Association for Information SystemsAIS Electronic Library (AISeL)

BLED 2016 Proceedings BLED Proceedings

2016

Instagram’s ‘Fitspiration’ Trend and Its Effect onYoung Women’s Self-EsteemDee GoldstrawManchester Metropolitan University, UK, d.goldstraw@mmu.ac.uk

Brendan James KeeganManchester Metropolitan University, UK, b.keegan@mmu.ac.uk

Follow this and additional works at: http://aisel.aisnet.org/bled2016

This material is brought to you by the BLED Proceedings at AIS Electronic Library (AISeL). It has been accepted for inclusion in BLED 2016Proceedings by an authorized administrator of AIS Electronic Library (AISeL). For more information, please contact elibrary@aisnet.org.

Recommended CitationGoldstraw, Dee and Keegan, Brendan James, "Instagram’s ‘Fitspiration’ Trend and Its Effect on Young Women’s Self-Esteem" (2016).BLED 2016 Proceedings. 35.http://aisel.aisnet.org/bled2016/35

29th Bled eConference Digital Economy

June 19 - 22, 2016; Bled, Slovenia

Instagram’s ‘Fitspiration’ Trend and Its Effect on Young Women’s Self-Esteem

Dee Goldstraw Manchester Metropolitan University, UK

d.goldstraw@mmu.ac.ukBrendan James Keegan

Manchester Metropolitan University, UK b.keegan@mmu.ac.uk

AbstractIncreasingly, sports and fitness brands are using a variety of socialmedia platforms.Instagramhascometothe fore in theareaof fitness,asserting itselfas thedefactochannelforuserstocataloguetheirathleticactivities,andofferinginspirationaltrainingadvicetofollowers.Consideringthisincreasingly-popular‘fitspiration’trend,weseeasignificantimpactuponyoungfemaleusersself-esteem,specificallyinrelationtotheirperceptionof body imagery.Hence, this paperwill developunderstandingof fitnessbrands’socialmediaactivitiesbyinvestigatingtheimpactofInstagramupontheself-esteemofyoungwomen.Nascentliteraturehasexaminedinfluenceuponself-esteemamong women throughout a variety of advertising mediums, however, none haveexplored the connection between self-esteem and social media. Accordingly, semi-structuredinterviewswithfemalesportsenthusiastsareproposedtouncoveropinionsand perceptions relating to their use of Instagram. Initial findings reveal a strongcorrelationbetweenparticipantperceptionof the ‘fitspiration’ socialmediaaccountstheysubscribeto,aswellastheimpactupontheirself-esteem.Ultimately,thispapermakestwotheoreticalcontributionsrelatingtotheeffectofsocialmediauponfemaleself-esteem,aswellascontributingtoawiderdebateofbodyimagewithinamoderndigitaleconomy.Keywords:Instagram,fitspiration,women’sself-esteem,bodyimagery,digitaleconomy

1 IntroductionFemaledigitalnativesarefamiliarwithtechnologyfromayoungageandengagein“acultureofparticipation…tosharecontent fromreviews,ratings,photos,storiesandmore.”(SolomanandTuten,2015:6).Instagramisoneofthesocialmediaplatformsattheforefrontofthisparticipationculture,claimingthat80millionphotosaresharedonitsplatformeachday(Moth,2015).Ofits400millionmonthlyactiveusers,it ismostpopular with younger women aged between 16 and 24 (Moth, 2015). According toInstagram(2016) it is“afunandquirkywaytoshareyour lifewithfriendsthroughaseriesofpictures.Snapaphotowithyourmobilephone,thenchooseafiltertotransform

190

DeeGoldstraw,BrendanJamesKeegan

theimage.”Itisthistransformationofthephotousinganeditingfunctionandapplyingfilters(e.g.,alterationstocolour,textureandlighting)thathascomeundercriticismforits ability to distort the story the photo is telling (Bevan, 2012). Arguably, thismanipulationaltersyoungwomen’sperspectiveofreality,especiallywhentheyspendup27hours perweekonline, 14%ofwhich is on Instagram (Ofcom, 2015). Equally,Instagramisrenownedforextremelyhighlevelsofengagementamongstuserswhencompared to other social platforms, such as Twitter (Moth, 2015). According toMorrison (2015) Instagram provides its users with the ability to connect with anddevelopcommunitieswithsimilarinterestsviatheuseofhashtags.

