A Short Overview ofIntegrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

ByMahsa MotlaghARTS – SS 2009

Submitted toProf. Dr. R. Sikora

Assignment part of B XII Module

Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

IntroductionFood and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) defines integrated pest management

as:‘’Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides.’’

IPM is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to a most economical means of pest management in crop production combining status quo knowledge on pest lifecycles and their interaction with the environment, and the organic and inorganic pest control methods. Although the concept is simple to understand it is a complex and lengthy process when put into practice, mainly due to the steps involved, the integration of pest management starts even before seeding literally it begins with soil preparation.

IPM is practiced and required in of the following steps

Soil preparationThe soil needs to be fumigated and well tiled if the site was severely infected in

previous year/harvest. Soil preparation needs to include fallow periods for healthy soil conditions.

PlantingPlanting seeds need to be done with proper spacing and depth; it reduces the

difficulty in weed control and gives the plants the best possible start.

Weather forecastingWeather forecasting quiet important not only for natural precipitation but also

to evaluate the risk of pest outbreaks, most of the insects, virus and fungus need certain ecological conditions to proliferate and the weather plays a major role. Understanding the local pest population and their habitual behaviour, we can determine when and how the outbreaks may occur based on weather patterns, thus weather forecasting gives the farmer a head start in the battle against pests.

Pest trappingThere are several methods (using pheromones) and tools (light boxes and oil

films) available to trap insects on the farm, to analyse the stage of lifecycle and population density, this is crucial because most of the insects are extremely devastating in certain stages of their life cycle.

MonitoringRegular field excursions to spot damaged crops, irregularity in growth, and any

abnormality in friendly insect population should be carried out. Insects per square meter need to be counted and recorded similarly spotting for virus and fungus needs to be meticulously carried out.

ThresholdsThis refers to the population of pests that can exist on the field with out causing

a economical damage, we need to into consideration that total eradication of pest is not

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

possible and is not healthy for the environment so, there will always be pests and the threshold limit is the point till which no action is required.

Culture controlsBasic control methods such as using certified healthy seeds could produce

healthy crops that will have reduced infestation by pests; similarly using genetically resistant and tolerant species will also reduce the need for pest control.

Biological controlsAntagonistic insects, organic chemicals and natural resources are used to control

or destroy the pest population, e.g. ladybird beetles to control aphides, flooding to control nematodes, neem oil to control caterpillars.

Chemical controlsUsing strong chemical agents to control the population this method is only

recommend if the biological methods fail and the threshold limit has been surpassed.

Record keeping

Records need to be maintained

with regards to insects spotted on the field, pest outbreaks, production data, control methods employed and etc, these data when analysed will provide correlative patterns between all the environmental and ecological factors involved in pest behaviour. In-depth knowledge of this enables farmers to predict future needs, and take action accordingly so as to maximize profit.

Evaluation and decision making for the upcoming production yearThe analysed data is used to predict forthcoming year and possible hindrances in

production, thus appropriate decision with regards to crop to be planted and the required scale of investment and manpower can be made.

Intervention

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Figure 1 - Graphic illustration of IPM

Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Prevention

Wheat (Tiriticum Spp)Wheat has been an important crop since antiquity, as cultivation of domesticated

wheat has been traced back to 9000BC in Turkey, most probably wheat as a source of nutrition must have existed for much longer. Wheat is a species of grass with some unique properties such as its genetics; wheat can be diploid with two sets of chromosomes (T.monococcum), polypoids, tetrapoids with four sets of chromosomes (T. dicoccoides) and hexaploids with six sets of chromosomes (Aegilops cylindrica ), the reasons for such enormous genetic variety (nearly thirty thousand species of wheat exist stemming from the six basic classes i.e. Hard Red Winter, Hard Red Spring, Soft Red Winter, Durum, Hard White and Soft White) is hybridization, wheat species cross pollinate easily and hybrids occur naturally as well as by human intervention.

Today wheat is the third largest crop in the world and the yearly average production of wheat worldwide is approximately around 600million metric tons (Reuters report estimation of 606million metric tons for 2008/2009). Wheat is generally produced in large areas in certain parts of the world with favourable conditions e.g. north-eastern part of china and in the Himalayan foothills of India, these two countries being the biggest producers of wheat consistently, followed closely by united states and Russia and European union.

