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Page 1: inspire educate imagine enjoy conserve believe Animal · Marwell Education Service Page 2 Ethology: The study of Animal Behaviour Modern behaviourists attempt to explain behaviour

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Education Service

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AnimalBehaviour

Page 2: inspire educate imagine enjoy conserve believe Animal · Marwell Education Service Page 2 Ethology: The study of Animal Behaviour Modern behaviourists attempt to explain behaviour

Marwell Zoological Park, Colden Common, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 1JH

Telephone: 01962 777407 Facsimile: 01962 777511 Email: [email protected] Website: www.marwell.org.uk Registered Charity No: 275433

Our Mission

Marwell is dedicated to the conservation of wildlife and other natural resources. We work to conserve species and their habitats, and advocate environmental and

social responsibility in support of these goals.

Our Aims

• To conserve species and their habitats, locally & globally.

• To encourage understanding and inspire care for the natural world.

• To undertake and share results of scientific studies. • To understand our impacts and improve our

environmental performance. • To invest in people and provide opportunities for

personal and professional development. • To communicate our mission and the value of our

work for wildlife, the environment and society. • To develop and maintain a world class visitor centre

and zoological park in support of our charitable objectives.

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Contents

Page 2: Ethology: The Study of Animal Behaviour

Page 5: Zoo Research Guidelines: Project Planning and Behavioural Observations

Page 9: Interpreting Behaviour

• Sulawesi crested macaque • Nyala • Amur tiger

Page 13: Animal Enrichment @ Marwell

Page 15: General References and Recommended Reading

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Ethology: The study of Animal Behaviour Modern behaviourists attempt to explain behaviour patterns in terms of the underlying physiological processes involved, i.e. the operation of the sensory nervous system. In the past vitalist studies (field based) and mechanistic studies (laboratory based) have both been used to study behaviour (such as the ability to measure hormone levels in the blood) to try and gain an understanding of motivation, stimuli and responses involved. In a captive situation, as seen at Marwell, an understanding of animal behaviour is essential to the maintenance of healthy and contented animals. Example 1 – understanding how group hierarchy is organised in a species allows keepers to provide the optimum group sizes with minimum aggression. Example 2 – understanding the essential stimuli that should precede courtship and mating may lead to greater success in breeding programmes. STIMULI These can be internal (physiological) or external. 1. Motivational The physiological state of being hungry is a motivational stimulus

that encourages the animal to search for food. 2. Releaser The sight of food is a releaser stimuli, inducing a full range of

feeding behaviour. Releaser stimuli may appear simple but can elicit a series of complex behaviour patterns, e.g. the red dot on the beak of an adult herring gull stimulates the chick to peck it, and this in turn causes the adult bird to regurgitate food which the chick can then eat.

3. Terminating These stimuli bring a particular behaviour to an end, e.g. a full

stomach terminates feeding behaviour. MOTIVATION This term describes the internal state of an animal which precedes a specific act of behaviour. To elicit feeding behaviour an animal should be motivated by hunger. If the animal has just eaten, the sight of food does not bring about feeding behaviour. The animal is said to be unmotivated as far as eating is concerned though it may well be motivated towards some other behaviour such as sleeping. Motivation originates from the animal’s internal physiological state, as governed by various hormone levels in the blood. These may be controlled by external factors known as motivational stimuli (see above). In birds for example, sexual behaviour is induced by increasing day length. Receptors in the eyes detect the daylight and send nervous impulses which result in the

