ,."'"....,,,,.,., W....,yadd,,,,,•• of",,"

;"",......10

Alpt. "''''.''''....d.d",non, '"""". "01>

Alp<. ",OI<Iroo....;1.d,,'''''''. ,.-u. MIl

"

N"on('9lI9) ...,,10 m""oooorn~ Scf... 1-0<..,«1. S«... "'p<. ho<....... •,,,,,,,."'«01 .n'h p"" " ".....,aI. C"""bIe "",,..,..'"<»h.m 01' .Ip<. ""'teriIo. "b< ........ in S«... II 'u.... bn", """"1' pr<¥<I>l ""'I"'"n" 200("""olIiooio< .",,,., ••

0<1.......1 It..... 'n Roci"'."'''n, "",.m('9'7) _""""'" """"""col .",~ •• blade 01' ..",....101 r......... f,om Sol..,- Spru.,.

Fla.. pl., '...-pn" S·f"hl"", •

OU....", (1971) P.,..'h'O<I'" mo<,<>C<>ItII Hall "',.--, ("00 ml) Alp<. p....oro<••""f.,,- .,,,,,,,,."',col "". b.o"h odd«! ""'dr' """'_,..... ""'''n' "<\01,",.. rrom '""'" """'" <Ia,~ ..mpl<> "k", •...-, •

11~, 60-<1., d...,,,,,, ,1'..",••", ""'''mp • b.o,,~ m",,,,,,,," ,""'... I·." ""'," ... t« ........ "'-",oII<>r••"" m""1'<"<> ,

\'%1) "".., \.) .."i" "''<1; "<I}' 1 J d.o" ..."h Ill-~1b) ....... "",10 m",,"""', CIII "I """'" m, l<,m,n,,«1«I "....,.,,,,oII<>r••1I<l .U.. II <Ia,.~millll'<"<>;(d) ....... <

ploc«Ion ' ...... ""I f1'«<." 01 ('911) H",hm",'""","" "'"n".._ '0 ..m""''' Do.o........ oJp<. """oro<. Spoc;.. "'" O!<n'm.oi""".",lOoJ ."h fill.r<d (I. ..,blen' """;,t.,.,,_y ""'t~" .l"r.....Dd

[mnI """') ........, .nd 00 jl day 01",,,,,,,,, ,nf."..,<~.Io<n''''' h." oil«! .-,,. ",."..."1.,,," -N",""n>«' ","y •o«I'lI><n" ,",Iod,n, •

""'pn""'" ,!'<K«u. " •. (1911) Se<!<n"." ....,." '0 '. ><>I............. In...... v"'" '1&><. blo<· Sp«:io< "'" i"'""fI<d

m"""""",, fill«! .."h II- ,...,...,... .,,~ rmll m<ol.. V'" "p<.•'" (>$I""oda

~"'" 01' 0«1"""" ODd 9·1 ,,""h ..... 1 C oooIe, ,..."

-~ m",'<>C<>ItII.... ,.......".'eodj""«I,I19d., id.,",,,,,,

•"

T.1>lo 2 (C""'d.)

Cia,....

~.mm.n.I 11<11> (19741

",,"""'''''' (I'JQI

"mtdb«, .ndK"'''"I «(m)

1'..""" 0( .Ip< .."h,,".1>1< ...,bon, 0,~ .nd ~II oolJu>t<>l'. 7) ',0. 1'011 ''''''''''',,"" rubn""""-,, "" k"" to~"p<r>e i"",,,"w.", 001_ f,,,," ,i..,""'h.bo..........<I"'''''y of i'''';1 1.0"""....,1>, "",m~ «."-0,"",II ,..."<1>0'",,, t,,,,,n,,,><1,,,'"".'0<"",11" <t"nlb<,,""".10,«1 .."h '-'1...........nd5<.__.........__11«"'..,..,""nib<, ,,,,,,,.Io!COd ..,'h--.~I""""n' m""""""~Iterod (0 41 ....) 10k....to< .nd 1 po", "110',,,Ito,,,,,~ ,n""'"'''''' <honlb<, (10,,.,",I<" "",,11 ...1<,,,,,,,,,,«I)

lJ'Ij",- ....,.,""...Flub "'~ '" "Ii't.l"",l'Io.,..ln do,." ~ C,""'vi<> "'''",",,''n 'O,'h.')'1'"1<