The fact that major quantities of wheat are produced only in certain regions coupled with the genetic variety is a potential risk as any severe pest problems can cause worldwide famine and economic chaos. Thus integrated pest management in wheat has been extensively explored and is well in tune with needs of future production. Before we move to looking at examples of IPM in wheat, we must understand the crop properties, description and growth.

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Figure 2 - Nutritional chart and pictures of wheat kernel

Figure 3 - Total worldwide Wheat production from 1960 to 2008

The per capita consumption of wheat is approximately around 67kgs and at that rate consistent and constant supply and production is eminent, any failure could lead to devastation. Wheat requires normally around 3-4months from planting to reaching maturity depending upon species and climatic conditions; height, health and production also vary with species, soil, fertilizers, management, pest control and climate.

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Although there have been adequate advancement in genetically modified and/or breed varieties tolerant and resistant to diseases and natural resource shortcomings, there are still a large number of fungal and viral diseases in wheat crop that can completely destroy the harvest.

IPM in WheatAs mentioned, wheat genetic variety and long history of domestication has resulted

in it being a primary source of food for rather a large number of insect pests and hosts for virus and funguses (refer to index for a complete list of pests and diseases (bacterial, fungus and viral)).

The IPM practices depend on the type of wheat grown and the local ecology, as always for each species of wheat and the pest in question needs to be scrutinized well before making decisions on how to deal with the problem. Pests include large birds to minute insects above ground and below but usually external in nature, and diseases are caused by bacteria, fungus and viruses in addition wheat also harbours phytplasmal disease known as aster yellow. Below are examples of best IPM practices of insect pests, virus and fungal diseases.

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda)The worm is a caterpillar in the life cycle of a moth; it belongs to the Lepidoptera order, the name is derived from its feeding habit as all the caterpillars become active in the cool of the night and feed in large numbers, causing utter havoc if the numbers are large.

Figure 4 - Armyworm catapillar (larvae) and moth (adult)

Physical description Larvae: greenish-brown to black, long, pale white, orange, and dark brown stripes

along the length of the abdomen Approx 1 ½ inches long (mature larvae & moths) Head capsule is yellowish brown with a brown network of veins Pupa nests in a brown earthen shell in subsoil Winged adults: tan to light brown, with a tiny white spot centered on each forewing. Eggs resembling small white globules are laid in rows or groups and then moth rolls

the leaf blade of the plant around each egg mass.

Life cycleInfestation occurs are the moths fly from one area to the next, they lay eggs at night in folded leaves or under the leaf sheaths of small grain plants, they prefer to lay eggs in moist shady areas of lodged, hail or wind damaged grasses and grains. Armyworm eggs look like small white beads laid in masses or rows resembling miniature pearls.

In 1 -2 weeks the eggs hatch into larvae and this is the stage where is it most damaging as the larvae continuously feed for three to four weeks, once the feeding is complete it borrows into the top soil (2 -3 inches deep) or hides under leaf litter for (after completion of six instars) pupation. Because they feed during nighttime and hide in daytime, it is extremely difficult to stop and usually considerable damage is caused before being discovered. The importance of this pest cannot be over emphasized as it can quickly cause severe and irreparable damage e.g. armyworm infestation in Tanzania in 2009 destroyed approximately 1400acres of grain in two of the main grain

producing areas, this despite the farmers being trained and well equipped to deal with armyworm plague.

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Figure 5 - Lifecycle of armyworm

Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Figure 6 - Table showing economic loss caused by armyworm

Management Field scouting for armyworms should be done in field margins, low areas with rank

plant growth, and areas where plants have lodged Leaf damage, worm frass (droppings) around the base of plants, and severed leaf

material that has fallen to the ground Look for larvae beneath plant debris around the base of plants and in heads of

wheat and barley Examine three linear feet of row in five or more areas of a field. Shake the plants

vigorously and then look for armyworms on the ground and under debris. Estimate the size of the larvae and percentage of plants damaged. Also note the stage of development of plants

Biological control Tachinid flies and at least 12 different parasitic wasps lay eggs on the body of

armyworm larvae, eggs hatch and the fly larvae consumes the armyworm from within.

These natural predators should be used in accordance with their lifecycle and the pest’s e.g. if armyworms found during scouting and they are in the 2- 4 instar stage then it is best to use Meteorus communus.

