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Copyrights DRJJ, UiTM 2008 1

Philosophy of Science: The Scientific Philosophy of Science: The Scientific MethodMethod

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Jaafar Jantan aka DR. JJApplied Science Education Research

Applied Science, UiTM, Shah Alam

Voice: 019Voice: 019--455455--16211621 email: email: [email protected]@hotmail.com; ; [email protected]@salam.uitm.edu.myWebsite: http://www2.uitm.edu.my/drjj/Website: http://www2.uitm.edu.my/drjj/

The Mushroom, August 6The Mushroom, August 6 thth 19451945

Hiroshima Atomic BombHiroshima Atomic Bomb

FSG500FSG500--Philosophy of SciencePhilosophy of Science

Background picture: The Death of Socrates as ordered by the courBackground picture: The Death of Socrates as ordered by the courtt

Voice: 019Voice: 019 --455455--1621 email: [email protected]; 1621 email: [email protected]; [email protected]@hotmail.com ; ; [email protected]@salam.uitm.edu.my ; Website: http://drjj.uitm.edu.my/; Website: http://drjj.uitm.edu.my/

How do you KNOW about…….

INQUIRE- find out

What?? How?? Where??When?? WHY??

Know Knowledge Facts Belief Truth

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How do you KNOW about…….Methods of inquiry (source: Rae, 2010 © Associated Content)

• Tenacity-prior belief or superstition; believing wi thout question

• Authority-takes the word of another person (usually a reputable figure) without question

• Intuition-based on feeling (ESP??) • Scientific-from questioning, observing, hypothesizi ng,

experimenting, theorizing (empirical, objective & w ithout bias via evidence)

Know Knowledge Facts Belief Truth


Time and space and gravitation have no separate exi stence from matter. ... Physical objects are not in space, but t hese objects are spatially extended. In this way the concept 'empty space' loses its meaning. ... The particle can only appear as a limi ted region in space in which the field strength or the energy density a re particularly high. ...” –Einstein summarizing theory of general relativ ity

“Science is but an image of the truth”-Francis Bacon

If a theory corresponds to the facts but does not c ohere with some earlier knowledge, then this earlier knowledge shou ld be discarded. (Popper, 1975)



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Karl Popper contended that• central question in the philosophy of science was d istinguishing

science from non-science • claimed that the central feature of science was tha t science aims at

falsifiable claims (i.e. claims that can be proven false, at le ast in principle)

• Is human the result of intelligent design or a resu lt of evolution?

Are scientific theories the truth?Copernicus Heliocentric Sun-centered Theory

Greece’s Aristotle theory on gravity: all bodies ha d 'a natural tendency' to move to their 'natural place' (water, air, fire, earth???)widely accepted though entirely unproven explanatio n of gravity



Copyright DRJJ, ASERG, FSG, UiTM, 2008 6

1. Describe the meaning of science2. Outline the scientific methods.3. Discuss each stage of the method4. Discuss the meaning of science, philosophy of

science and explain the scientific methods.5. Provide examples for each of the stage6. Use the methods in a daily context.

Objectives/Intended Learning Outcome:Objectives/Intended Learning Outcome:

LearningLearning

At the end of this session, participants should be able to:

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PhilosophyPhilosophy -- EpistemologyEpistemology

Epistemology is the study of our method of acquiring knowledge. It answers the question, "How do we know?" It encompasses the nature of concepts, the constructing of concepts, the validity of the senses, logical reasoning, as well as thoughts, ideas, memories, emotions, and all things mental. It is concerned with how our minds are related to reality, and whether these relationships are valid or invalid

Epistemology is the explanation of how we think. It is required in order to be able to determine the true from the false, by determining a proper method of evaluation. It is needed in order to use and obtain knowledge of the world around us.


Philosophy Philosophy -- EpistemologyEpistemology

1. Our senses are valid, and the only way to gain information about the world.

2. Reason is our method of gaining knowledge, and acquiring understanding.

3. Logic is our method of maintaining consistency within our set of knowledge.

4. Objectivity is our means of associating knowledge with reality to determine its validity.

5. Concepts are abstracts of specific details of reality, or of other abstractions. A proper epistemology is a rational epistemology

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Philosophy Philosophy -- EpistemologyEpistemology

How do we know?? How do we know?? Gain info or Experience Gain info or Experience through our sensesthrough our sensesReason to Reason to

know & know & understandunderstand

Use logic for Use logic for consistencyconsistency


Philosophy Philosophy -- MetaphysicsMetaphysics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy responsible for the study of existence . It is the foundation of a worldview . It answers the question "What is?"