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pituitary releasing gonadotrophins which bring the bird into a reproductive state. The bird is now motivated and will respond positively to releaser stimuli such as the appearance of a potential mate. TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR Behaviour is a result of interplay between an organism and its environment. In the classical study of behaviour there is a lot of “pigeon-holing”, but in reality it is usually impossible to look at particular aspects of behaviour in isolation. 1. Species-specific behaviour. This is a behaviour pattern common to all members of a species, e.g. courtship display, territorial marking, etc. It may be referred to as instinctive in as much as it occurs in individuals reared in isolation. 2. Individual-specific behaviour. Includes patterns learned during an animal’s lifetime, e.g. dogs learning tricks, and blue tits removing milk bottle tops. A particular behaviour pattern will inevitably be the result of ‘instinct’ and ‘learned’ behaviour and will be modified by the demands of the environment. LEARNING AND BEHAVIOUR Learning is an adaptive change in behaviour as a result of experience. It involves changing old behaviour patterns and developing new ones in response to changing environmental conditions. Such behaviour cannot be inherited but the capacity to learn can. Learning can be divided into five categories. Not all types of animal exhibit all types of learning. 1. Habituation If an animal is subjected to repeated, harmless stimuli it may cease to respond to further stimulation. In this way the performance of unnecessary behaviour is prevented. Examples include a snail which ceases to withdraw its eye stalks when repeatedly touched. By eliminating unnecessary behaviour, an animal can spend more time on useful activities such as feeding. 2. Associative Learning An animal learns to associate a particular response with a reward or punishment, and adapts its behaviour accordingly. i) The conditioned reflex (classical conditioning): The classic example of associative learning is demonstrated by Pavlov and his salivating dogs. An example of this form of learning in the wild might be: a young animal associates the sight of a predator (the unconditioned stimuli) with the need to flee (the unconditioned response). In time the animal may learn to associate the behaviour or alarm calls of other species with the appearance of the predator. Later still the animal may flee as a result of hearing just the calls of the other species, in which case the calls are the conditioned stimulus and fleeing the conditioned response. Conditioning allows an animal to maximise its rewards while minimising punishment. ii) Trial and error learning (operant conditioning): The animal associates reward or punishment with its own action rather than outside stimulus. Thorndike used a problem box which could be opened from the inside with a lever. A cat was shut in the box. Eventually, by exploring its surroundings, the cat would trip a lever that opened the door. On repeated trials the cat increasingly concentrated its efforts around the site of the lever until it

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learned to move directly to the lever and open the door. The cat had learned to concentrate on rewarding behaviour. The development of co-ordination in young mammals and birds is probably due to trial and error learning. Intelligence is sometimes measured by the time an animal takes to cease making errors, the complexity of the situation to which it can respond and the period it retains information. 3. Latent (Exploratory) Learning Many animals explore their surroundings and store useful information for future use. A rat placed in a maze will explore. Later, when hungry and placed in the maze, it was found that the rat discovered the reward in fewer trials, than rats that had had no previous experience of the maze. The rat used its previous experience when it was motivated to eat. Exploratory behaviour is characteristic of more intelligent animals and is invaluable to survival in a complex environment. 4. Insight Learning Intelligence can, in part, be assessed by the complexity of a problem solved and the speed at which it is done. In humans, a sudden ‘brainwave’ can overcome an apparently insoluble problem. Insight is often described as the ability to reason, to draw together past experiences and apply them to new situations. Insight learning has been credited to humans and to chimps. 5. Imprinting A behaviour characteristic of vertebrate young. During a critical time, often the first few hours after hatching/birth, offspring learn to recognise their parent/s and follow them. Konrad Lorenz showed that newly hatched goslings followed the first moving object they saw... be it a goose or a human. In the wild, parents would be the first object seen – imprinting on them means youngsters would be less likely to get lost. Parents imprint on their own young to avoid the risk of wasting energy rearing another animal’s offspring. In the zoo, imprinting can cause all sorts of problems. An animal that is hand-reared by its keeper can be difficult to reintroduce to a group of its own species. Great care must be taken to minimise ‘humanisation’. Memory All learning requires some sort of memory; in simple organisms memory may consist of chemical blockers at a synapse. ‘Intelligent’ animals have far more complex storage and retrieval systems, usually associated with the major sense organs and always linked to the rest of the body via an intricate nervous system.

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Zoo Research Guidelines: Project Planning and Behavioural Observations BIAZA RESEARCH GUIDELINES (ABRIDGED VERSION) Scientific investigations are the basis for understanding the animals in a zoo, assessing the way they are cared for and how they interact with their zoo environment. Through careful research, we can improve animal management, husbandry, welfare, breeding, diets etc. Research conducted in zoos can also contribute to the conservation of animals in-situ (in their range state). In zoos it is possible to study animals closely, which can be an excellent training for observations in the field. Zoos also provide a valuable opportunity to train young scientists and other interested parties in scientific research techniques. 1. Formulating the research question and initial practicalities Identify the question(s) and the species upon which you wish to focus. Consult your teacher/supervisor to make sure that these are appropriate for a zoo project. A thorough literature search on both the species and the question is then the next step. Electronic databases such as ‘Web of Science’ are the easiest way to search for scientific work on a particular topic.