The risk of potential armyworm infestations can be minimized by control or elimination of grassy weeds in from fields or field borders

Treat for armyworms when there are 6 or more non-parasitized larvae (¾ to 1 ¼ inches long) per linear foot or row before extensive head cutting occurs.

Usually if the worm is more then 1inch long then control may not bring economic return

The Sixth instar consumes about 80% of all the foliage eaten during larval development

The economic threshold limit is around 2-3worms per square meter, incase of higher numbers and latter stages of growth, chemical treatment maybe needed (refer to index for a list of chemical pesticides and dosage recommendations)

Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus (WSMV)Is a serious viral disease transmitted by its mite vector, in wheat and other perennial grass across the globe, infection occurs either in early or late in spring when the plant is still young, depending upon infection time the yield and quality loss can be 30 to 100 percent. In Kansas USA, in 1959 the WSMV caused an economic damage of 80 million USD, and since

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

then there have been several infection outbreaks around the world causing damages in billions and unfortunately contributing to food shortage.

Symptoms and causes Field planted next to natural or wild wheat or cereal

stubble that has not been ploughed Margins of the fields or outer edges is where initial

infection occurs Symptoms appear at the onset of warm weather, though

infection may have occurred much earlier First symptoms in the leaves consist of blotches and

discontinuous dashes or streaks that are light green to a faint yellow, and are parallel to the veins

As infection strengthens its grip plants growth is retarded and leaves show a general yellow mottling, except for a few green streaks or blotches

Infected plants tend to spread out more than normal ones, frequently developing an abnormally large number of tillers

As the wheat plants mature, the yellow leaves tend to turn brownish and die The stunting of the plants vary without reason, even tillers in the same plant may

vary considerably in height The symptoms of these viral diseases also vary greatly depending on the virus or

virus strain, variety of wheat, temperature, time of infection, level of nutrition, soil moisture, and other factors.

Generally the yield and quality reduction often results from complete or partial sterility and/or shrivelled kernels.

Disease cycle and control The WSMV is transmitted from plant to plant by the feeding of all nymphal stages of

the tiny (0.3 mm long), white, cigar-shaped wheat curl mite, Aceria (Eriophyes) tulipae.

The mite vector feeds preferentially on the upper leaf surface and near the margin of leaves causing the leaf edges to curl tightly inward and upward toward the upper midrib and the leaves remain erect

The mites develop from eggs into adults within 8 to 10 days, the virus doesn’t pass from the adult to its progeny through eggs

The mites acquire the virus by feeding for 15 minutes or more on plants infected with the WSMV, the virus persists in most infective mites for 7 to 9 days without additional acquisitions.

During late summer and early fall WSMV is carried by mites from corn and grasses to volunteer wheat plants and from there to the winter wheat plantation as the mites migrate, strong winds can blow the mites up to 2.5kms.

Neither the wheat curl mites nor the WSMV can survive for more then a day without the host plants and so the control mechanism depends on this.

Destroy all volunteer cereals, old cereal stubble, and weed grasses in adjoining fields two weeks before planting, and three to four weeks before sowing in the field to be seeded. Doing this eliminates the mite vector as well as the mosaic-infected plants.

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Figure 7 - WSMV infected wheat leaf

Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

The best control results when all wheat farmers in a community cooperate in destroying volunteer wheat and old stubble well ahead of planting time.

Sow winter wheat as late as practical to escape migrations of the mite from corn, volunteer wheat or barley, or weed grasses. If winter wheat is not up until October or later, it usually escapes severe infestation, unless fall temperatures are above normal. An infection of winter cereals by wheat streak mosaic in the spring does relatively little damage.

Chemical control of the wheat curl mite has not been successful. The tightly rolled and trapped leaves provide a natural protection for the mite, preventing contact with miticides. It is also difficult to know exactly when to apply chemicals for control.

If wheat fields appear to be affected in a fairly uniform and severe manner by wheat streak mosaic in April or May, perhaps plowing under the whole plantation and planting a different crop would be pragmatic.