It encompasses everything that exists, as well as the nature of existence itself. It says whether the world is real, or merely an illusion. It is a fundamental view of the world around us

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Metaphysics is the foundation of philosophy. Without an explanation or an interpretation of the world around us, we would be helpless to deal with reality. We could not feed ourselves, or act t o preserve our lives. The degree to which our metaphysical worldview is correct is the degree to which we are able to comprehend the world, and act accordingly. Without this firm foundation, all knowledge becomes suspect. Any flaw in our view of reality will make it more difficult to live



Reality is absolute. It has a specific nature independent of our thoughts or feelings. The world around us is real. It has a specific nature and it must be consistent to that nature. A proper metaphysical worldview must aim to understand reality correctly.

The physical world exists, and every entity has a The physical world exists, and every entity has a specific naturespecific nature . It acts according to that nature. When different entities interact, they do so according to the nature of both. Every action has a cause and an effect . Causality is the means by which change occurs, but the change occurs via a specific nature.


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What is Science??What is Science??

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What is Science??What is Science??


August 6 and 9, 1945, the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were destroyed by the first atomic bombs used in warfare.

ScienceScience

Science & communicationScience & healthScience & entertainmentScience & societyScience & natural events

Science, a method for problem solving & for describing how and why a natural event takes place. More importantly, it allows powerful prediction of events in the past & in the future

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Contemplate & reason to understand nature. Introduc ed observation as Method of investigation requiring:1. defining the subject matter

2. considering the difficulties involved by reviewin g the generally accepted views on the subject, and suggestions of earlier writers

3. presenting his own arguments and solutions.

The arguments he used were of two types:•• dialecticaldialectical , that is, based on logical deductionlogical deduction ; and •• empiricalempirical , based on practical considerationspractical considerations . Leading to either absurdity or dilemma (resolved by removing

ambiguity such as defining terms and concepts)

Causes of nature:any object (animal, plant, inanimate, whatever) had four attributes:

Become a fully grown man

fatherRational 2-legged animal

Motherman

Studying, reading, eating

CarpentershapewoodTable

Final Cause Final Cause (purpose)(purpose)

Moving Moving CauseCause

FormFormMatterMatterEntity

“Final cause” is purpose i.e. meant to be:every organism is beautifully crafted for a particu lar function - its "final cause" - in the grand scheme of nature certainly lea ds naturally to the thought that all this has been designed by somebody

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Final Cause:

Laws of motionAnimal motion is directed by its “will”, fulfilling the "nature" of the animal,

just as its natural growth fulfilled the nature of the animal.Inanimate objects (elements) tend to seek their natural place in the order

of things.• earth moves downwards most strongly • water flows downwards too, but not so strongly, sin ce a stone will fall through

water• air moves up (bubbles in water) and fire goes upwar ds most strongly of all,

since it shoots upward through air • wood, say, has both earth and air in it, since it d oes not sink in water

Elements: InanimateAristotle assumed all substances to be compounds of four elements: earth, water, air and fireearth, water, air and fire, and each of these to be a combination of two of four opposites, hot and cold, and wet and dry.

Laws of motionA stone's natural tendencynatural tendency , if left alone and unsupported, is to fallif left alone and unsupported, is to fall , but we

can lift it, or even throw it through the air. Aris totle termed such forced forced motion "violent"motion "violent" (presence of external force) motion as opposed to natural motion. Aristotle was the first to think quantitatively about the speeds involved in these movements. He asserted (st ate without evidence) that 1. Heavier things fall faster, the speed being propo rtional to the

weight. (v fall αααα weight)2. (vfall αααα 1/ρρρρ ) (hence vacuum cannot exist since if it does then de nsity

is zero & speed of fall will be infinite & is total ly absurd)3. (vmotion αααα Fviolent ). This means first that if you stop pushing, the o bject

stops moving…

QuestionQuestion: I am walking steadily upstairs carrying a large s tone when I : I am walking steadily upstairs carrying a large s tone when I stumbled and both stumbled and both the stonethe stone and I go clattering down the stairs. I go clattering down the stairs. Is the Is the motion of the stone before the stumble natural or v iolent? What motion of the stone before the stumble natural or v iolent? What about about the motion of the stone (and myself) after the stum blethe motion of the stone (and myself) after the stum ble ?) ?)