The Internet and reports on previous zoo projects, which can be obtained by contacting Zoo Libraries or Zoo Research Coordinators, can be useful. However, the source and accuracy of Internet material should be carefully considered. Also previous project reports may be unreliable and inaccurate due to the restricted input from zoo personnel or poor supervision. Read unpublished projects critically and decide if the information is valid. Avoid following on from a scientifically unsound project unless you can make changes and improve on it. Do not base your project too closely on a previous study as this may be classed as plagiarism. Example: If you were interested in studying the effect of visitor numbers on the behaviour of a group of macaques, your literature search should cover 'macaque behaviour' both 'in the wild' and 'in zoos' plus 'visitor effects on zoo animals/primates'. Discuss the project with your teacher before contacting the zoo or animal collection. A list of suggested projects may be available from the Zoo Research Coordinator. Check carefully what your course requires with regards to the write-up of the project and whether these requirements can be fully met by the intended zoo project. For example, are descriptive statistics adequate or is statistical hypothesis testing a requirement?

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Find out the registration procedure for conducting a project at the zoo you have chosen. Start by contacting your teacher who might have zoo registration forms or information leaflets. If there is no information available, contact the Zoo Research Coordinator. It is helpful, and often a requirement, to have a short, typed project proposal to submit to your teacher and the zoo. Identify your study animals and determine any group structure. Ask the zoo for identification sheets or a copy of the taxon report for the species of your interest. The taxon report gives individual information on age, sex, parents, etc. Check through any previous project reports that are available on these animals (ask the Research Coordinator or the Zoo Librarian). Previous reports may not only hold information on the individuals but often also contain enclosure maps. Determine whether identification of individuals is possible within your time constraints. It might be sufficient for your particular research question to subdivide the population by sex or age group. 2. Developing the research design Practicalities and Responsibilities Consider what types of projects are appropriate for a zoo environment. For example invasive studies that require a Home Office License may be possible in a laboratory but will not be accepted in a zoo. For ethical reasons it is unlikely that you will be able to collect data that would require separating individual animals from a group (e.g. for individual feeding trials) or catching or anaesthetising the study animals. Discuss with your teacher and if necessary with the Zoo Research Coordinator how feasible your initial design will be to implement. The project needs to work around zoo regimes (e.g. animal feeding times, keeper’s rota) and avoid disrupting the animals or the keepers. Check the husbandry regime for your study animals and bear in mind that you may not be able to observe them at certain times (e.g. outside of zoo opening times or when they cannot be seen from public viewing areas). By handing in a preliminary proposal well before the start of your project, the zoo will have the opportunity to inform you about any possible problems. Always keep to the arrangements that you made with zoo staff (e.g. for putting enrichment devices into enclosures) and ensure that you turn up on the days and at the times agreed. Be sure to inform the keepers and/or the Research Coordinator if you make changes to your research plans. Experimental Design Identify independent and dependent variables in your experiment. The independent variable is the factor that you, as the researcher, will manipulate. The dependant variable is what you will measure. The independent variable can be manipulated either directly or indirectly. Example: Independent variables might include the addition of enrichment devices (directly controlled by you) or visitor numbers (indirect measure since you cannot control it). The dependent variable might be position of the animal(s) in the enclosure or behaviour frequencies or durations. If your project requires observation of detailed behaviour you will need to construct an ethogram. This is a detailed list of objectively described, mutually exclusive behaviours that you will focus on to answer your research

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question(s). These behaviours provide you with measurable units for which you can record frequencies and durations or latencies. Think carefully about the context of your data collection – what else might be going on at the same time and possibly affecting it? Eliminate as many confounding variables as possible so that the only factor that affects your dependent variable is/are your independent variable/s. Those that cannot be eliminated should be controlled for as far as possible and acknowledged and discussed in your project report. So comparing the general behaviour of a scorpion and a penguin is not the best

idea because there are too many variables. Example: Animals may reduce their activity when visitor numbers increase but does this also coincide with higher temperatures due to better weather? Choosing Sampling Methods Exactly what data you collect depends on your hypothesis. The variables you measure should be chosen to best describe what is of interest to answer the research question. Avoid taking unnecessary data by remaining focused on your hypothesis. Example: Instead of collecting general data on, for example, everything that each individual of a group does, you might focus specifically on where individuals are found in the enclosure and behaviour shown there. If you are looking at the effect of enrichment devices, you might focus on behavioural elements relevant to the device (e.g. foraging and feeding) or focus more broadly on changes in time budgets, but it would not be necessary to collect data on details of e.g. social behaviours. Data Collection in the Zoo

I. Why are you gathering data? Many behaviourists have studied animals out of personal interest. It is however becoming increasingly important to study and record the natural behaviour of animals as this may be used to help conserve the species in the wild. Other reasons for study may be to improve our management of captive animals or to investigate the relationship a species has with its ecosystem.