Arecenttrend,whichhasemergedonInstagram,hasgeneratedthename‘fitspiration’,anamalgamationofthewordsfitnessandinspiration.Userspostphotostothehashtag‘fitspiration’topromotehealth,fitness,nutritionandexercise.Williamson(2013)andAdams(2014)bothargueitispromotingthinness,suggestingitcouldcauseanorexia,depression,bodydissatisfactionand loweredself-esteemratherthan inspiringyoungwomen. This is further compounded bywomen’smainstreammedia,which informsreadersabout“inspiringfitnessgirlstofollowonInstagram”(Fisher,2015).Conversely,Ellemagazine has explored women’s feelings about being bombarded with perfect,flawless images and the pressure these exert (Fleming, 2014). New trends like‘fitspiration’developquicklyonsocialmediaandcompaniestryhardtokeepone-stepahead(DeMers,2015).Asbrandsaimtojoininwiththislatesttrend,thereisablurringoflinesbetweenfitnessbrandsmarketingcommunications,andthe‘fitspiration’trend.Hence, it is necessary to understand how this trend is affecting consumers, and inparticularyoungwomen.Tothiseffect,thisstudyexplored‘fitspiration’imagerypostedby fitness brands on Instagram, and its effects upon young females. Specifically,wesought to uncover whether through this imagery, young women experience adiscrepancybetween their ‘ideal self’ andactual self, aswell as impacting their self-esteem.

2 LiteratureReviewInstagram’s‘fitspiration’phenomenondisplayshundredsofthousandimagesofwomeningymwearand swimweardaily, alldisplayinghighly toned figures.As thispaper isexploringimageryinamarketingcontext,itisimportanttounderstandthatthisisnotaunique concept to Instagram. Imagery is utilised extensively as part of marketingcampaigns,witheachimagecarefullychosen,croppedandeditedtocarrysymbolicandemotionalmeaning(Branthwaite,2002).Therehavebeenmanypreviousstudiesintomoreestablishedsocialmediasites,likeFacebookandTwitterexploringtheimpactonself-esteem (Vogel et al., 2014; Kende et al., 2015). However, empirical studies ofInstagramarelimitedtodate.

Gerbner and Gross’ (1976) Cultivation Theory, could go some way to explain whyInstagramissoinfluential.Theiroriginalworksoughttoexplainwhypeoplewatchingalotoftelevisionhadadistortedperceptionofreality.Theirworkfoundviewsofrealityshiftedbasedonwhatwasportrayedintelevisionprogrammes,ratherthan‘realworld’experiences. This even held true despite these programmes being acknowledged as

191

Instagram’sfitsprationtrendanditseffectonyoungwomen’sself-esteem

fictional(GerbnerandGross,1976).FurtherworkbyBryantandZillmann(1986:6)foundthatextensiveuseoftelevisionmeanssociety:“cannotavoidabsorbingordealingwithitsrecurrentpatterns,probablymanytimeseachday.”Asimilarpremisetosocialmediaconsumption in today’s society, with young people spending vast amounts of timeonline. Windahl et al.(1992) found regular television viewers viewed the worlddifferentlytothosewhodonotwatchtelevisionasextensively.Whilenoworktodatehas directly addressed the relevance of Cultivation Theory in a social mediaenvironment,MorganandShanahan(2010)argueitismoreapplicabletodaythaneverbefore.Thisstudyaimstoextendthisthemeinamodernsocialmediaenvironment,investigating whether constant exposure to ‘fitspiration’ images has any significanteffectonyoungwomen’sperceptionofreality.

OneofthekeyfeaturesofInstagramistheabilitytodistorttherealitydepictedinthephotoswithoptionstomanipulatephotosviaeditingandfilters(Araujoetal.,2014).InterestinglyDumenco (2012)madeanexcellentpointwhenhe stated: “deepdown[societyknows]thatthedigitallymanipulatedlieismoreappealingthanthetruth”.Itwasinterestingtoexploreviathispaperwhetheryoungwomenallveryawareofthemanipulationofimageswerestillaffectedbythem.