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Modern ScienceModern Science

"My God, what have we done?" - Robert Lewis, the co-pilot of the Enola Gay, the B-29 that dropped the first atomic bomb

Copernicus, Kepler, GalileoNewton

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The scientific method is a process for forming and process for forming and

testing solutions to problemstesting solutions to problems, or theorizing about how or why things worktheorizing about how or why things work. It tries to reduce the influence of "faith" or bias or reduce the influence of "faith" or bias or

prejudice of the experimenter so that the process prejudice of the experimenter so that the process

is valid anywhere in our worldis valid anywhere in our world.

� An hypothesishypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations; it also refers to ou r state of knowledge before experimental work has been perform ed and perhaps even before new phenomena have been predicted

� A modelmodel is reserved for situations when it is known that the hypothesis has at least limited validity. Bohr’ s atomic model, Hooke’s law

� A scientific theoryscientific theory or law represents an hypothesis, or a group of related hypotheses, which has been confirm ed (was not falsified) through repeated experimental t ests

� A lawlaw is used with regularities which were discovered a long time ago while "theory" is applied to regulari ties discovered much more recently

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Scientific theories are: � Consistent (internally and externally)� Parsimonious or simple (sparing in proposed entities or

explanations)� Useful (describes and explains observed phenomena)� Empirically Testable & Falsifiable� Based upon Controlled, Repeated Experiments� Correctable & Dynamic (changes are made as new data

is discovered)� Progressive (achieves all that previous theories have

and more)� Tentative and self correcting (admits that it might not be

correct rather than asserting certainty)

Copyright DrJJ, ASERG, FSG UiTM, May 2008

Prediction

Experiment

Modify

ObservationsObservations

HypothesisHypothesis

ExperimentExperiment

Law

Theory(Model)Until falsified

Noting factsNoting facts

PossiblePossibleExplanation Explanation (testable)(testable)

Careful Careful observationobservationGenerateGenerateData (if Data (if results are results are repeatable, repeatable, then then explanation explanation becomes a becomes a factfact

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Copyright DrJJ, ASERG, FSG UiTM, May 2008 27

Science

There is a very important characteristic of a scientific theory or hypothesis which

differentiates it from, for example, an act of faith: a theory must be ``falsifiable''. This

means that there must be some experiment or possible discovery that could prove the theory

untrue. For example, Einstein's theory of Relativity made predictions about the results of

experiments. These experiments could have produced results that contradicted Einstein, so

the theory was (and still is) falsifiable.

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What is truth?What is truth?

““ True" is defined as "consistent with fact or realit y." So, True" is defined as "consistent with fact or realit y." So, something which is true always has been true, and a lways will something which is true always has been true, and a lways will be true. But is that really true?be true. But is that really true?

1.1. The world was flat.The world was flat.

2.2. Earth is round.Earth is round.

3.3. Earth is slightly pearEarth is slightly pear --shaped.shaped.

4.4. Compass needles pointed at the north star.Compass needles pointed at the north star.

5.5. Earth was at the center of the universe, and that t he sun Earth was at the center of the universe, and that t he sun traveled around the earth.traveled around the earth.

6.6. Blacks were inferior to whites.Blacks were inferior to whites.

7.7. Titanic is unsinkable.Titanic is unsinkable.


EinsteinEinstein ’’s philosophical asymmetry explanation of the s philosophical asymmetry explanation of the electromagnetic induction in his special relativity paperelectromagnetic induction in his special relativity paper

A fixed magnet produced current in the moving coil by A fixed magnet produced current in the moving coil by an induced EMF in the coil. A moving magnet an induced EMF in the coil. A moving magnet produced current in a fixed coil through the produced current in a fixed coil through the emem field field created by the moving magnet. So if the motion is created by the moving magnet. So if the motion is relative why should there be any difference?relative why should there be any difference?

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Logic: A method to distinguish right from incorrect reasoning .