II. Difficulty of Making Accurate Observations. The animals should ideally be in their natural habitat and should be undisturbed by your presence. (How easy is this to achieve?). Alternatively the animals under study should become acclimatised to you over a period of time. Your presence may affect other species nearby, which could influence the behaviour of the animals you wish to study.

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III. How to Record. There are several methods which can be employed. These include hand-held tape recorder (must ensure voice does not intrude on animals under study), recording using note pad and shorthand and still photography, video/sound recording.

IV. What and When to Record. Decide when to collect the data. You need to consider time of day, visitor numbers, temperature, weather conditions, animal breeding season etc. Make sure you plan your data collection so that you have enough time to answer your questions within such constraints and allow extra time for unexpected problems. Please note when interpreting the results of a short-term project that the outcome cannot be seen as being representative for the animals' behaviour all year round! Consider how /when /how often etc. to record the data and ensure you are using the most appropriate sampling method to answer your question. This is important in determining whether your data are suitable for statistical analysis, so do check if you intend such analysis. Example: You might study one focal animal at a time, select individuals out of subgroups or scan the behaviour of the whole group at the same time point. Sampling methods include; ad lib, focal and scan behaviour sampling. Recording can be continuous, instantaneous, frequency, etc. The number of observations you take will depend on how many animals you have available, how many different experimental conditions you are planning to compare, the probability tests you have decided to use (if any) and how strong the effect of your independent variable is. Decide how long you will leave between sampling periods (among other factors, this will depend on the duration of the behaviours observed) and how you will avoid bias when choosing a subject to sample. It is important that these issues are carefully considered to avoid generating errors in interpreting results and/or any statistical analyses. If certain individuals are more active/visible, their behaviour may be recorded repeatedly (and so be over-represented in the results) instead of obtaining data from all individuals evenly. Example: To avoid bias, pick subjects at random or in a set order rather than focusing on the animal displaying the most interesting behaviour at that time. This might result in lots of, e.g. 'inactive' or 'out of sight' behaviour being recorded but, even if this seems less interesting to you, the observer, it is still valid data. Once you have planned your data collection it is very valuable to carry out preliminary observations (a pilot study) to iron out any unforeseen problems with your research design or sampling strategies. It also enables you to judge realistically how long the data collection for the whole project will take and to plan a timetable accordingly (with extra time added for further unforeseen problems!).

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Interpreting Your Results Take care when interpreting your results to reconsider the planning and design part of the process and think back over any confounding or irrelevant variables. Did any others arise during the course of your data collection (e.g. new animal arrived in collection, new feeding method, strong weather change)? How might these, individually and together, have affected your results? You need to discuss these thoroughly; in some studies they have a larger effect than the independent variable. Consider the value of your results for the observed zoo animals and also, if appropriate, how applicable these results are for the subject species in other zoos/wild. THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN INTERPRETAING ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR DO NOT use Preconceptions

Example: You might have preconceptions that all cats hate water – this is not the case with Amur tigers.

DO NOT use Assumptions DO NOT be A Anthropomorphnonhuman orga

Example: One would assume that red-bellied piranhas eat animal flesh all the time. However they have often been observed eating fruit.

nthropomorphic

ism is the attribution of human motivation, characteristics, or behaviour to nisms or inanimate objects.

Example: A smiling macaque is not a“happy” macaque. It has been discovered that when primates show their teeth itis often a fear or aggressive response and not a positive response as with humans.