Another theory thatgoessomewaytoexplainingwhathappenswhenwomenseeapictureofanotherwomanisSocialComparisonTheory.Stillapplicabletoday,Festingerand Katz (1954) found that humans will evaluate themselves by comparison withanother.Inparticular,Bessenoff(2006)foundpeoplewhohavebodydissatisfactionorinternalise themedia’s depiction of the thin ideal are especially vulnerable to socialcomparison.Upwardcomparisonstopeoplefarmoreadvantagedcanresultinapersonleftfeelingmorepositiveorapersonfeelingmorenegative(KrizanandGibbons,2014).Forexample,apersoncouldbeleftfeelingproudoreveninspiredbythepersontheyarelookingupto,orinsteadfeelinferior,worthless,enviousordiscouraged.Itispossiblethesenegativecomparisonscouldbelinkedorhaveaneffectonself-esteem,whichissusceptible to change as self-esteem is based on howwe feel (Carlock, 1999). Self-esteemisdevelopedby:“thepeoplewhosurroundyou,thegroupsandorganisationstowhichyoubelong,thesubcultureswithwhichyouidentify,andworldevents”(Carlock,1999: 145). Furthermore,workbyMaiz-Arevalo andGarcia-Gomez’s (2013) suggeststhatsocialmediaisoneoftheelementswhichpeoplemaybasetheirself-esteemon.Theyexploredcomplimentsandconversationsonsocialmediaandtheireffectonusers.Inaddition,body image isalsostrongly relatedtoself-esteem,asCarlock (1999:207)explains:“womeninparticulararepersecutedfortheirweight”duetowhatthemediadepictsasbeingideal,andimportantly“themorecongruentourrealandidealselvesare,thehigherourself-esteem”.

Furthering our knowledge of self-esteem is the theoretical area self-discrepancy, aconcept whereby individuals have an idyllic identity (ideal self) they would like toachieve,andaseparateviewofhowtheyseethemselvesatpresenttime(actualself)(Higgins1987).AccordingtoBessenoff(2006),peoplewhohavebodydissatisfactionorwhointernalisethemedia’sdepictionofthethinidea,arecommonlyknowntotakepartinsocialcomparison.Finally,Richins(1991)foundifafemalemodelisviewedbyanotherwoman,themodelprovidesastandardtocomparethemselvesto.Moreover,anarray

192

DeeGoldstraw,BrendanJamesKeegan

of theoretical standpoints exist fromwhich to investigate the impactof ‘fitspiration’imageryupontheself-esteemandnotionsofbodyimageamongyoungwomentoday.

3. ResearchMethodThenature of the research objectives lend themselves to qualitative interviews thatstudy interviewees’ perceptions as well as the observable reality. Initially, a short,structured interview was conducted to ascertain that interviewees actually usedInstagramandwereawareof the ‘fitspiration’ trend,prior to theirparticipation inasemi-structured interview. Additionally, a repertory grid technique based on Kelly's(1955) personal construct theory was proposed to elicit further data from theinterviewee.Therepertorygridtechniquewasusedtoexploretheparticipants’personalconstructswithregardstothepositiveornegativeeffectsof ‘fitspiration’ imageryonInstagram. Individual questions within the semi-structured interviews were basedaroundhowmuchtimethe intervieweesspentonInstagram,howrealtheybelievedimageson Instagram tobeand theiropinionsof the ‘fitspiration’ trend.AvarietyofimagestakenfromInstagramofthe‘fitspiration’trendwereshowntoallinterviewees,toinspirecommentsandprobediscussionssurroundingeachparticipant’sthoughtsandfeelingsontheimages,seefigure1below.Aconveniencesampleof12youngwomenaged between 18 and 24 was established, based in the NorthWest of England forconsistencyofviewswithinalocalisedarea.Primarydatacollectedwasthereinanalysedthematically.

Figure1:Examplesof‘fitspiration’imageryshowntotheinterviewees

4. FindingsDatacollectedsofarindicatesastrongcorrelationbetweenengagingwith‘fitspiration’imageryandintervieweesself-esteem.Firstly,allintervieweesreportedahighdegreeofregularityinviewing‘fitspiration’accounts,ontheirmobiledevices,oftenchecking

193

Instagram’sfitsprationtrendanditseffectonyoungwomen’sself-esteem

everyfewminutesoftheday,forexampleP8admittedtheyloggedin:‘multipletimesaday,morethanIshouldtobehonest.’(P8)Theamountoftimespentobservingtheseaccounts is consistentwith the initial findings of earlierwork supporting CultivationTheory(GerbnerandGross,1976;BryantandZillmann,1986),wherebyahighdegreeofmediaconsumptionwasfoundwithparticipants,yettheirperceptionofrealityoftheimagery perceived through programming was observed. Furthermore, analysis offindings also reveals a rangeof perceptions around the artificial nature of contrivedimageryofathleticwomenonInstagram,namely:Optimistic(3participants),Pragmatic(3participants)andRealist(6participants).