The table below presents other common wheat virus diseases, their symptoms, cause and control

 Barley Yellow

DwarfWheat Streak

MosaicSoil-Borne

MosaicSpindle Streak

Mosaic

When to expect first symptoms 6 to 8 weeks after growth begins in spring - yellow to reddish flag leaves

4 to 6 weeks after growth begins in spring

Early spring. 1 to 2 weeks after growth begins in spring. Cold spring can extend symptoms longer

Early spring. 1 to 2 weeks after spring growth begins. Cold spring can extend symptoms longer.

Typical pattern in field Random circular areas

Most noticeable along edges of fields or near volunteer wheat . Diminishs as you go into the field.

Often circular or oval areas, especially in wet areas or cool soils.

More widespread in field than soil-borne mosaic.

Leaf symptoms Leaf tips bright yellow on upper leaves, or reddish flag leaves -- most distinct.

Bright yellow leaves with streaking patterns toward tips. Most prominent on upper leaves. Curling of upper leaves.

Pale yellow leaves with mosaic patterns

Pale yellow leaves with mosaic patterns

Stunting Some-but hard to identify; fewer tillers

Severe stunting from fall infections

Some stunting but also some recovery after warm weather

Mild stunting and fewer tillers

Other symptoms Poor roots; susceptible to winter injury

Poor roots; wilting; prostrate tillers

Poor roots; winter injury

Poor roots; winter injury

Vectors Several aphid species

Wheat curl mite Aceria tulipae

Fungus --Polymyxa graminis

Fungus --Polymyxa graminis

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Conditions favoring infection Long warm fall Long warm fall. Early volunteer wheat from hail or other factors at harvest.

Wet soil in fall. Cool temperatures in spring.

Wet soil in fall. Cool temperatures in spring.

Control Resistant or tolerant varieties

Destroy volunteer wheat. Delay planting to "fly free date."

Soft red winter wheat varieties usually more tolerant than hard red winter wheat varieties

Resistant cultivars. Late planting.

Fusarium Head Blight (FHB)Fusarium is multi-species of fungus stemming from the fusrium graminearum, it causes extensive damage in wheat crops by reducing the yield and grade, further more it may contaminate the grains with fungal toxins (mycotoxins).

Figure 8 - Wheat kernels and head infected by fusarium fungi

FHB is recognized in the field by the premature bleaching of infected spikelets and the production of orange, spore-bearing structures called sporodochia at the base of the glumes. During wet weather, there may be whitish, occasionally pinkish, fluffy fungal growth on infected heads in the field. The fungus may eventually kill the seeds at about soft dough stage.

FHB prefers warm moist conditions during flowering and early stages of kernel development to proliferate.

Using corn in rotation with small grains increases the chance of fusarium head blight, as the corn stubble harbours huge amounts of fusarium fungi.

The mycotoxin contamination can cause (depends on level and type of toxin) several different unpleasant problems, in animals and human if the infected wheat is consumed.

Using tested and certified seeds is the most important step in prevention of the fungus.

Infected grain, plants, straw and any other part of the plant must be either completely burned to destroy further spread to roadside plants. Fusarium fungus is also killed in the digestive system of the cattle so; the straw can be feed to animals but must be quarantined.

In crop rotation care needs to be taken to avoid host plants, in rotation. Fungicides needs to be applied as soon as possible and all farmers in the

neighbourhood must take swift action to prevent and control the fungus outbreak.

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References

http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2250743020080522http://www.wheatfoods.org/AboutWheat-wheat-facts/Index.htmhttp://pgrc.ipk-gatersleben.de/dendro/http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex92?opendocumenthttp://ipm.illinois.edu/fieldcrops/wheat/diseases.htmlhttp://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/field/news/croppest/2008/04cpo08a7.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Index

List of wheat diseasesBacterial diseases

Bacterial leaf blight Pseudomonas syringae subsp. syringaeBacterial mosaic Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. tessellariusBacterial sheath rot Pseudomonas fuscovaginaeBasal glume rot Pseudomonas syringae pv. atrofaciensBlack chaff = bacterial streak Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucensPink seed Erwinia rhapontici

Spike blight = gummosisRathayibacter tritici = Clavibacter tritici = Corynebacterium michiganense pv. triticiClavibacter iranicus

Fungal diseasesAlternaria leaf blight Alternaria triticina

Anthracnose Colletotrichum graminicolaGlomerella graminicola [teleomorph]