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Sulawesi black crested macaque

Thin Soladdoinc Th Thtebe

Gis ofgrsm

Fact File……………… Habitat: Tropical mangrove forest on the

Indonesian island of Sulawesi Diet: Leaves, roots, sprouts, buds, fruit,

insects & caterpillars Behaviour: Highly social, average 1 male to

3.4 females Life span: 18 years Gestation period: 162- 186 days

e Sulawesi Crested Macaque (Cybopithecus niger) is a monkey despite having little to show the way of a tail.

cial Harmony…..is achieved by every member of the group having a place on the ‘social der’ although an individual’s position can change for all sorts of reasons. For example, the minant male may be ousted by a stronger rival and an adult female’s status tends to rease when she comes into season.

e Hierarchy…

1. Dominant male ↓ 2. Females on heat (in season) ↓ 3. The juvenile son of the dominant male ↓ 4. Expectant mothers and mothers with new babies

e juvenile male is not yet sexually mature but has become sexually active. He continually sts his status among his group peers and his father tolerates this behaviour, presumably cause his son poses no threat as a potential father.

rooming…. is a social activity which reinforces relationships. Touching a sign of reassurance and acceptance, emphasising the individual’s sense ‘belonging’ to a group. No matter what rank they hold, each individual is oomed by someone else presenting themselves to be touched and oothed.

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Facial expressions and displays…. are used by the dominant male to signal his authority to others. He warns young males off by throwing his head back and opening his mouth to reveal his teeth. He will stand on all fours with shoulders hunched making himself look as big as possible. Sulawesi Crested Macaques have mobile heads and flexible faces, allowing for a wide range of facial positions and expressions. The “fear grin” with the crest of hair raised, is an indication of anxiety or alarm. Pink, fleshy bottoms…. are a brilliant way of keeping the group together, as they are easy to see in the dark, dense rainforest and act as a “follow me” signal. Until puberty, these patches of skin called, ischial callosities, are quite pale in colour. When sexual maturity is reached gonadal hormones cause a heightened colouration of the skin in both sexes. For the females, the skin colour is exaggerated every month and is accompanied by an increased swelling. Both are visual indications that she is in season. Sulawesi black crested macaques are polygamous i.e. they do not have fixed breeding partners. Females in season will first invite the dominant male to mate but if he seems uninterested she may invite a lower ranking male within the group to mate with her. Newborn infants….are often the focus of attention for youngsters of both sexes, as well as other mothers and females. If one of the group is interested in touching the infant, they will approach the mother, sit down at arms length and stretch out their hand tentatively. Although the infant is dependant on its mother for milk for many months, it will start becoming independent at around 4 months and as it gets older and stronger it will become more adventurous, leaving its mother to play with other group members.

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Nyala

Infordimfrincuma Al

If sig

Fact File………………………………………… Scientific name Tragelaphus angasi Distribution South Africa, from North Natal to

Malawi Status in the wild

Lower Risk – conservation dependant

Gestation period 7 – 7.5 months Number of young

Usually 1

Sexually mature 2 years Lifespan Up to 16years in captivity Notable features ‘Sexually dimorphic’ – the male and

female differ in appearance and colouration. Males use their horns for impressing females and digging up tubers.

troduction…Nyala are medium sized antelope that inhabit riverside forests and woodlands ming herds up to 40 animals, browsing on fruit, leaves and tubers. Nyala show ‘sexual orphism’. The buck (male) has a shaggy dark grey coat with faint white stripes and a long ge along the underside. They have a white chevron between their eyes and well developed

rved horns. The doe (female) is smaller with a bright chestnut coloured coat with boldly rked stripes. The doe does not have horns.

arm… Nyala don’t have the speed of open ground antelope, so relies on camouflage to escape predators. But when there is danger nyala will not only run away but also warns the other individuals in the group. It does this by raising its tail to reveal a white underside and rear and by emitting an alarm bark. Other nyala will see and hear these signals and immediately run off. This behaviour is common to many species of antelope.

nyala are disturbed by something that constitutes a threat it may react in several ways to nal to the others that something is wrong:

• by nodding their heads • twisting their heads from side to side • opening and closing their mouths

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Dominance displays…A herd of nyala consists of several groups each led by one buck with a few females and their young. Dominance hierarchies exist among the males and these determine which males have access to the females. Behaviour displays between males establish which individual is dominant. Two bucks will fluff up the hair on the ridge of their backs (to make them look bigger) and slowly walk forwards parallel to each other. Usually one will decide that the other is too big to challenge and will back down, forsaking any claims over the females in the group. However, if neither back down they will engage in a head to head tussle, interlocking horns. This can lead to death of one of the animals. Sometimes bucks can be seen practising for these fights on branches or bushes. Courtship…Female nyala come into season every three weeks. During this time a male may escort a female for several days if unchallenged. A courtship ritual may then take place with the buck following the doe kicking her back legs. If she accepts him, mating will follow. Calves are generally fathered by the most dominant buck.