The Optimist view refers to the participant views which celebrated the positiveoutcomesof the fitspiration accounts, citing thebenefit ofmotivations to get fitter,obtaining health tips, and offering targets for their training, as P6 explains in thisillustrativeaccount:‘Ilikethesepicturesastheygivesomewomensomethingtoaspireto’(P6).InthismannersocialmediaisthevehicleofferingtheOptimisticviewoffitnesstorecreateapositive‘reality’through‘fitspiration’,andcansharethislifestyledigitallybecauseshecan’tdoit inreal life.Thisviewpointisfurtherreflectedbyanumberofparticipantswhoreferredtoasystemoffitnessgoals,intheirviewpointoffitspiration:‘Attheendofthedayrealityiswhatwelivein…peopledream,andhavegoalsit’sneveractuallytherealthing.AnInstagramaccountislike,goals’(P8).

Whereas, a Pragmatist view of ‘fitspiration’ was also observed, alluding to the falsenature of the constructed imagery, and adopting a critical view of the concept as awhole,despitepartakinginthetrendonadailybasis.Accountsof‘fitspiration’showedaperception,whichquestioned itsreality. Interestingly,whenaskedabouttheirself-esteem,andimage,thePragmatistviewwasthatitdidnotaffectthem:‘It’snotreal,it’snot achievable, it doesn’t affect me because, that wouldn’t be me. I’m not toobothered.’(P5). On the other hand P10, in their Pragmatist view went as far asnormalisingthefalsenatureofthe‘fitspiration’accountsbyonlyviewingvideocontentontheaccountsasshe:‘preferslookingatthevideosbecauseit’salothardertoeditthem’ (P10). Furthermore, a cautionary toneemerged fromanother Pragmatistwhoclaimed:‘it’sabitfakesometimesandIthinkit’sgivinggirlsthewrongimpression.’(P12)

Finally,themajorityofintervieweesadoptedaRealistviewpointwhendiscussingtheirinteractionswith ‘fitspiration’ accounts. Often being described in terms of objectiverealism,P1describeshowitis:‘allabittooperfect’(P1),whereasP4explainedhowshe:‘doesn’tidentifywiththembecausetheyareinalotbettershapethanme–theylooklikefitnessmodelsratherthanrealpeoplewhotrain.’(P4).Noteworthyisthedefinitionofrealismintermsofordinarypeoplewhotrain,andprofessionalfitnessmodelsreflectstheaspectsofCultivationTheoryineffect.P7extendsthisnotionthatshewas:‘notafanofsixpacksonwomen,Ican’treallyseeanyonewithcurvesonthesepictures,likewithhip curvesorhourglass;noneof themarehourglass they’reall straightdown. Imean,IwouldlovetohaveabodylikethatbutIalsoprefercurves’whichsuggeststhetendency to relyupon traditionalbody shapesas a realistic viewpointwhenviewing‘fitspiration’imagery.

194

DeeGoldstraw,BrendanJamesKeegan

4.1SocialMediaModerationBehaviourInterestingly,whileallthreeperspectivesacceptedtheartificialnatureof‘fitspiration’,itwasobservedthatanumberofintervieweesdisplayedamatureapproachtocuratingthebehaviouroftheiryoungersiblingsinfollowing‘fitspiration’.P10describesforushowshemanages the Instagramaccount forheryounger sisteras shebelieved: ‘it’sunhealthyatthatagetobeconstantlybombardedwith(fitspiration)imageslikethese,I knowobviouslywe are older but to a 12 year old girl, she doesn’t need that.’ThematuritytoP10’sactionsinmoderatinganother’sbehaviour,whilealsoengagingwiththesamesocialmediasuggestsarealisationofthedangersoftheconcept,whilealsoadopting the same behaviours. This level of sophistication in terms of social mediaadoption is also reflected by P9, who described how social media can also havesignificantdangers for youngwomen. ‘I thinkeverything is emphasizednow throughsocialmedia,intheoldendaysyouwouldn’tbethatbulliedifyouwerefatbecausetherewasn’t that extra socialmedia to do it. But I do think socialmedia is a part of thepressuresthatsomepeoplemightfeel.’

