INSIDE THE ATOMTHE SUB ATOMIC

PARTICLES

IT’S TIME TO TICKLE YOUR BRAIN CELLS

ATTENTIONAL FOCUS TEST

• How many times is the word SUN shown?How many times is the word BUS shown?How many times is the word NONE shown?

• Three words have been combined to make this grid of letters.

• How many times does each of these words appear?

• Try to compare your performance while searching for just one word vs. two of them at the same time?

QUICK BRAIN ANALYSIS• If you get all, It only means that you are a very

focus person but if NOT…here are the reasons… • Dividing attention results in less attention power

devoted to all the different tasks that you are trying to do at the same time.

• The more tasks, the less attention can be devoted to each.

• The result is more errors and waste of time. Although we all have the feeling that multi tasking saves us time, it is often not the case.

CHEMISTRY REWIND

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATOMIC

THEORY

LEUCIPPUS

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DEMOCRITUS

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ARISTOTLE

ROBERT BOYLE

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ANTOINE LAVOISIER

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JOSEPH PROUST

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JOHN DALTON

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BERZELIUS

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HUMPREY DAVY

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MICHAEL FARADAY

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GEORGE JOHNSTONE STONEY

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WILLIAM CROOKES

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JOSEPH J. THOMSON

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ROBERT A. MILLIKAN

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EUGEN GOLDSTEIN

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ERNEST RUTHERFORD

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NEILS BOHR

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SCHRODINGER

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JAMES CHADWICK

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INSIDE THE ATOMTHE SUB ATOMIC

PARTICLES

ATOM IN BIRDS EYE VIEW

Electron-by J. J. Thomson, 1897

-symbol “e or e-”-relative electrical charge : - 1-atomic mass unit = 5. 484 x 10 -4

-location : outside the nucleus

Proton- by Eugen Goldstein, 1886

-symbol “p or p+”-relative electrical charge : + 1

-atomic mass unit = 1

-Location : inside the nucleus

Neutronby - James Chadwick, 1932

-symbol “n or n0”-relative electrical charge : 0

-atomic mass unit = 1-Location : inside the nucleus

Quarks-fundamental particles of

proton and neutron

-found inside the proton and neutron

-held together by “gluons”

Proton is a color combination of three

colored quarks. Quarks are bound together by the

exchange of color gluons. Emission or absorption of a gluon causes the quarks to make a transition from one

color to another.

There are six types of quarks (up, down, charm, strange, top, and

bottom). The lightest quarks — called up and down — are the most common.

Quarks-fundamental particles of

proton and neutron

-found inside the proton and neutron

-held together by “gluons”

Molecules, Atoms, & Nuclei

Nuclei, Nucleon, & Quarks

PROPERTIES OF AN ATOMTHE RELATIONSHIP OF ATOMIC

NUMBER & MASS NUMBER

ATOMIC NUMBER

MASS NUMBER

ATOMIC NUMBER & MASS NUMBER

TOTAL # OF PROTONS IN AN ATOMTOTAL # OF PROTONS & NEUTRONS

IN THE ATOM’S NUCLEUS

Atomic Number-# of protons in the

nucleus -symbol Z,

determines identity of an element.

-equal to the # of protons, w/c is equal to the # of electrons in an

uncharged atom.Z = number of p + =

number of e -

Mass Number- symbol A in

elemental notation, consists of the total # of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the

atom. 

A = number of p+ + number of n0

ATOMIC NUMBER & MASS NUMBER ACTIVITYELEMENT ATOMIC

NUMBERMASS

NUMBERNUMBER OF

PROTONS (p+) NUMBER OF

ELECTRONS (e-)NUMBER OF

NEUTRONS (n)

a 20 40b 84 48c 82 125d 52 76e 108 47

20 20 20

36 36 36

207 82 82

52 128 52

47 6147

ELEMENT NAME OF ELEMENT COMPLETE DESIGNATION OF ELEMENT

abcde

CALCIUM

KRYPTON

LEAD

TELLURIUM

SILVER

Ca = IIA ALKALINE EARTH METAL

Kr = VIIIA NOBLE GAS

Pb = IVA CARBON FAMILY

Te = VIA OXYGEN FAMILY

Ag = INNER TRANSITION METAL

ACTIVITY # 2ELEMENT SYMBOL MASS

NUMBERNUMBER OF NEUTRONS

ATOMIC NUMBER

NUMBER OF PROTONS

NUMBER OF ELECTRONS

Sodium 1115

35Zn

Barium

Na 11 1123 12

PPhosphorus 1531 16 15BrBromine 3580 45 35

Zinc 3065 35 3030Ba 56137 81 5656

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are present in (a) 3 (b) 79 (C) 27