I fUn

J)'<lIB +

,,"',""',., ' pomp''''''''.1<' to,.nd••'''''''''' "'k, ...l<r",....,.. ..mpla d"'iL'od...to, 'o~<Va""",'''': ,.'o""'*"",",mb<f ""rod ",..."n'ly;do,",;"'" l~ ""Y' lot",<p:, OOO"'Y' rot .....11

1<I>otl1.o,_. ,,""".,

<"'''''''', Ii10""""' , fi'"

No. 'l'O'''' pre1<.'

1 'f'OC'" ""''''' .. ,eo d>y0( "P<".....,

S<"" and Thella<k"(1977)

Sct><,,,,,, (,91ll

T."b (916)

S«"h..o I'O"d '''le',,,,,,,,1.,«1 "·,,h ",..I""ml><roof~,<Iodoc<,a•. "",,...t>d.pU"',.no.! I""< <"It.", of.,.." alp< and t''''-

"I"", ,DO "",f.... ",I,,,m!,". _,,,m '. ".",h

,10"""",,... lord''''''''''"'..." a.dd<d. M""I,.. f«l '"an<'-', la....

I. J, oN' """"'" ......,m"'~_'"~ 1,omlM"''''''tt of ..nd.."''', ,..",,1 and d..,,,,,,,-11<<<10 '"""""""" .,,10"""'.",, _ 1"",.",'«1""••I_.DO """,,'" 01'va,.".S,m'''',,, Iok< ....,,, .ocI....t,nIt"". 10 _ of.1_ ,,,,,,,,1"«1 <la, 0G''''''I btl'" "" d., •• ,,~ ,""... "";,,., of,",""I~ "''''''''''' .nd,,,,,f.... added and"'''''ook aod amph,pod.",,1,,01 ...11, added

Be{"", " .. ,nit",",,,,1010.. ,"," ,,"" L_k." .., ......., 10, and pm,""",.~ m",,,,,,,,..,,....,"'..-.0 " ""'".","mo.nd ,...,.,."""tOO f'"~_.."I_ ''I'' '. """"'"'I....' <lay LO ,,,,,{<t,a.dd<d. ,Joy :!II .n<........10".....,,-10. <Ul' 1~,,,,<ft<. {e<! ' ••",1.0"1',and,Jo,'~ "',,"m,'","1>:1",10"',,"," ,,"" I ,Joy10< ,boo< """...."1 ....'"ood d"'nrn~ {or ,_

'''"'''''''"1 hoi. ,"DO.nd....'" 'nd ...." d..'nrn"'I",,,....,, ""''''''' ro<-,"fI<' i"","IlI' .....",,,,,,,,."" J'I<''''be<I and......,....«1 lor j _,

Cor<pod, _to.,....,..X><l. V"" ,1_.""""'" """tt, 1""'"....

Pb,torI."",,". ,"',f....,d'........'la'"

"Ip<. "'_. ",.,"'.....,..,f'.......,.....,

"Ip<. "''''''''''. ,o<,'''~.... ,"'... , ,mph,pod

II """.... p", Noo'<t..'nd "''''' "'""".,..........

Tabk: 2 (C","dj

W.II<,·Ed•.,h • .-1

l.o<h......"'" \'911.

W.rd • .-IM.""",",,( '911)

Wh","u" ('''''')

I""'....'"'"

Sah....-1 bfock"" ...1<,.nd o«h...", ""h._..teO "'~,"""'" ,.-Ir,u..