Mother & Calf…Nyala almost always bear single calves. The newborn calf is concealed in dense undergrowth or tall grass away from the main herd, its camouflage helping it hide from predators. The mother returns at regular intervals to feed the calf. She communicates to the calf by making clicking and creaking noises with her tongue.

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Amur Tiger

IntThealthtige ScAmterrforsFortheScewhe

Fact File………………………………………… Scientific name Panthera tigris altaica Distribution North Korea, North East

China, and Eastern Russia

Status in the wild Critically endangered Gestation period Approximately 108 days Number of young Usually 3 - 4 Sexually mature 3 – 4 years Life span Up to 20years in

captivity, less in the wild Notable features The tiger has white spots

on the back of their ears that are used for communication

roduction Amur tiger (formerly Siberian tiger) is the largest of all big cats. It is a solitary cat, and ough it is unusual to find adult tigers living together for long periods in the wild, Marwell’s rs are kept in pairs to ensure the best possible breeding success.

ent marking ur tigers are territorial, one male occupies a large range which overlaps the smaller itories of several females. This gives ample opportunity to mate with many females without aking his territory. The territory must be large enough to provide a plentiful supply of food. the female this will have to be sufficient to feed both herself and her cubs. Adult tigers mark ir territorial boundaries by spraying urine on prominent landmarks, this is scent marking. nt marking is a labour saving device which means that the tiger doesn’t have to be every re at once.

Greetings

Tigers recognise each others scent, so when family members meet they greet each other by rubbing noses, sniffing, touching and licking. Strangers approach with extreme caution as for them physical contact of any kind might be misconstrued as an attempt to attack.
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Scent marking Fighting can be fatal, so it is usually avoided by displays of aggression. Whatever the reason for the display the visual signals are very clear. The aggressor’s body posture is head on so that he/she can stare directly at the other individual with eye to eye contact. The back is raised and fur erected to increase body size, and the tail swished from side to side. Snarling reveals its teeth and the ears lay flat to show their prominent white spots which signal imminent danger. In contrast the submissive animal lowers its body posture, redirects its gaze so to avoid eye to eye contact, keeps its mouth shut, and its ears forward so to keep the warning spots hidden. Mating Males and females lead solitary lives, but when the female is on heat (in oestrus) the male will seek her out, following a pheromone (scent) trail. The pair consort for several days, perhaps mating many times. The female will crouch so that the male can mount her. To keep her still the male may hold the females head or neck in his mouth. Parental responsibilities These are left to the mother. In the wild the female will seek out a suitable den where she can

give birth and then leave her cubs safely whilst she hunts. The cubs are blind at birth and dependant on their mother to

PTas SSpa

provide them with milk and meat (when they have been weaned). As the skills of hunting and killing require practice, the cubs will stay with their mother for up to 2 years until they can fend for themselves. The routine after feeding usually includes licking each others faces. This is an act of hygiene as well as mutual trust, the gentle contact helps to strengthen the parent-offspring bond.

lay his activity not only allows the animal to ‘let off steam’ by getting rid of excess energy, but it lso fulfils another important function – staging mock battles and chases help to develop the kills which will later be vital for successful hunting.

talking talking is probably an instinctive part of cat behaviour, but an aspect that needs a lot of ractice and muscle development before it is a worthy tool in the art of hunting. Anything nimate or inanimate can be used for target practice.

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Animal Enrichment @ Marwell The Marwell Behaviour Management Group The group was formed to address the behavioural aspects of welfare of the animals housed at Marwell, and to make key staff available in a workable forum, to achieve the objectives below. The two main aims of the group are to: i) Stimulate and preserve species typical behaviour in captive populations, through the

management of their environment, by providing animals with opportunities to behave in a naturalistic way. “Species typical behaviour” are those actions carried out by a specific species which are not carried out by any other. This refers to individual behaviours, such as leaping to catch a bird. To behave in a “naturalistic way” means that in general an animal’s behavioural repertoire closely resembles that of a wild counterpart, therefore it refers to an animal’s broader activities.

ii) Prevent or reverse the development of abnormal behaviour patterns, i.e. those which would never be seen in a wild counterpart such as stereotypies like pacing etc.