DeductionDeduction is the is the use of known principles to formulate a use of known principles to formulate a hypothesishypothesis . . (used by Aristotle) (used by Aristotle) Conclusion MUST Conclusion MUST FOLLOW necessarily from truth of ALL premisesFOLLOW necessarily from truth of ALL premises

An argument is deductively valid if and only if the re is no An argument is deductively valid if and only if the re is no logically possible situation where all the premises are true andlogically possible situation where all the premises are true andthe conclusion is false at the same timethe conclusion is false at the same time

Argument #1 : Argument #1 : Farah is over 90 years old. So Farah is over 20 yea rs old.Farah is over 90 years old. So Farah is over 20 yea rs old.Argument #2 : Argument #2 : Farah is over 20 years old. So Farah is over 90 yea rs old.Farah is over 20 years old. So Farah is over 90 yea rs old.

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DeductionDeduction is the is the use of known principles to formulate a use of known principles to formulate a hypothesishypothesis . . (used by Aristotle) (used by Aristotle) Conclusion MUST Conclusion MUST FOLLOW necessarily from truth of ALL premisesFOLLOW necessarily from truth of ALL premisesP1: Flowers are red P2: Tulips are flowersP1: Flowers are red P2: Tulips are flowersC: Hence Tulips are redC: Hence Tulips are red

P1: All men are immortal P2: P1: All men are immortal P2: DanialDanial is a manis a manC: C: DanialDanial is immortalis immortal

P1: All apples are fruit. P1: All apples are fruit. P2: All fruits grow on trees. P2: All fruits grow on trees. C: Therefore all apples grow on trees.C: Therefore all apples grow on trees.



InductionInduction is the type of logic through which a person is the type of logic through which a person draws a conclusion from particular facts or individ ual draws a conclusion from particular facts or individ ual observationsobservations . . Conclusion follows but not necessarily, only probab leConclusion follows but not necessarily, only probab leExample:P1:This ice is cold. (or:P n All ice I have ever touched was cold.)C: All ice is cold.

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InductionInduction is the type of logic through which a person is the type of logic through which a person draws a conclusion from particular facts or individ ual draws a conclusion from particular facts or individ ual observationsobservations . . Conclusion follows but not necessarily, only probab leConclusion follows but not necessarily, only probab leExample:P1: This billiard ball moves when struck with a cue. (or: P n

: Of one hundred billiard balls struck with a cue, al l of them moved.) C: All billiard balls move when struck with a cue.


What is induction?What is induction?

Argument 1 (Valid or not Valid?)P: Dipsy bought one ticket in a fair lottery with ten million tickets. C: So Dipsy is not going to win the lottery.

Argument 2 (Valid or not Valid?)P1: Dylan is a man.P2: He is 99 and is in a coma.C: Therefore, Dylan will not run in the marathon tomorrow.

Inductively strong argumentsInductively strong argumentsSince premises are true, conclusion is highly likel ySince premises are true, conclusion is highly likel y

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Stages of HypotheticoHypothetico --deductive methoddeductive method1.1. Identify the hypothesis to be tested. Identify the hypothesis to be tested. 2.2. Generate predictions from the hypothesis. Generate predictions from the hypothesis. 3.3. Use experiments to check whether predictions are correct. Use experiments to check whether predictions are correct. 4.4. If the predictions are correct, then the hypothesis is If the predictions are correct, then the hypothesis is

confirmedconfirmed. If not, then the hypothesis is . If not, then the hypothesis is disconfirmeddisconfirmed..

A scientific hypothesis must be testableA scientific hypothesis must be testable -- The HD method The HD method tells us how to test a hypothesis, and a scientific hypothesis tells us how to test a hypothesis, and a scientific hypothesis

must be one that is capable of being tested. must be one that is capable of being tested.

Confirmation is not truthConfirmation is not truthIn general, confirming the predictions of a theory increases theIn general, confirming the predictions of a theory increases theprobability that a theory is correct. But in itself this does noprobability that a theory is correct. But in itself this does not t prove conclusively that the theory is correct.prove conclusively that the theory is correct.


Four components of Science

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Two people are asked to investigate this question. Observations: Both make the simple observation that rain is water which comes from the sky.

What causes rain?

Person 2 makes some other observations: 1) air contains a certain amount of moisture (she's tried to eat a salty pretzel

in New York City on a humid day and watched the salt turn into a saline solution on the pretzel), and

2) air gets colder the higher up you go (she's climbed a mountain).