H Se Al 1 34 13

(a) p+ = 1 n = 2 e-= 1(b) p+ = 34 n = 45 e-= 34(c ) p+ = 13 n = 14 e-= 13

ISOTOPES & RADIOSOTOPESTHE RELATIONSHIP OF ISOTOPES & ATOMIC MASS DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY

WHAT IS AN ISOTOPE?

Isotopes-Atoms of an element with the same atomic # but different mass # -different

mass numbers

but identical atomic

numbers.

NEUTRONS

EXAMPLES OF AN ISOTOPE

ISOTOPE NUMBER OF PROTONS

NUMBER OF ELECTRONS

NUMBER OF NEUTRONS

35

Cl17

17 17

37

Cl17

17 17

28

Si14

29

Si14

30

Si14

14 14 14

14 14 15

14 14 16

20

18

EXAMPLES OF AN ISOTOPEELEMENT SYMBOL MASS

NUMBERATOMIC

MASS (amu)ISOTOPIC

MASSPERCENTAGEABUNDANCE

HYDROGEN H 1 1.00794 1.007 8 99.985%

D 2 2.014 1 0.015%

T 3 3.016 1 0%

BORON B 10 10.811 10.012 9 19.91%

11 11.009 8 80.09%

OXYGEN O 16 15.9994 15.994 9 99.759%

17 16.999 3 0.037%

18 17. 999 2 0.204%

NITROGEN N 14 14.00674 14.003 1 99.63%

15 15.000 1 0.37%

MAGNESIUM Mg 24 24.305 23.985 0 78.99%

25 24.985 8 10.00%

26 25. 985 6 11.01%

CHLORINE 35 35 35. 45 34.969 75.53%

37 37 36.966 24.47%

DETERMINE THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS OF CHLORINE

• SOLUTION:Step #1: Multiply the atomic mass of each isotope by its percentage abundance. Remember to convert the value to decimal equivalent.

34.969 x 0.7553 = 26.41 amu36.996 x 0.2447 = 9.053 amu

Step#2: Add the products obtained to get the relative atomic mass.

26.41 + 9.053 = 35.46 amu

WHAT IS RADIOISOTOPES?

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Radioactive isotopes

/radioisotopes-unstable atom, the nucleus changes by

giving off a neutron to get back to a balanced state. As the unstable

nucleus changes, it gives off radiation and

is said to be radioactive.

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES CAN BE WRITTEN AS:

EXAMPLES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE

MAGNESIUM IODINE URANIUM

STABLE ISOTOPES

NONE

RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Mg24

12

Mg23

12

Mg27

12

I127

53

I125

53

I131

53

U235

92

U238

92

WHAT IS RADIATION?

•Radiati on is the emission and propagati on of

energy in the form of waves, rays or parti cles.

IONIZING VS. NONIONIZING

RADIATION

KINDS OF RADIATION• IONIZING RADIATION - Radiation that

carries more than 1216 kJ/mol of energy.• e.g. UVB rays (higher end of the UV spectrum), x-

rays, gamma rays, cosmic rays.• NONIONIZING RADIATION - Radiation that

carries less than 1216 kJ/mol of energy.• e.g. radiowaves, microwaves, infrared, visible

light, UVA rays (lower end of the UV spectrum).

TYPES OF RADIATION

•ALPHA PARTICLES•BETA PARTICLES•GAMMA RAYS

(α) ALPHA PARTICLE• Contains two protons and

two neutrons, which gives it a mass number of 4 and atomic number of 2.

• Because of two protons, an alpha particle has a charge of 2+ that makes it identical to Helium nucleus.

He4

2

α

(β) βETA PARTICLE• Is identical to an

electron, has a charge of 1- and mass number of (0) zero.

• Βeta particles are produced by unstable nuclei when neutrons are change into protons.

e0

-1

β

(γ) GAMMA PARTICLE• GAMMA RAYS are high-

energy radiation released as an unstable nucleus undergoes a rearrangement to give a more stable, lower-energy nucleus.