Ascochyta leaf spot Ascochyta tritici

Aureobasidium decay Microdochium bolleyi= Aureobasidium bolleyi

Black head molds = sooty molds

Alternaria spp. Cladosporium spp.Epicoccum spp.Sporobolomyces spp.Stemphylium spp. and other genera

Black point = kernel smudgeThought to be associated with funal infection however no clear link found, now thought to be a result of physiological circumstances

Cephalosporium stripe Hymenula cerealis= Cephalosporium gramineum

Common bunt = stinking smut

Tilletia tritici= Tilletia cariesTilletia laevis= Tilletia foetida

Common root rotCochliobolus sativus [teleomorph]Bipolaris sorokiniana [anamorph]= Helminthosporium sativum

Cottony snow mold Coprinus psychromorbidus

Crown rot = foot rot, seedling blight, dryland root rot

Fusarium spp.Fusarium pseudograminearumGibberella zeaeFusarium graminearum Group II [anamorph]Gibberella avenaceaFusarium avenaceum [anamorph]Fusarium culmorum

Dilophospora leaf spot = twist Dilophospora alopecuriDowny mildew = crazy top Sclerophthora macrospora

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Dwarf bunt Tilletia controversa

Ergot Claviceps purpureaSphacelia segetum [anamorph]

Eyespot = foot rot, strawbreaker

Tapesia yallundaeRamulispora herpotrichoides [anamorph]= Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides W-pathotypeTapesia acuformisRamulispora acuformis [anamorph]= Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides var. acuformis R-pathoytpe

False eyespot Gibellina cerealisFlag smut Urocystis agropyriFoot rot = dryland foot rot Fusarium spp.

Halo spot Pseudoseptoria donacis= Selenophoma donacis

Karnal bunt = partial bunt Tilletia indica= Neovossia indica

Leaf rust = brown rustPuccinia triticina= Puccinia recondita f.sp. triticiPuccinia tritici-duri

Leptosphaeria leaf spotPhaeosphaeria herpotrichoides= Leptosphaeria herpotrichoidesStagonospora sp. [anamorph]

Loose smut

Ustilago tritici= Ustilago segetum var. triticiUstilago segetum var. nudaUstilago segetum var. avenae

Microscopica leaf spot Phaeosphaeria microscopica= Leptosphaeria microscopica

Phoma spot

Phoma spp.Phoma glomerataPhoma sorghina= Phoma insidiosa

Pink snow mold = Fusarium patch

Microdochium nivale= Fusarium nivaleMonographella nivalis [teleomorph]

Platyspora leaf spot Clathrospora pentamera= Platyspora pentamera

Powdery mildew

Erysiphe graminis f.sp. triticiBlumeria graminis= Erysiphe graminisOidium monilioides [anamorph]

Pythium root rot

Pythium aphanidermatumPythium arrhenomanesPythium graminicolaPythium myriotylumPythium volutum

Rhizoctonia root rot Rhizoctonia solaniThanatephorus cucumeris [teleomorph]

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Ring spot = Wirrega blotchPyrenophora seminiperda= Drechslera campanulataDrechslera wirreganensis

Scab = head blight

Fusarium spp.Gibberella zeaeFusarium graminearum Group II [anamorph]Gibberella avenaceaFusarium avenaceum [anamorph]Fusarium culmorumMicrodochium nivale= Fusarium nivaleMonographella nivalis [teleomorph]

Sclerotinia snow mold = snow scald

Myriosclerotinia borealis= Sclerotinia borealis

Sclerotium wilt (see Southern blight)

Sclerotium rolfsiiAthelia rolfsii [teleomorph]

Septoria blotch Septoria triticiMycosphaerella graminicola [teleomorph]

Sharp eyespot Rhizoctonia cerealisCeratobasidium cereale [teleomorph]

Snow rot

Pythium spp.Pythium aristosporumPythium iwayamaePythium okanoganense

Southern blight = Sclerotium base rot

Sclerotium rolfsiiAthelia rolfsii [teleomorph]

Speckled snow mold = gray snow mold or Typhula blight

Typhula idahoensisTyphula incarnataTyphula ishikariensisTyphula ishikariensis var. canadensis

Spot blotchCochliobolus sativus [teleomorph]Bipolaris sorokiniana [anamorph]= Helminthosporium sativum