This will be achieved by: i) Improving enclosure designs and husbandry routines that have an impact on behaviour. ii) Introducing novel enrichment techniques. The group will also endeavour to: i) Inform the public, researchers and zoo personnel of the group’s activities, and ii) Encourage and facilitate scientific assessment of the effects of any modifications to the

animal’s environments. Group composition The group should consist of a representative of each of the six animal sections, a representative of the curatorial staff and the enrichment co-ordinator. It is also desirable to invite other staff to facilitate the actions of the group i.e. a member of each of the following departments:

MBMG Set-up

Curators

AILO

Maintenance FluidKeepers

Education

Director

HeadKeepers

Chairman +EnrichmentCo-ordinator

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Group meetings The meetings will be chaired by a member one of the section representatives. The chairman will be appointed for a term of one year. On the eleventh month of the term the issue of a new chairman will be added as an agenda item for that meeting. The group will discuss a replacement chairman. As before, the Chairman must be a member of the keeping staff. Following this discussion, nominations will be made and the group will vote on the subject. In the event that a suitable chairman cannot be found, the current chairman can be re-elected. Meetings will be organised and administrated by the Enrichment Co-ordinator, who will also provide an agenda and take the minutes for each meeting. The group will meet once a month throughout the year. An annual review will be compiled which will detail the progress of the meeting objectives, the role and function of the group as well as reviewing the terms of reference. As a part of their duties the Enrichment Co-ordinator will also serve the group by sourcing relevant materials, carrying out scientific assessments, source students for the evaluation of enrichment, arrange “spin-off” meetings and compile and catalogue details of group projects and disseminate to relevant parties. Mechanism of project flow through the group.

• Discussion (within group or within section)

• Final idea

• Curatorial approval

• Financial backing

• Baseline data collection

• Create and implement enrichment

• Photograph and/or film animal’s reactions

• Enrichment data collection

• Remove enrichment

• Post enrichment data collection

• Analyse data

• Report to group

• Write report/ notes

• Post on website

e

o

Some examples of the nrichment carried out

at Marwell can be seen n the back page of this

booklet.

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References Wehnelt, S, Hosie, C, Plowman, A, and Feistner, A, (2002) BIAZA Zoo Research

Guidelines: Project Planning and Behavioural Observations. (See http://www.biaza.org.uk).

Recommended Reading

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Alcock, J (1993). Animal Behaviour

Altmann, J (1974) Observational study of behavior: sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

ASAB (2001) Guidelines for the treatment of animals in behavioural research and teaching. Animal Behaviour 61: 271-275.

BIAZA Research Group (2002) Research Sampling Guidelines for Zoos. BIAZA, London.

Bostock, S St C (1993) Zoos and Animal Rights. Routledge, London. (see chapter on ‘Science in Zoos’)

Burghardt, GM (1996) Introduction: Research and welfare in animal exhibit facilities. In The Well-being of Animals in Zoo and Aquarium Sponsored Research, Burghardt, GM,

Caro, TM, Roper, R, Young, M and Dank, GR (1979) Inter-observer reliability. Behaviour 69: 303-315.

Chow, IA and Rosenblum, LA (1977) A statistical investigation of the time-sampling methods in studying primate behavior. Primates 18: 555-563.

Crockett, CM (1996) Data collection in the zoo setting emphasising behavior. In: Mammals in Captivity; Principles and Techniques, Kleiman, DG, Allen, ME, Thompson, KV and Lumpkin, S (eds). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp.545-565.

Dunbar, RIM (1976) Some aspects of research design and their implications in the observational study of behaviour. Behaviour 58: 78-98.

Dytham, C (1999) Choosing and Using Statistics – A Biologists Guide. Blackwell Science Ltd. Oxford.

Feistner, ATC and Price, EC (2000) Working together for conservation: A win-win strategy for zoos and universities. In Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Symposium on Zoo Research, Plowman, AB (ed.), BIAZA, London, pp. 23-30.

Fitzroy Hardy, D (1996) Current research activities in zoos. In: Mammals in Captivity; Principles and Techniques, Kleiman, DG, Allen, ME, Thompson, KV and Lumpkin, S (eds). University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp.531-536.

Fouts, R (1995) Science in zoos: arrogance of knowledge versus humility of ignorance. In Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare and Wildlife Conservation, Norton, BG, Hutchins, M, Stevens, EE and Maple,

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TL (eds) (1995) Smithsonian Institution Press, London, pp.277-285.