• Since gamma rays are energy only, there is NO mass or charged associated with their symbols.

γ

SOME COMMON FORMS OF NUCLEAR RADIATIONTYPE OF

RADIATION SYMBOL MASS NUMBER

ATOMIC NUMBER CHARGE

ALPHA PARTICLE

4 2 2+

BETA PARTICLE

0 0 1-

GAMMA RAY

0 0 0

PROTON 1 1 1+NEUTRON 1 0 0POSITRON 0 1 1+

He4

2α

e0

-1β

γ

H1

1

n1

0

β+ e0

1

PROTECTION RADIATION

TYPES OF RADIATION & SHIELDING REQUIRED

DISTANCE PARTICLE TRAVELS

TYPE SYMBOL THROUGH AIR

INTO TISSUE SHIELDING

Alpha α 2 – 4 cm 0.05 mm Paper, clothing

Beta β 200 –300 cm 4 – 5 mm Heavy clothing, lab coats, gloves

Gamma γ 500 cm 50 mm Lead, concrete

BASIC PROTECTION TIPSKeep your distance!

The greater the distance from the radioactive source, the lower the intensity of radiation received. If you double your distance from the radiation source, the intensity of radiation drops to (1/2)2 or one-fourth of its previous value.

DISTANCE FROM THE SOURCE 2m 1mINTENSITY OF RADIATION (1/2)2 = ¼ 1

EQUATIONS NUCLEAR

*radioactive decay*

RADIOACTIVE DECAYProcess wherein the nucleus

spontaneously breaks down byemitting radiation.

Radioactive nucleus New nucleus + Radiation (α,β,γ)

NUCLEAR EQUATION

NOTE: N.E. is balanced when the sum of the mass #s and the

sum of the atomic #s of the particles and the atoms on one side ofthe equation are equal to their counterparts on the other side.

(α) ALPHA EMITTERS• ALPHA emitters are radioisotopes that decay by

emitting alpha particles.• EXAMPLE: - uranium-238 decays to thorium-234 by emitting

alpha particles.

He4

2U238

92 Th234

90 +• NOTE: the ALPHA particle emitted contains 2 protons, which gives the new

nucleus 2 fewer protons, or 90 protons. That means that the new nucleus has an atomic # of 90 and is therefore thorium (Th). Since the alpha particle has a mass # of 4, the mass # of the thorium isotope is 234, 4 less than of the original uranium nucleus.

(α) ALPHA EMITTERSEXAMPLE: COMPLETE THE NUCLEAR EQUATION - radium-226 emits alpha particles to form a new

isotope. Determine the mass #, atomic # and the new isotope form.

He4

2Ra226

88 +• SOLUTION: the new isotope is RADON-222• 226 – 4 = 222 (mass number of the new isotope)• 88 – 2 = 86 (atomic number of the new isotope)

??

? Rn222

86

(α) ALPHA EMITTERSEXAMPLE: COMPLETE THE NUCLEAR EQUATION - radon-222 emits alpha particles to form a new

isotope. Determine the mass #, atomic # and the new isotope form.

He4

2Rn222

86 +• SOLUTION: the new isotope is POLONIUM-218• 222 – 4 = 218 (mass number of the new isotope)• 86 – 2 = 84 (atomic number of the new isotope)

??

? Po218

84

(β) βETA EMITTERS• BETA emitters is a radioisotope that decays by

emitting beta particles.• EXAMPLE: - carbon-14 decays to nitrogen isotope by emitting

beta particles.

e0

-1C14

6 N14

7 +• NOTE: the newly form protons adds to the number of protons

already in the nucleus and increases the atomic number by 1. However, the mass number of the newly formed nucleus stays the same.

(β) βETA EMITTERSEXAMPLE: COMPLETE THE NUCLEAR EQUATION - cobalt-60, a radioisotope used in the treatment

of cancer decays by emitting a beta particle. Write the nuclear equation for its decay.

Co60

27 +• SOLUTION: the new isotope is NICKEL• 27 + 1 = 28 (atomic number of the new isotope)• 60 (mass number of the new isotope)

??

? Ni60

28 e0

-1

(β) βETA EMITTERSEXAMPLE: COMPLETE THE NUCLEAR EQUATION - iodine-131, a beta emitter, is used to check

thyroid function and to treat hyperthyroidism. Write its nuclear equation.