W.", ," t ..... old"'"''''''''"''' ,,,,,,,,10"'; .",hplu'''.num_lll ..' ....

1'h<K......Ipho,od< ,,,.,aII<>om ..,.1. _, """"" '",,~ .",,,''(;-TCOU lidded ,,, ,w"boICh mo<""""""

"p "sod ••• ,.- '"""""'0.- phoopho" ""'" on...,.. .-jIll U,PO,

.....0<.... __1'".10 ,.,.•. ~h..,0.1 ..11 .."h..... ,,"oc' .,...,.;l to ,_..bo<'",•. I'<>,~"" 10..1."",""om:! monthl,

M.....- ...'h'..._.,., of_", ,,,.dilul<4 ""II d""'lod W,te,to ~"' ..,"".1 !>.;!d."p 9(l.doy d","';""2 _k n"'.,bo,;"" ",'ood

If,,,,,bo'.,., ",,,od. fr<Hll 1I""n to '>8\1 ...."

A<j..,,,, -,<>ph.....olp<.lQldl\<h• .".;h........pod

•

&a1l«lliOfl of TtSIJ '0 PTttJj~1 CiltmictU /njuty II) fu"'JI""-S WI

SItuation IS of Iinle or no CODCCm. fo' c,ample. musunng 1'055 distribution ofaxcnobiolic "hem>e;tl in sys,em comparlmcnu.

1.4 hnpltmt"lall(>ll of />11",,,,,_ r ..tin,

Thc experimental d",i" of. mIcrocosm tesl <!epends on the objectives of lhee.penmenl which ""') be: (1) Ihe lesting of h)'polhtscs (ded"""i,",,) or (2)e.plorato')' (indlK:ll"e) te5linll, Experimental dwgn is • pragmatic, case·specificproblem, Standardization of microcosm desilln is of limited value

MICrocosms a", subsets (modds) of ecosl"StemJ. not miniature e<:o5yStmls.Ruhsm and replicabilily of ml.rocosm e,periments ha,'c 10 be defined .ndinterpreted in this conte.'.

R..ults of microcosm e.periments are inc:omplete "'thout appropna'everification (for cxample. III field ,..IS).

There are 15 points Ihal summarize the current status of microcosmaWI"'a'ion. in ..:olo",colol}".

(I) It has yet to be determined "'h"'h ecos}"Stem variable5 a,e mOSt suitable forspeeifi. microcosm application.

(2) Microcosms are limited b}' >cale relationshIps (SlZC dcpende!lC1es oforganisms and area. volume r,lios) and arc unstable ,n t"ne.

(3) Microcosm desill" requires an ecosystem perspeeti'-e.(4) As complexity of mICrocosm design inereases. rulism .nd cost Icnds 10

inerease and precision tends to <!ceruse.(5) There a", few a priori rule5 for the indu.ion of common factors in

mICrocosm de5>gn: gcne""-<1wgn mlCrocosmJ arc of "cry limned usc.(6) Microcosm' ba"e a plaee in a tiered "'heme of cnvironmental baz.ard

.ssessment of chemicals(7) Mic,ocmm ..perimcn\> are of limited use until the)' al'< validated by field

e.periments,(8) Mathematical models muSt playa central role in allenvironmcntal hazard

..se",ment because of tbe inherent Hnmation' of cmpiri<:al data.(9) Microcosms prov;.;le I/lfoTmation allhe process Ie'-el; they are subsets of

ecos)'Stems. nol miniatul'< ecos)'Sl<ms. Processes include encr8Y relation­ships. nutrient ej'din/l;.•hcmocallran.formations. and orpnism responsesat the populalion or communl1y Ievcl.