4.2SelfEsteemDuringtheinterviews,‘fitspiration’imageswereusedtoelicitanyperceivedchangestoself-esteemwhenviewingimagesthroughasimpleratingsystem.Arangeofviewpointswereexpressedbythesamplehoweverthemajorityofrespondents(six)reportedinitiallowself-confidence,whichwasnotaffectedbytheimageryobserved.Moreover,fiverespondentsreportedadropintheirself-confidence,andonlyonereportedapositiveinfluenceafterviewingfitspirationimagery.

Participant InitialRating ReportedAffect

1 5 No

2 6 Yes–negative

3 5 Yes-negative

4 5 No

5 3 No

6 5 Yes-negative

7 4 No

8 7 Yes-positive

9 5 Yes-negative

10 4 No

11 5 Yes-negative

12 6 No

Summary:NoAffect=6,NegativeAffect=5,PositiveAffect=1

Table1:ReportedAlterationstoSelfEsteem

195

Instagram’sfitsprationtrendanditseffectonyoungwomen’sself-esteem

5. SummaryIn summary,millennial generation fitnessenthusiastswereobserved toengagewith‘fitspiration’onadaily,andhourlybasisforavarietyofmotivations.Theirperceptionofthe reality of this concept, and the impact upon their self-esteem are the two keyoutcomes of this study. Cultivation Theory (REF) considers alterations to personsperceptionsofreality,ascultivatedbythemediaimagerytheyconsume.Inthismanner,participants within this study admitted looking at ‘fitspiration’ images altered theirperspective of reality despite admitting it’s artificial constructedness. Optimistic,PragmaticandRealistperspectiveswereobservedfromanalysisofthefindingscoupledwithalterationstotheirself-esteemwereshownwhenviewing ‘fitspiration’ imagery.Indeed,socialmediaoffersaplatformformillennialfitnessenthusiaststoengagewiththeconceptof‘fitspiration’withvaryingdegreesofcriticalreflection,whileatthesametimeimpactsupontheirself-esteem.

AcknowledgementThe authors wish to acknowledge the contribution from Jo Emily McGrann for herassistancewithdatacollection.

ReferencesAdams,R.(2014).Why‘Fitspo’ShouldComeWithAWarningLabel.[online]TheHuffingtonPost.Availableat:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/17/fitspo-fitspiration_n_5574150.html[Accessed5Feb.2016].

Araujo,C.,Damilton.Correa,L.,CoutodaSilva,A.,OliveiraPrates,R.andMeiraJr.,W.(2014).Itisnotjustapicture:RevealingsomeuserpracticesinInstagram.In:9thLatinAmerican Web Congress. [online] Minas Gerais: IEEE, pp.19 - 23. Available at:http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=andarnumber=7000167[Accessed3January2016].

Bessenoff,G.(2006).CantheMediaAffectUs?SocialComparison,Self-Discrepancy,andtheThinIdeal.PsychologyofWomenQuarterly,[online]30(3),pp.239-251.Availableat:http://pwq.sagepub.com.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/content/30/3/239.full.pdf+html[Accessed4January2016].

Bevan, K. (2012) Instagram is Debasing Real Photography. The Guardian [Online].Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/jul/19/instagram-debasing-real-photography[Accessed4January2016].

Branthwaite, A. (2002). Investigating the power of imagery in marketingcommunication: evidence-based techniques. Qualitative Market Research: AnInternational Journal, [online] 5(3), pp.164-171. Available at:http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/[Accessed1December2015].

Bryant, J. and Zillmann, D. (1986). Perspectives on Media Effects. Hillsdale, N.J.:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,pp.1-6.

Carlock,C.(1999).EnhancingSelfEsteem.3rded.NewYork:Routledge.

196

DeeGoldstraw,BrendanJamesKeegan

DeMers,J.(2015).TheTop7SocialMediaMarketingTrendsThatWillDominate2016.[online]Forbes.Availableat:http://www.forbes.com/sites/jaysondemers/2015/09/28/the-top-7-social-media-marketing-trends-that-will-dominate-2016/#6b620ad8115b[Accessed5Apr.2016].

Dumenco,S.(2012).InstagramisOK,butPhotoshopisevil?Thetruthaboutdigitallies.AdvertisingAge,83(22).

Festinger,L.andKatz,D.(1954).Researchmethodsinthebehavioralsciences.StaplesPress.

Fisher, L. (2015).21 Inspiring FitnessGirls To FollowOn Instagram. [online]Harper'sBAZAAR. Available at: http://www.harpersbazaar.com/beauty/diet-fitness/g4018/inspiring-fitness-girls-on-instagram/[Accessed29October2015].