I131

53 +• SOLUTION: the new isotope is XENON• 53 + 1 = 54 (atomic number of the new isotope)• 131 (mass number of the new isotope)

??

? Xe131

54 e0

-1

(γ) GAMMA EMITTERS• There are very few pure GAMMA emitters, although gamma

radiation accompanies most alpha and beta radiation.

• EXAMPLE: - unstable form of technetium-99 most commonly used gamma

emitter by emitting gamma rays the unstable nucleus becomes stable. Nuclear equation for Tc-99m.

γTc99m

43 +• NOTE: (m) state or metastable means - a high-energy

excited stage by emitting energy in the from of gamma rays, the nucleus becomes stable.

Tc99

43

HALF – LIFE OF A RADIOISOTOPES

WHAT IS HALF-LIFE?

TIME ELAPSED 0 8 DAYS 16 DAYS 24 DAYS

# of half-lives elapsed 0 1 2 3

Quantity of (I-131) remaining 1000 atoms 500 atoms 250 atoms 125 atoms

• The time it takes for one-half of a radioactive sample to decay.

• EXAMPLE: - iodine-131, a radioactive isotope of iodine used in diagnosis and

treatment of thyroid disorders, has a half-life of 8 days. If we began with sample containing 1000 atoms of iodine-131, there would be 500 atoms remaining after 8 days and so on…

20

15.0

10.0

5.0

2.5

00 8 16 24 32 40

1 half-life

2 half-lives

3 half-lives

4 half-lives5 half-lives

Time (days)

Amou

nt o

f iod

ine-

131

(g)

DECAY CURVE FOR IODINE-131

HALF-LIVES OF SOME RADIOISOTOPES

ELEMENT RADIOISOTOPES HALF-LIFE TYPES OF RADIATION

NATURALLY OCCURING RADIOISOTOPES CARBON 14 C 5730 yrs. β

POTASSIUM 40K 1.3 X 109 yrs. β,γ

RADIUM 226Ra 1600 yrs. α,γ

URANIUM 238U 4.5 X 109 yrs. α,γ

MEDICAL RADIOISOTOPES CARBON 11 C 20 min β+

CHROMIUM 51Cr 28 days γ

IODINE 131I 8 days β,γ

IODINE 125I 60 days γ

IRON 59Fe 46 days β,γ

HALF-LIVES OF SOME RADIOISOTOPES

ELEMENT RADIOISOTOPES HALF-LIFE TYPES OF RADIATION

MEDICAL RADIOISOTOPES PHOSPOROUS 32P 14 days β

OXYGEN 15O 2 min β+

POTASSIUM 42K 12 hours β,γ

SODIUM 24Na 15 hours β,γ

STRONTIUM 25Sr 64 days γ

TECHNETIUM 99mTc 6.0 hours γ

• NOTE: technetium-99m emits half-life of its radiation in its 6 hr. This means that a small amount of the radioisotopes given to patient is essentially gone within 2 days. The decay products of technetium-99m are totally eliminated by the body.

Half-life sample problem…• Nitrogen-13, which has a half-life of 10 min.

is used to manage organs in the body. For diagnostic procedure the patient receives an injection of a compound containing radioisotopes. Originally, the nitrogen-13 has an activity of 40 microcuries (μCi). If the procedure requires 30 min, what is the remaining activity of the radioisotopes?

NOTE: Another way to calculate the activity of radioactive nitrogen-13 left in sample is to construct a chart to show the number of half-lives, elapsed time, and the amount of radioactive isotope that is left in the sample.

Time elapsed 0 10 min 20 min 30 min

Number of half-lives elapsed 0 1 2 3

Activity of N-13 remaining 40 μCi 20 μCi 10 μCi 2μCi

SOLUTION:

Number of half-lives = 30 min X 1 half-life

10 min = 3

The activity of the radioisotopes in 3 half-lives is:

10 min 10 min 10 min40 μCi 20 μCi 10 μCi 5 μCi

Half-life sample problem…• In Los Angeles, the remains of ancient

animals have been unearthed at the La Brea tar pit. Suppose a bone

sample from the tar pits is subjected to the carbon-14 dating method. If the

sample shows about two half-lives have passed, about when did the

animal live in the tar pits?