Grafen, A (2002) Modern Statistics for the Life Sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Harcourt, AH (1978) Activity periods and patterns of social interaction: a neglected problem. Behaviour 66: 121-135.

Hinde, RA (1973) On the design of check-sheets. Primates 14: 393-406. Kraemer, HC (1979) One-zero sampling in the study of primate behaviour. Primates 20: 237-244.

Hurlbert, SH (1984) Pseudoreplication and the design of ecological field experiments. Ecological monographs 54(2): 87-211.

Hutchins, M (1988) On the design of zoo research programs. International Zoo Yearbook 27: 9-18.

Hutchins, M, Dresser, B and Wemmer, C (1995) Ethical considerations in zoo and aquarium research. In Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare and Wildlife Conservation, Norton, BG, Hutchins, M, Stevens, EE and Maple, TL (eds) (1995) Smithsonian Institution Press, London, pp.253-276.

Hutchins, M, Paul, E and Bowdoin, JM (1996) Contributions of zoo and aquarium research to wildlife conservation and science. In The Well-being of Animals in Zoo and Aquarium Sponsored Research, Burghardt, GM, Bielitski, JT, Boyce, JR and Schaeffer, DO (eds), Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, Greenbelt, pp. 23-39.

IUDZG/CBSG(IUCN/SSC) (1993) The World Zoo Conservation Strategy; The Role of the Zoos and Aquaria of the World in Global Conservation. Chicago Zoological Society, Chicago.

Kleiman, DG (1992) Behavior research in zoos: past, present, and future. Zoo Biology 11: 301-312.

Kleiman, DG (1995) Criteria for the evaluation of zoo research projects. Zoo Biology 4: 93-98.

Kleiman, DG (1996) Special research strategies for zoos and aquariums and design of research programs. In The Well-being of Animals in Zoo and Aquarium Sponsored Research, Burghardt, GM, Bielitski, JT, Boyce, JR and Schaeffer, DO (eds), Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, Greenbelt, pp. 15-22.

Kleiman, DG, Allen, ME, Thompson, KV and Lumpkin, S (eds) (1996) Wild Mammals in Captivity; Principles and Techniques. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Lehner, PN (1987) Design and execution of animal behavior research: An overview. Journal of Animal Science 65: 1213-1219.

Lindburg, DG and Fitch-Snyder, H (1994) Use of behavior to evaluate reproductive problems in captive mammals. Zoo Biology 13: 433-445.

Manning, A (1979). An Introduction to Animal Behaviour

Martin, P and Bateson, P (1993) Measuring Behaviour; An Introductory Guide Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

McConway, K (1992) The number of subjects in animal behaviour experiments: is Still still right? In Ethics in research on animal

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Medawar, PB (1981) Advice to a Young Scientist. Pan Books, London. Mellen, JD (1994) Survey and interzoo studies used to address husbandry

problems in some zoo vertebrates. Zoo Biology 13: 459-470. Miller, S (1984) Experimental Design and Statistics. Second Edition. Methuen,

London. Sutherland, WJ (2000) The Conservation Handbook: Research, Management and Policy. Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford.

Norton, BG, Hutchins, M, Stevens, EE and Maple, TL (eds) (1995) Ethics on the

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Rhine, RJ and Ender, PB (1983) Comparability of methods used in the sampling of

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fundamental. Animal Welfare 7: 151-175. Ryder, OA (1995) Zoological parks and the conservation of biological diversity:

Linking ex situ and in situ conservation efforts. Journal of Environment and Development 4(2):105-120.

Ryder, OA and Feistner, ATC (1995) Research in zoos: A growth area in

conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 4(6): 671-677. Saudargas, RA and Drummer, LC (1996) Single subject (small N) research

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Animal Behaviour 30: 873-880. Stoinski, TS, Lukas, KE and Maple, TL (1998) A survey of research in North

American zoos and aquariums. Zoo Biology 17: 167-180. Sutherland, WJ (ed.) (2000) Ecological Census Techniques, a Handbook.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Thiemann, S and Kraemer, HC (1984) Sources of behavioral variance:

implications for sample size decisions. American Journal of Primatology 7: 367-375.

Thompson, SD (1993) Zoo research and conservation: Beyond sperm and eggs

toward the science of animal management. Zoo Biology 12: 155-159. Tinbergen, N (1963) On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift für

Tierpsychologie 20: 410-433. Tyler, S (1979) Time-sampling: A matter of convention. Animal

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