(10) Both 'synthetIC' (gnotobIotic) and 'natural' (c,cised or reconstructed)microcmm' are of potcnual use in hazard a5SCSSment

(11) Population Or communit), levcl metabolic processes are more appropriatethan organi,m·lc,",,1 processe' for environmental hazard asse"ment ",Ihmicrocosms,

02l (nleria for ernplollng resull5 from mICrocosm lests In Ihe regulalor}process havc not been <!e"clope<!,

610 M'llwdsf<H' ulinumng Risk ofCMm,cal1"JUl'Y

(13) The usefulness of microcosm$ for routine screening Gf pGlcntially hua.rd·GUS substance, IS nol elea',

(14) No laboralOry syst.m Or moc,ooosm is ready fo' u.. as a tesl protocol Or forprodoction of the en>';ronmental hazard of a loxic chemocal,

(15) Some specific mIcrOCOSmS teslS can no" be I'tCOmmended for <!cvelopmen'of halJlrd as..ssmenl:(a) Planl-m;crobt interaction'(b) Anhropod population ,ntenoctions(c) SoIl co~ pr.paration(d) Predator-prey interactio",

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S<bel",h. M. l. (19111. Phosphoru. kin..... of frnh ....It, 10""0<00lO$. ~y. ~.

1261_1211O.raub. F 8. (1976). o.mon"ra""" of poIlutlon offtc1S of aqua"" mi<t0<0s1I'IS. Inl. J

on,';'. S'''''.. 10. 23-llTaub. F. 8 .• and Crow. M. E. (1980). S),,1h<>iuo. aquat'" mio:,oco.m•. In Gitsy. J. P

(Ed,) /oJ",,,,,,,,,,,,, in £<~i<oJ RostQl<~, pp. 69-H)4 DOE SymJlO"um s.n.. 51. USo.~n .....nt of EnorC. Spnnafiold. Vi'Jlnla.

Taub. F. B" CTO.... ME., .nd Hartmann. H. l. (1980). R<>p""'" ofaquat'" m>o:rl>COOlfl.to "",,'0 monohtj' In Gin)'. J P, (Ed,) Mi<,oco.mu in £<oJOfIi<aI hsto,dr. Pl'. 51 >_535. DOE S,,,,po,,um $ono, 52. US o.~rtmt"' of Encray, Spnnpold. Virlini.

Tho<nllon. W. 11.., Sau,,,,. P. L.nd QIlOvtdo. R. A. (1913), A<iaruotlOTl ofm"',oorpn·,""'. r,om """""'OTIS ,n ptotl<'ldo oo";'bod loboro'o<)' tcOO)',"ms, ANI'.,j Mu,. Am.Soc. Mi<robiel.. 74. 1__6l.

Till. J. E.. Hoff"",,,, F 0., and DuOIll.... D. E, Jr. (1979), A ...... Iook "' 99Tc "'...... totile: otmoopho",. HII~ I'h,·s.. 36. 21-30,

Trabalk•• l. R.. and Eyman, l. D. (1916). D..."bUhon ofP1"'onium·231 in .1I11oral fresh....It, m""""""". HI'h I'~"." 31, 390_)93.

W,lttr_Ecbol.. G .. and L.:h'.n".,,,. E. P (1971). MlC",h.a1 rtd""hon of phonlt,u1fo:ud.< to pbortll< '0 <Oil lak. mud ....ter mio:'ocoom. J. t<OI4. lI".. 70. 505_509

Ward. C 1.. and M.,,","UfO, F. (1~78). Fat. of 2.l.1.8_t<trachlo'odibrnzo..p-dio..o(TCDD) in a modtl aquo,", o'''ironment. ,j'<N .""i" Con,,,,,,. Tox" 7. ).49-351.

WIu".k.... R. H. (1961). [xpt"....."" ..,;th 'ad'o phosphorous Uo«' ,n aquanumm>o:'OCOImI. «61. .,,1<-'1'" 31. 151-IM

Will. J M.• Gill<1. J W. and Wya". J. (979). T",.."UJ1 M"',,,,,,,,,", """ En",,,,,,,,,nlalClltmimy. N.1IoO&I Sctt.... fOIlTldat1on. Wa,h,nJlOll, DC: 141 P"Ito.