NOTE: We would estimate that the animal lived in the tar pits about 11, 000 years ago, or about 9000 B.C.

SOLUTION: (half-life of carbon-14 = 5730

2 half-lives X 1 half-life 5730 yrs.

1 half- life

= 11, 000 years

Half-life sample problem…• Iron-59, used in the determination

of bone marrow function, has a half-life of 46 days. If the laboratory receives a sample of 8.0 g of iron-59, how many grams are still active after 184 days?

ANSWER : 0.50 g

DETECTING & MEASURING RADIATION

SOME UNITS OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT UNIT MEANINGACTIVITY CURIE (Ci) 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/s

ABSORBED DOSE Rad 10-5 J/g

BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE TO HUMANS Rem Rad X RBE

NOTE: RADIOISOTOPE ACTIVITYThe activity of sample is measured in terms of the number of disintegrations or nuclear transformations produced by the sample per second. The curie (Ci) is the unit used to express nuclear disintegration. The curie was named for Marie Curie who discovered radioactive elements radium and polonium together with her husband Pierre curie.

1 curie = 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/s

SOME UNITS OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT UNIT MEANINGACTIVITY CURIE (Ci) 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/s

ABSORBED DOSE Rad 10-5 J/g

BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE TO HUMANS Rem Rad X RBE

NOTE: RADIATION ABSORBED DOSE

The rad (for radiation absorbed dose) is a unit that measures the amount of radiation absorbed by a gram of material such as body

tissue. One rad is the absorption of 10-5 J of energy per gram of tissue.

(1 cal = 4.18 J) 1rad = 10-5 J/g

SOME UNITS OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT UNIT MEANINGACTIVITY CURIE (Ci) 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/s

ABSORBED DOSE Rad 10-5 J/g

BIOLOGICAL DAMAGE TO HUMANS Rem Rad X RBE

NOTE: RADIATION EQUIVALENT IN HUMANSThe rem (for radiation equivalent in humans) is a unit that measures the

biological damage caused by the various kinds of radiation. The rem considers the biological effects of alpha, beta and gamma radiation on tissue are not the same. The alpha particles reach the tissues, they can cause more ionization and therefore more damage than do beta particles and gamma rays. Radiation biological effectiveness value of gamma = 1; beta = 10; alpha = 20

Rem = Rad X RBE

MEASURING sample problem…

• In the treatment for leukemia, phosphorus-32, which has an

activity of 2 millicuries (mCi), is used. If phosphorus-32 is a beta

emmiter, how many beta particles are emitted in 1s?

NOTE: We calculate the number of beta particles from a radioisotope’s activity. Since 1 Ci is 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/s, there must be 3.7 X 1010 beta particles produced in a second.

SOLUTION:

2 mCi X 3.7 X1010 β particles

s Ci

= 7.4 X107 beta particles

1 Ci = 3.7 X1010 disintegrations/s

1 Ci

1000 mCiX 1 s

SICKNESS RADIATION

RADIATION SICKNESS• The larger the dose of radiation received at one time,

the greater the effect on the body. Exposure to radiation under 25 rem usually cannot be detected. Whole body exposure of 100 rem produces a temporary decrease in the number of white blood cells. If the exposure to radiation is 100 rem higher, the person suffers the symptoms of radiation sickness: nausea, vommiting, fatigue, and a reduction in white blood cells count. A whole-body dosage greater than 300 rem can lower the whote blood cell count to zero. The patient suffers diarrhea, hair loss and infection.

AVERAGE RADIATION RECEIVED BY A PERSONSOURCE DOSE (mrem)

NATURAL

The ground 15

Air, water, food 30

Cosmic rays 40

Wood, concrete, brick 50

MEDICAL

Chest x-ray 50

Dental x-ray 20

Upper gastrointestinal tract x-ray 200

OTHER

Television 2

Air travel 1

Global fallout 2

Cigarette smoking 35

LETHAL DOSELethal Doses of Radiation for Some Life-Forms

Life – Form LD50 (rem)

Insect 100, 000

Bacterium 50, 000

Rat 800

Human 500

Dog 300

NOTE: Exposure to radiation of about 500 rem is expected to cause death in 50% of the people receiving that dose. This amount of radiation is called LETHAL DOSE for one-half the population, or LD50. Radiation of about 600 rem would be fatal to all humans within a few weeks.