Based on these two additional observations person 2 hypothesizes that

moist air rises upward and cools, causing the water moist air rises upward and cools, causing the water vapor to condense into drops, i.e., rain (hypothesi s 2).vapor to condense into drops, i.e., rain (hypothesi s 2).

Person 1 immediately hypothesizes that

Rain is caused by angels crying (Hypothesis 1).Rain is caused by angels crying (Hypothesis 1).


What causes rain?Scientific method requires that these hypotheses be tested.

Person 1 is in a bind. He can try to fly around in a rain storm and look for angels, or simply admit that his hypothesis is NON-TESTABLE , and therefore NOT scientific. (Scientific Method requires TESTABILITY).

H1: Rain is caused by angels crying : How will this H1: Rain is caused by angels crying : How will this be tested?be tested?

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What causes rain?Scientific method requires that these hypotheses be tested.

Experiment:Experiment:She can take a piece of glass and put it into a dry freezer to make it very cold. On a humid day she can take it out and see if water condenses on the glass (since the environment in the freezer is dry any moisture which appears would have to come from the air). She can also run a simple experiment in the Spring or Fall to determine if dew comes from the air (this will probably require staying up all night). The point is that she or some other person can repeat this test (or similar tests) over and over and always come to the same conclusions. Her hypothesis will now be considered fact.

H2: moist air rises upward and cools, causing the w ater H2: moist air rises upward and cools, causing the w ater vapor to condense into drops, i.e., rain.vapor to condense into drops, i.e., rain.Person 2, on the other hand, can perform a simple test.



DeductionDeduction is the is the use of known principles to formulate a use of known principles to formulate a hypothesishypothesis . . If person 2 had simply stated that it is well known that water If person 2 had simply stated that it is well known that water vapor condenses to liquid water when cooled, and that rain is vapor condenses to liquid water when cooled, and that rain is probably caused by the cooling of moist air, she would have probably caused by the cooling of moist air, she would have been using deductive reasoning. Note that, based upon a been using deductive reasoning. Note that, based upon a known principle she would have been predicting a result.known principle she would have been predicting a result.

In the rain example, person 2 demonstrated Inductio n by In the rain example, person 2 demonstrated Inductio n by using her observations to formulate her hypothesis.using her observations to formulate her hypothesis.

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Select the best answer, then provide your reasoning

a)a) has the same magnitude as the weight of the box.has the same magnitude as the weight of the box.b)b) is greater than the weight of the box.is greater than the weight of the box.c)c) has the same magnitude as the total force which res ists the has the same magnitude as the total force which res ists the

motion of the box.motion of the box.d)d) is greater than the total force which resists the m otion of is greater than the total force which resists the m otion of

the box.the box.e)e) is greater than either the weight of the box or the total force is greater than either the weight of the box or the total force

which resists its motion. which resists its motion.

FCI25: A woman exerts a constant horizontal force o n a large FCI25: A woman exerts a constant horizontal force o n a large box. As a result, the box moves across a horizontal floor at a box. As a result, the box moves across a horizontal floor at a constant speed constant speed ““ vovo ”” . The constant horizontal force applied by . The constant horizontal force applied by the woman:the woman:



a)a) with a constant speed that is double the speed with a constant speed that is double the speed ““ vvoo”” in the in the previous question.previous question.

b)b) with a constant speed that is greater than the spee d with a constant speed that is greater than the spee d ““ vvoo”” in in the previous question, but not necessarily twice as great.the previous question, but not necessarily twice as great.

c)c) with a speed that is constant and greater than the speed with a speed that is constant and greater than the speed ““ vvoo”” in the previous question but later with a speed tha t in the previous question but later with a speed tha t increases thereafter.increases thereafter.

d)d) for a while with an increasing speed, then with a c onstant for a while with an increasing speed, then with a c onstant speed thereafter.speed thereafter.

e)e) with a continuously increasing speed.with a continuously increasing speed.