Fleming,O. (2014). 'WhyDon't I Look LikeHer?': How Instagram Is RuiningOur SelfEsteem. [online] ELLE. Available at: http://www.elle.com/beauty/tips/a2531/how-instagram-is-ruining-our-self-esteem/[Accessed29October2015].

Gerbner,G.andGross,L.(1976).‘Livingwithtelevision:Theviolenceprofile’.JournalofCommunication.26:172-94.

Gerbner,G.,Gross,L.,andMorgan,M.(2002).Growingupwithtelevision:Cultivationprocesses. In J. Bryant and D. Zillman (Eds.),Media effects: Advances in theory andresearch(2nded.,pp.43–67).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.

Grabe,S.,Ward,L.andHyde,J.(2008).Theroleofthemediainbodyimageconcernsamongwomen:Ameta-analysisofexperimentalandcorrelationalstudies.PsychologicalBulletin, [online] 134(3), pp.460-476. Available at:http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/sp-3.18.0b/[Accessed2January2016].

Henderson-King, E. andHenderson-King,D. (1997).Media Effects onWomen's BodyEsteem: Social and Individual Difference Factors. Journal Applied Social Pyschology,27(5),pp.399-417.

Higgins, E. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. PsychologicalReview, [online] 94(3), pp.319-340. Available at:http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/sp-3.18.0b/[Accessed4January2016].

Instagram.com,(2016).Instagram.[online]Availableat:https://www.instagram.com/about/faq/[Accessed9February2016].

Kelly,G.A.,1955.ThePsychologyOfPersonalConstructs,NewYork:Norton.

Kende, A., Ujhelyi, A., Joinson, A. and Greitemeyer, T. (2015). Putting the social(psychology) into socialmedia.European Journalof SocialPsychology,45(3),pp.277-278.

Križan,Z.andGibbons,F.(2014).Communalfunctionsofsocialcomparison.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Maiz-Arevalo,C.andGarcia-Gomez,A.(2013).'Youlookterrific!'Socialevaluationandrelationships in online compliments. Discourse Studies, [online] 15(6), pp.735-760.

197

Instagram’sfitsprationtrendanditseffectonyoungwomen’sself-esteem

Available at:http://dis.sagepub.com.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/content/15/6/735.full.pdf+html [Accessed1January2016].

Morgan,M.andShanahan,J.(2010).‘Thestateofcultivation.’JournalofBroadcasting&ElectronicMedia.54:337-55.

Morrison,K.(2015).InstagramIsBecomingaFitspirationDestination.Adweek[online]Available at:http://www.adweek.com/socialtimes/instagram-is-becoming-a-fitspiration-destination/627895[Accessed29October2015].

Moth,D. (2015).20+ Instagramstatsmarketersneed toknow.Econsultancy [online]Available at:https://econsultancy.com/blog/65939-20-instagram-stats-marketers-need-to-know/[Accessed29October2015].

Ofcom (2015). Adults Media Use and Attitudes. [online] available at:http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/research/media-literacy/media-lit-10years/2015_Adults_media_use_and_attitudes_report.pdf. [Accessed: 10th May2016].

Richins,M.(1991).SocialComparisonandtheIdealizedImagesofAdvertising.Journalof Consumer Research, [online] 18(1), p.71. Available at:http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/stable/2489486?pq-origsite=summonandseq=2#page_scan_tab_contents[Accessed27December2015].

Ryan, G.W. and Bernard, H.R., 2000. Data Management And Analysis Methods. InHandbookOfQualitativeResearch.ThousandOaks:SagePublicationsLtd.

Solomon,M.R.andTuten,T.L.(2015).SocialMediaMarketing.London:Sage.

Thomson,W.(2015).Depression,Neuroticism,andtheDiscrepancyBetweenActualandIdealSelf-Perception.PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,88,pp.219-224.

Vogel,E.,Rose,J.,Roberts,L.andEccles,K.(2014).SocialComparison,SocialMedia,andSelf-Esteem.PsychologyofPopularMediaCulture,[online]3(2160-4134),pp.206–222.Available at: http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com.ezproxy.mmu.ac.uk/ [Accessed 3 November2015].

Williamson,H.(2013).Bewareofthedangerousfetishisingoffitnessonsocialmedia.[online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/10376945/Beware-of-the-dangerous-fetishising-of-fitness-on-social-media.html[Accessed29October2015].

Windahl,S.,Signitzer,B.andOlson,J.(1992).UsingCommunicationTheory.London:

SagePublications,p.215.

198