Stagonospora blotch

Phaeosphaeria avenaria f.sp. triticaeStagonospora avenae f.sp. triticae [anamorph]= Septoria avenae f.sp. triticeaPhaeosphaeria nodorumStagonospora nodorum [anamorph]= Septoria nodorum

Stem rust = black rust Puccinia graminis= Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici (Ug99)

Storage moldsAspergillus spp.Penicillium spp.and others

Stripe rust = yellow rust Puccinia striiformisUredo glumarum [anamorph]

Take-all Gaeumannomyces graminis var. triticiGaeumannomyces graminis var. avenae

Tan spot = yellow leaf spot, red Pyrenophora tritici-repentis

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

smudge Drechslera tritici-repentis [anamorph]

Tar spot Phyllachora graminisLinochora graminis [anamorph]

Wheat Blast Magnaporthe grisea

Zoosporic root rot

Lagena radicicolaLigniera pilorumOlpidium brassicaeRhizophydium graminis

Viral diseases

African cereal streak Maize streak

Agropyron mosaic Rymovirus, Agropyron mosaic virus (AgMV)

Australian wheat striate mosaic Chloris striate mosaic

Barley stripe mosaic Hordeivirus, Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV)

Barley yellow dwarf Luteovirus, Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV)

Barley yellow streak mosaic Barley yellow streak mosaic virus

Barley yellow striate mosaic Cytorhabdovirus, Barley yellow striate mosaic virus (BYSMV)

Barley yellow stripe Barley stripe mosaic

Brome mosaic Bromovirus, Brome mosaic virus (BMV)

Cereal northern mosaic Cytorhabdovirus, Cereal northern mosaic virus (NCMV)

Cereal tillering Cereal tillering virus

Chloris striate mosaic Monogeminivirus, Chloris striate mosaic virus (CSMV)

Cocksfoot mottle Sobemovirus, Cocksfoot mottle virus (CoMV)

Eastern wheat striate Eastern wheat striate virus

Enanismo Probable virus or phytoplasma

High plains disease Probable virus. Vectored by wheat curl mite, Aceria tosichella

Maize streak Monogeminivirus, Maize streak virus (MSV)

Northern cereal mosaic Cytorhabdovirus, Cereal northern mosaic virus (NCMV)

Oat sterile dwarf Fijivirus, Oat sterile dwarf virus (OSDV)

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

Rice black-streaked dwarf Fijivirus, Rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV)

Rice hoja blanca Tenuivirus, Rice hoja blanca virus (RHBV)

Russian winter wheat mosaic Cytorhabdovirus, Russian winter wheat mosaic virus (WWRMV)

Seedborne wheat yellows Seedborne wheat yellows viroid

Tobacco mosaic Tobamovirus, Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

Wheat American striate mosaic Nucleorhabdovirus, Wheat American striate mosaic virus (WASMV)

Wheat chlorotic streak = Wheat chlorotic streak mosaic

Barley yellow striate mosaic

Wheat dwarf Monogeminivirus, Wheat dwarf virus (WDV)

Wheat European striate mosaic Tenuivirus, Wheat European striate mosaic virus (EWSMV)

Wheat rosette stunt Cereal northern mosaic

Wheat soilborne mosaic Furovirus, Wheat soil-borne mosaic virus (SBWMV)

Wheat soilborne yellow mosaic Wheat soil-borne yellow mosaic virus

Wheat spindle streak mosaic a strain of Wheat yellow mosaic virus

Wheat spot mosaic Probable virus or phytoplasma

Wheat streak mosaic Rymovirus, Wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV)

Wheat striate mosaic Wheat American striate mosaic

Wheat yellow leaf Closterovirus, Wheat yellow leaf virus (WYLV)

Wheat yellow mosaic Wheat yellow mosaic virus = Wheat spindle streak mosaic virus

List of most important wheat pests

NematodesCereal Cyst NematodeRoot Knot NematodeRoot Lesion NematodeSeed Gall Nematode

Insect pestsAphidsStink BugsArmyworms, CutwormsCereal Leaf BeetleThripsHessian Fly

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

List of most important wheat pestsWheat Stem MaggotSawflyGrasshoppersWhite GrubsWireworms

Other pestsMitesSnails and SlugsRodents and Birds

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Integrated Pest Management in Wheat Production

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