FCI 26: FCI 26: If the woman in the previous question doubles the If the woman in the previous question doubles the constant horizontal force that she exerts on the bo x to push it constant horizontal force that she exerts on the bo x to push it on on the same horizontal floor, the box then moves:the same horizontal floor, the box then moves:

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A) The current is largest at A. A) The current is largest at A. B) The current is largest at B. B) The current is largest at B. C) The current is largest at C. C) The current is largest at C. D) The current is largest at D. D) The current is largest at D. E) The current is the same everywhere. E) The current is the same everywhere. F) The current is the same between A and B and smal ler than betwF) The current is the same between A and B and smal ler than betw een C een C

and D. and D. G) The current is the same between A and B and larg er than betweG) The current is the same between A and B and larg er than betwe en C en C

and D. and D. H) The current is the same everywhere except in the bulb. H) The current is the same everywhere except in the bulb. I) The current is the same everywhere except in the battery. I) The current is the same everywhere except in the battery. J) None of these is true.J) None of these is true.

A bulb and a battery are connected as shown below.A bulb and a battery are connected as shown below. Which of the Which of the following is true about the current at various poin t in the circfollowing is true about the current at various poin t in the circ uituit


ScienceScience

Quantum theory, modern physical theory concerned with the emission and absorption of energy by matter and with the motion of material particles; the quantum theory and the theory of relativity together form the theoretical basis of modern physics. Just as the theory of relativity assumes importance in the special situation where very large speeds are involved, so the quantum theory is necessary for the special situation where very small quantities are involved, i.e., on the scale of molecules, atoms, and elementary particles. Aspects of the quantum theory have provoked vigorous philosophical debates concerning, for example, the uncertainty principle and the statistical nature of all the predictions of the theory.

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ScienceScience

In contrast, the theory that ``the moon is populated by little green men who can read our minds and will hide whenever anyone on Earth

looks for them, and will flee into deep space whenever a spacecraft comes near'' is not

falsifiable: these green men are designed so that no one can ever see them. On the other hand, the theory that there are no little green

men on the moon is scientific: you can disprove it by catching one. Similar arguments apply to abominable snow-persons, UFOs and

the Loch Ness Monster(s?)..


LearningLearning

Atoms

Science is • a methodical approach to the

acquisition of knowledge • not the knowledge gained through the

approach• Method is based on evidence not belief• Is not faith

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LearningLearning

Atoms

Observation • Avoids sources of bias • Quantify by making measurements

•Metric system-universal (measure & not convert)

•One basic unit & multipliers (prefixes)•Time: Second•Length: Meter: Inch, ft, yard, rod, mile..)•Liter: drops, drams, fluid ounces, cups pints, quarts, gallons, barrel•Gram: pounds, stone,


Science MethodsScience Methods

Atoms

Question formulation • Be curious & ask questions• A stupid question is the question which

you keep to yourself• Science can answer some & not all

questions

•Why am I here? – purpose & begs answer from creator- faith•Change to “How do I get here?”•Which came first, chicken or egg•Which came first, chicken egg or the chicken??

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Atoms

Hypothesis • An educated guess to answer the

question• Suggest through literature review• Must be rejectable



Atoms

Prediction• Formal test of the hypothesis• Dependent variable (then)• Independent variable (when)• If-then-when

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Atoms

Experiment• Perform the manipulation• Compare results to a control setting• Many independent variables



Atoms

Analysis• Many trials• Sources of error (false positive & false

negative results)• Statistical analysis (5% chance)

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Atoms

Decide• Use error allowance of 5% to reject

hypothesis• Hypothesis are not proven (error

chance is zero) ONLY disprove• Many trials

Examples

�the study of assumptions, foundations, and implications of science

�history of concepts and terms and how they are currently used in science

�the relation between propositions with arguments (Formal logic )

�the reasoning connecting hypotheses and conclusions ( Scientific method )

�the manner in which science explains natural phenomena and predicts natural occurrences (observation )

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�the types of reasoning that are used to arrive at scientific conclusions ( deduction, induction, abduction )

�the formulation, scope, and limits of scientific understanding

�the means that should be used for determining when scientific information has adequate support (objectivity )

�and the implications of scientific methods and models, along with the technology that arises from scientific knowledge for the larger society ( applied science )


CompositionComposition

Atoms

Propose 2 research questions and at least 2 2 research questions and at least 2 hypothesishypothesis to answer each research question for the phenomena above

Hysteria has hit students at Kenanga and Melatihostels. For the past 3 days at least 20 students i n each hostel has been experiencing hysteria between 6-7pm. Authorities are puzzled and are trying to find out what causes the hysterical behaviour. Your help is needed.

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