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS RADIOISOTOPES

SOME RADIOISOTOPES USED IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE

ELEMENT RADIOISOTOPE MEDICAL USECHROMIUM 51 Cr Spleen imaging, blood volume,

TECHNETIUM 99mTc Brain, Lung, Liver, Spleen, Bone and bone marrow scans

GALLIUM 67Ga Treatment of lymphomas

PHOSPHORUS 32P Treatment of leukemia, polycythemia vera, and lymphomas; detection of brain and breast tumors

SODIUM 24Na Vascular disease, extra cellular and blood volume

STRONTIUM 85Sr Bone imaging for diagnosis of bone damage and disease

IODINE 125I Thyroid imaging; plasma volume, fat absorbtion

IODINE 131I Study of thyroid; treatment of thyroid conditions such as hyperthyrodism

RADIATION DOSES IN DIAGNOSTIC & THERAPEUTIC PROCEDURES

RADIATION DOSE USED FOR DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURESORGAN DOSE (rem)

Liver 0.3Thyroid 50.0

Lung 2.0

RADIATION DOSE USED FOR THERAPEUTIC PROCEDURESCONDITION DOSE (rem)Lymphoma 4500Skin Cancer 5000 – 6000 Lung Cancer 6000Brain Tumor 6000 – 7000

PRODUCING RADIOISOTOPES FROM NONRADIOISOTOPES

FACTS ABOUT RADIOISOTOPES…• Today, more than 1500 radioisotopes are

produced by converting stable, nonradioactive isotopes into radioactive ones.

• To do this, a stable atom is bombarded by fast-moving alpha particles, protons, or neutrons. When one of these particles is absorbed by the stable nucleus, the nucleus becomes unstable and the atom is now a radioactive isotopes.

EXAMPLE NUCLEAR BOMBARDMENT

• TRANSMUTATION – The process of changing one element into another resulting to the formation of a radioactive isotope by means of nuclear bombardment.

n1

0He4

2 N13

7 ++ B10

5

• When a nonradioactive isotope such as boron-10 is bombarded by an alpha particle, it is converted to nitrogen-13 a radioactive isotope.

FACTS ABOUT RADIOISOTOPES…All of the known elements that have atomic numbers greater than 92 have been produced by bombardment and none of these elements occurs naturally. Most have been produced in only small amounts and exist for such a short time that it is difficult to study their properties.

4 n1

0Cf249

98 N15

7 ++ Unp260

105

• An example is element 105, unnilpentium, which is produced when californium-249 is bombarded with nitrogen-15.

EXAMPLE NUCLEAR BOMBARDMENT

Zn66

30 Ga67

31+ H1

1

• Gallium-67 is used in the treatment of lymphomas. It is produced by the bombardment of Zinc-66 by a proton.

• Write the equation of the bombardment of Aluminum-27 by an alpha particle to produce the radioactive isotope Phosphorus-30 and one neutron.

n1

0He4

2 P30

15 ++Al27

13

EXAMPLE NUCLEAR BOMBARDMENT

• SOLUTION: The sum for the mass #s for nickel and hydrogen is 59. Therefore, the mass # of the new isotope must be 59 minus 4, or 55. The sum of the atomic #s is 29. the atomic # of the new isotope is 29 minus 2, or 27. The element that has an atomic number of 27 is cobalt (Co).

Ni58

28 ?+ H1

1 + He4

2Co55

27

EXAMPLE NUCLEAR BOMBARDMENT

Cf249

98 B10

5 ++ Lr257

103 ? n1

02 n1

0

• APPLICATION IN NUCLEAR MEDICINETechnetium-99 is a radioisotope used in nuclearmedicine for several diagnostic procedures,including the detection of brain tumors andexamination of liver spleen. How to produce Tc-99?

EXAMPLE NUCLEAR BOMBARDMENT• The source of technetium-99 is molybdenum-99, which is produced

in nuclear reactor by neutron bombardment of molybdenum-98.

• Molybdenum-99 decays to give Technetium-99m

Mo98

42 + n1

0 Mo99

42

Mo99

42 Tc99m

43 + e0

-1

• Technetium-99m has a half-life of 6 hours and decays by emitting gamma rays

Tc99

43 + γTc99m

43

FISSION VS. FUSION THE NUCLEAR PROCESS

NUCLEAR ENERGY NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS