Integrated Science Environmental Studies

Biodiversity

Science Content Activities Resources Biodiversity Introduction: UN 2010 Biodiversity Target (on-line video) (0)

• definition of biodiversity • importance of biodiversity • regions of biodiversity in WA and reasons • threats to biodiversity • definitions of ecological terms e.g. biome, biota,

ecosystem, community, habitat, species (2 - has a good glossary)

• interdependence of species

• food chains and food webs • energy/biomass pyramids • classification of organisms for the local area of study e.g.

eucalypts, mammals, macro-invertebrates (wetland), birds, frogs.

• techniques used to collect data e.g. quadrat, transect, water monitoring, pit traps, tagging.

• Changes over time – observations, phenology Case studies - choose to suit context/level (2)

• Box 1: Fauna conservation significance of offshore islands

• Box 2: Genetic and species variability within trigger plants

• Box 3: Seagrass meadows

• Box 4: Environmental weed or improved pasture?

• Box 8: Gilbert's potoroo – Australia's most threatened mammal

Environmental values (1) • go to a special place, quietly observe • who/how many would you share it with • impacts of sharing • Leave No Trace Unit 3B Tricky situations (scenario -

tourist magazine $100,000) (1) • develop own continuum (our values poster)

Measuring baseline biodiversity (audit) (8b)

• seasons marker - photo point

• indicator species - species observation scoring Mapping species distribution (3), (8b)

• habitat observation • number of habitats • impacts on the environment e.g. fire scars, absence of

litter Measuring physical aspects (8b)

• soils • topography and vegetation • weather and climate

Changes over time, phenology • observations (8b), • biodiversity and climate change/phenology scientific

statement; (6) • phenology activity - attachment (15) • Websites (15)

Case studies (2) • (worksheets based on the case studies in boxes – see

attachment) Game of Ecological Consequences

• (make cards to match consequences with the factors – see attachment) (answers in table 2 p 9-11) (Resource 2)

Research biodiversity (8b) Discover Ecosystem Diversity (comparison of three forest ecosystems - soils, flora and fauna) and Climate change - Measuring baseline biodiversity excursions [EcoEducation programs booklet]

• one day field trips to EcoEducation Centres at Perth Hills National Park Centre (ecoeducation@dec.wa.gov.au) or at SW Centres at Wellington Discovery Forest and Margaret River EcoDiscovery Centre (wdf@dec.wa.gov.au)

(0) INTRODUCTION: UN 2010 Biodiversity Target http://www.unep.org/newscentre/animations/cbd_web.swf International Biodiversity Day – 22 May http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/international-day.html (1) Curriculum Council (Outdoor Education) Leave No Trace package (2) A 100-year Biodiversity Conservation Strategy for Western Australia, Draft, Phase One: Blueprint to the Bicentenary in 2029 (available at: http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/component/option,com_docman/Itemid,2123/gid,441/task,cat_view/ and on request from the Department of Environment and Conservation at 17 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington Ph 08 9334 0333) (3) Department of Environment and Conservation Bush Rangers package (8) Department of Environment and Conservation (8a) Department of Environment and Conservation: Biodiversity and Sustainability Package (Climate Change, Waste litter and packaging, Biodiversity. Water). Available shortly. (8b) Ecoeducation http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/schools-programs/ecoeducation/index.html Contact: Elaine.Horne@dec.wa.gov.au Ecoeducation excursions: Climate Change - Measuring baseline biodiversity and Discover Ecosystem Diversity. Contact: Perth Hills at ecoeducation@dec.wa.dec.au or the South West at wdf@dec.wa.gov.au (15) Phenology activity from EcoEducation (attachment). Phenology websites:

• http://www.bio.mq.edu.au/ecology/biowatch/ • http://www.naturescalendar.org.uk/ • http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/Geography/npn/index.html • http://www.windows.ucar.edu/citizen_science/budburst • http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/

(6) Biodiversity and Climate Change in Western Australia Scientific Statement, Conservation Council of WA

Threatening processes:

Habitat loss and modification

Threatening processes: Habitat loss and modification (2), (10) Work program attached for resource 10 Salinity

• definitions • causes of dryland salinity

Work program attached for Threatened Animals of WA Salinity

• field studies/communities • water monitoring using peizometers • remedial measures

(4) Department of Environment and Conservation Western Shield (written for Middle Childhood, but has some excellent reference sheets) http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/pdf/community/schools/pack_western_shield_action.pdf

• areas affected • effects on biodiversity • remedial and preventative measures being implemented

Keystone species • key pollinators

• impacts of losing key pollinators • link to biodiversity and survival of life on Earth

Fire • Box 9 Altered fire regimes (2)

Overexploitation

• migrating species e.g. turtles, sharks, molluscs

Keystone species • observe flowering plants • record variety of pollinators • role in the community • Video: Pollination (13)

• Article – key pollinators (9) Fire

• Video: The Day the Flames Came to Dwellingup 1961 (14)

• Burning Issues CD and Issues Wheel about savanna fires for northern WA schools (14)

• Box 9 Altered fire regimes (2) Investigate a threatened species

• choose a threatened species to investigate • why is it being threatened • measures being taken to protect it • Article – threatened species (4)

(13) Video: David Attenborough Life of Plants Pollination (14) Video: Government of WA Department of Environment and Conservation The Day the Flames Came to Dwellingup 1961 Available at Fire PLs conducted by EcoEducation. Burning Issues savanna fires CD and issues wheel for EcoEducation PLs in northern WA. (9) United Nations Environment Programme 'News $27 million project will protect key pollinators for food security and biodiversity http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=543&ArticleID=5893&l=en 19/08/2008 (10) Department of Environment and Conservation Andrew A. Burbidge Threatened Animals of Western Australia – Work program attached (18) Western Swamp Tortoise www.dilemmas.net.au

Threatening processes:

Invasive species

Threatening processes: Invasive species • predators • herbivores • diseases (Phytophthora cinnamomi) • weeds

Articles (worksheets) • feral species (4) • Article Landscope Winter 2006 Invasive Marine Pests • Article Landscope Winter 2006 Putting dieback on the

map

• Research 1080 poison (4)

(4) Department of Environment and Conservation Western Shield http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/pdf/community/schools/pack_western_shield_action.pdf (11) Landscope magazines Spring 1998, Winter 2006 http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/shop/vmchk/landscope/view-all-products.html

Threatening processes:

Climate change

Ecological footprint Introduction using UNEP video Fragile Planet (00)

• effects of our input on climate change • effect of climate change and pollution on wildlife and

biodiversity (6)

• energy, air pollution, waste, water (5)

• land uses in catchment areas - card matching (5)

• identifying land uses and pollutants (brainstorm, design a campaign, rubbish in drains, decomposition times (5)

• sea level rise (5)

• the greenhouse effect (5)

• monitoring the effects of climate change on ecosystem drivers (marine, aquatic, terrestrial) (6)

• rainfall patterns

• transport and packaging (6)

(00) Fragile Planet - A 4 minute video on our global carbon footprint set to the music of "Fragile" by Sting. http://www.unep.org/newscentre/default.asp?ct=shortfilms (5) Department of Environment and Conservation: Biodiversity and Sustainability Package (Climate Change, Waste litter and packaging, Biodiversity. Water). WATER activities Available shortly. (6) Biodiversity and Climate Change in Western Australia Scientific Statement Conservation Council of WA

Conservation Legislation Combating threatening processes

• Habitat loss and modification • Box 5 Off-reserve conservation mechanisms: financial

incentives to private landholders (2)

• Invasive species • Climate change

Reservations/National Parks (7)

• biodiversity banks • challenges for park management • interpreting changes over time • tourism • impact of visitors • ecotourism cartoons

Recovery of species • Western Shield (4)

Local project – Wildlife monitoring program • identify a local area that needs monitoring or

rehabilitation • contact Department of Environment and Conservation to

find out what species are being monitored in your area • become involved in data collection • Case study Box 6: Ningaloo Community Turtle

Monitoring Program (2) • climate change program (8)

Debating topic

• Box 5 Off-reserve conservation mechanisms: financial incentives to private landholders (2)

Reservations/National Parks • Box 7: WA's conservation reserve system (2) • Diversity at different levels (7) • Six management challenges (7)

(7) Department of Environment and Conservation Caring for Places National Parks in the south-west Western Australia http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/schools-programs/ecoeducation/caring-for-places.html (9) Department of Environment and Conservation With Wildlife in Mind (Ten years of Land for Wildlife in Western Australia) 2007 (12) Australian Science Teachers Association Exploring Biodiversity (with CD) A Resource Book of Ideas for National Science Week 2001 (17) DVD: Out on a Limb, Investigating Tuart Woodlands. Poster: http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/schools-programs/ecoeducation/resources/middle-childhood.html Places to visit:

• Tracking changes (7) • Helping tourists go wild (7)

• Impact of visitors on national parks (7)

• Ecoeducation Incursion - Saving Threatened Fauna (8) Investigate the issues around the conservation and management of tuart woodlands

• DVD: Out on a Limb, Investigating Tuart Woodlands (17)

• Includes virtual guided tours and interactive learning objects.(8)

Breeding program (8a) • design an enclosure

Develop a management plan stories e.g. Coogee PS (9)

• property assessment template • collecting data

Western Shield • Article Landscope Bouncing Back Spring 1998 (11)

• EcoEducation at Perth Hills National Parks Centre • Henderson Environmental Centre • John Forrest National Park

Contact: 9295 6149 or 9295 6300 email ecoeducation@dec.wa..gov.au

• Wellington Discovery Forest • Margaret river Eco Discovery Centre

Contact: 9735 1909, email wdf@dec.wa.gov.au

• Naturaliste Marine Discovery Centre Contact: Carina Gemignani, Community Education Officer - (08) 9203 0341

by Caris Bailey and Martin Rayner

Dieback disease is one ofthe worst environmentalthreats facing WesternAustralia.The first essential step inmanaging this threat hasbeen to detect and mapinfected areas. That’sbeen no small task, sincethe disease has beenrecorded over an areathat stretches for millionsof hectares, from Eneabbato east of Esperance.

Putting dieback on the map

he root rot disease commonlyknown as dieback is caused by

several species of Phytophthora, watermoulds named using two Greek wordsmeaning ‘plant destroyer’.The effects ofthe disease were recorded in WesternAustralia from the 1920s, and diebackwas unwittingly spread across thesouth-west for decades before it wasidentified here in 1964.While it is nowknown to affect hundreds of native andexotic species growing in WA, itsimpact in the jarrah forest was mostalarming at that time, and there werefears that the forest could be wiped out.

Initially, the priority for thosemanaging the forest was to identify barepatches in the jarrah forest where standsof trees had been killed by dieback, sothat the areas could be scheduled fortimber harvesting before the treesdegraded—a process that was thenthought to be inevitable. As researchrevealed more about the disease,management focused on preventingthe spread of dieback and protectingthreatened species at greatest risk.Thisrequired mapping the distribution ofthe disease across the landscape.

Mapping challengeDisease distribution was mapped

from the mid-1960s using existingblack and white aerial photographs that

covered more than 2.5 million hectaresof land. However, there were problemswith accuracy, largely because of thesmall scale of the images (up to1:50,000) and their variable qualitydue to age and the time that hadelapsed (and hence vegetation change)since the photographs were taken.

In 1971, trials with colour aerialphotographs taken under shadowlessconditions began in the hope of findinga more accurate mapping technique,but the program was hindered by thelack of a reliable navigation system foraircraft until new equipment wasintroduced in 1977.

The challenge was to be able tonavigate the planes along set flightpaths so that the sea of trees belowcould be photographed systematically,and so that the location of thethousands of images collected couldthen be identified. At the time, fieldstaff still relied on reference trees tofind their way through a landscapewith few roads.Adopted after the First

World War, reference trees werespecially marked trees on a surveyedgrid one mile by one mile throughoutthe forest—the white-painted shieldscut into selected trunks can still be seenif you look out for them.

The new navigation equipmentmeant forest officers had to work theirway through the bush to set uptransponders on vantage points toguide the planes. Though thetechnology has changed dramaticallysince the 1970s, working in difficultterrain, in the heat and in the rain,withMarch flies and ticks, remains part ofthe job of mapping dieback.

Interpreting diebackTwo generations of staff working for

the then Forests Department and nowfor the Department of Conservationand Land Management (CALM) haveworked in the field to detect and mapdieback. These staff are called dieback

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2 LANDSCOPE

Previous pageMain and inset Different views of a jarrah‘graveyard’ showing the stark impact ofdieback.

Left A recently-killed jarrah tree standsout from its healthy neighbour.Photos – Jiri Lochman/CALM

There have been about 100 dieback interpreters since 1979, but Abe van der Sande’sstory illustrates their commitment particularly well.

Abe first worked for the Forests Department as a tower man in 1968 in the fire lookouttower at Mount Solus, east of Perth. He continued as a tower man over subsequentsummers and in various roles outside the fire season, including starting the seedcollection program that contributed to the rehabilitation of the areas aroundJarrahdale mined for bauxite.

In 1980, he was selected as a dieback interpreter, a role in which he excelled.Recognising the enormous job to be done, Abe worked tirelessly, including manyweekends. His wife Carol became a registered CALM volunteer, and oftenaccompanied him. Abe’s comprehensive knowledge of the vegetation patterns in theforests led to his discovery of a new species of dryandra in 1998, later namedDryandrainsulanemorecincta. Further survey work identified five more populations in the area.

His work improved management practices for forests, coastal plains and wetlands,and he ultimately became responsible for CALM’s interpretation program acrossmore than three quarters of amillion hectares of land in the northern region, includingthe training of new interpreters.

Last December, Abe and Carol were returning from another day’s work in the bushwhenAbe died suddenly.

Towering achievement

interpreters because they need tointerpret a range of symptoms. Aswell, other diseases, insect attack,fire,waterlogging, drought, competition,salinity, frost, mechanical damage andherbicides can all produce similarsymptoms to dieback.

Interpreters look for commonlyfound plant species within the particularvegetation type that are susceptible todieback—known as indicator species—and assess the influence of their positionin the landscape, local soils and drainage,all of which are factors in the spread ofthe disease. The absence of indicatorspecies and dominance of dieback-resistant species can indicate long-termchanges caused by dieback.

Dieback interpreters also takesamples from recently-killed plants andthe surrounding soil to analyse them forthe presence of dieback. It is estimatedthat more than 22,000 samples havebeen tested in the Kensington laboratoryof CALM’s Vegetation Health Servicesince it was set up in 1979.

In the same year, an interpretationsystem using new aerial photographs—1:4500 colour images on 70-millimetretransparencies—was introduced by theForests Department, a huge advance onthe old, small-scale black and whiteimages.With the creation of CALM in1985, dieback mapping began to extendfrom the forest to national parks andnature reserves in the affected region. In1986, the system was further improvedwith the introduction of 230-millimetretransparencies.

The next major advance cameduring the 1990s, when hand-heldnavigation devices operating on thesatellite global positioning system (GPS)became affordable for field staff, makingit possible to determine their locationwith far greater accuracy. Today,advances in computer technologyenable staff to enter map informationon palmtops in the bush and producemaps showing the expected spread ofdieback decades into the future.

Despite enormous advances intechnology and trial of satellite imageryand other remote sensed data, skilfulinterpretation and ground survey remainessential in mapping the extent andimpact of dieback. It is estimated thatdieback interpreters have walkedassessment lines over 700,000 hectares,

excluding areas mapped more thanonce, demarcating sites with around85,000 rolls of tape and wearingthrough about 540 pairs of boots.

The information collected is usedto manage access and operations inthese landscapes, to project futurespread and impact of the disease in thevegetation and wildlife it supports, andto contribute to a variety of researchand educational projects. CALM iscurrently developing a dieback atlas, aproject that will make the latestdieback mapping available to everyonein the community involved inmanaging dieback across the landscape.

Caris Bailey is Executive Editor ofLANDSCOPE and has worked in avariety of roles in CALM. She can becontacted on (08) 9389 8644.

Martin Rayner is Manager of CALM’sForest Management Branch, which isresponsible for the diebackinterpretation program, and can becontacted on (08) 9725 5927.

‘Putting dieback on the map’ from LANDSCOPEWinter 2006 magazine. © Department of Environment and Conservation 2009.All material copyright. No part of the contents of the publication may be reproduced without the consent of the publishers.

Published by the Department of Environment and Conservation, 17 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington,Western Australia.Visit www.dec.wa.gov.au.

2008

592-0509-PDF

Western Australia has an

extremely rich and unique

biodiversity that is nationally

and internationally recognised.

However, loss of biodiversity is

a major issue facing the State.

Embracing diversity

by Keith Claymore

the spice of life

he quality of life of all WesternAustralians depends on having a

rich and healthy biodiversity. All of usdepend on the products and ecosystemservices that biodiversity provides, inorder to maintain the lifestyle we allenjoy and take for granted. Livingthings provide food, clothes, buildingmaterials and medicines.They also helpto regulate and maintain ourenvironment, by providing clean waterand air, maintaining the quality of theatmosphere, controlling climate,providing fresh water, protecting soil bypreventing erosion, controlling pestsand diseases, and pollinating crops.Hence, all Western Australians share aresponsibility to conserve biodiversityand to ensure that the use of our naturalresources is ecologically sustainable.

Biodiversity valuesWestern Australia is in the enviable

position of having Australia’s onlyinternationally recognised terrestrialbiodiversity hotspot (the South WestBotanical Province), one of the world’s18 tropical marine hotspots and eightof the 15 national biodiversityhotspots. While these hotspots reflectan extremely high level of endemismand biodiversity richness, the terrestrialhotspots are subject to a high degree ofthreatening processes, such as: theeffects of secondary salinisation andwaterlogging on native habitat in theSouth West; altered fire regimes;inappropriate grazing; introduced

plants, animals and pathogens such asPhytophthora cinnamomi (see ‘AlienInvaders’ in LANDSCOPE, Summer04-05); and direct habitat loss throughclearing of native vegetation forinfrastructure, agriculture and otherdevelopments.The impending effects of climate

change—and associated processes suchas sea level rise—and increases incarbon dioxide will also significantlythreaten biodiversity in both terrestrialand marine areas (for instance, throughcoral bleaching) over the next fewdecades.At least 547 species, subspecies and

varieties of plants and animals are nowthreatened with extinction in WA,while at least 18 animal species, 15plant species and three ecologicalcommunities have been lost forever.Secondary salinisation andwaterlogging in the agricultural zoneof the SouthWest may cause a further450 plants and 400 animals, including

aquatic invertebrates, to becomeextinct. It has also been estimated that14 per cent of plant species in theSouth West Botanical Province aresusceptible to dieback disease caused byPhytophthora cinnamomi infestation anda further 26 per cent are susceptible.

Devising a strategyThe State has been recognised

internationally and nationally as beingat the forefront of biodiversityconservation through programs such asthe wildlife recovery program WesternShield. However, while there has beenconsiderable progress in biodiversityconservation in WA, there is need foraccelerated conservation action in acoordinated and targeted fashion, tohalt and reverse the decline inbiodiversity. A piecemeal anduncoordinated approach will fail.WA is therefore developing a State

biodiversity conservation strategy toprovide an overarching framework toguide decisions, identify and clarifyresponsibilities, provide a coordinatedand targeted approach to conservationrequirements, outline institutionalreforms, establish a common vision andgoals for the next 25 years (phase 1 ofa proposed 100-year strategy), andmeet WA’s national and internationalobligations.

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Previous pageMain Wattle and black-eyed susan on ahillside. The South West of WesternAustralia is Australia’s onlyinternationally recognised terrestrialbiodiversity hotspot.Photo – Bill Belson/LochmanTransparenciesInset Green tree frogs.Photo – Ken Stepnell/CALM

Above The Queen of Sheba orchid(Thelymitra variegata) has a great deal ofvariability in its flower colour, indicatinggenetic diversity.Photo – Babs and Bert Wells/CALM

Left Hummock grasslands dominatemuch of the semi-arid and arid areas ofWA and provide a rich assemblage ofplants and animals and diversity ofhabitats.Photo – Keith Claymore

3 LANDSCOPE

A recent discussion paper, releasedby the Department of Conservationand Land Management (CALM) tocommence the development of a Statebiodiversity conservation strategy, putsforward four primary areas that need tobe considered in a biodiversityconservation strategy for WA: researchinto biodiversity; engaging the public;integration and coordination; anddirect management. It also proposesnine key strategic directions.

Understanding biodiversityThere are significant gaps in

knowledge about the State’sbiodiversity—and of threateningprocesses—so improving thisknowledge is critical. In particular,much more work is required todescribe invertebrates, non-floweringplants (like ferns, lichens and fungi),micro-organisms (such as cryptogamsand bacteria), and marine andsubterranean organisms.Systematic biological surveys are

needed to identify and document

biodiversity patterns and components,and to establish the conservation statusof species, subspecies and varieties ofplants and animals, and of ecologicalcommunities. A comprehensivebiological survey is now underway inthe Pilbara region across a range ofplant and animal groups. However,around 70 per cent of WA has notbeen comprehensively surveyed.Hence, we need to expand the State’sbiological survey program to completethese gaps in coverage, and to mapecosystems at a finer scale. Theinformation that is collected will helpto determine priorities for establishinga conservation reserve system thatis comprehensive, adequate andrepresentative, and assist in planningfor integrated natural resourcemanagement.Monitoring the health of

biodiversity and trends in threats isessential. It will allow us to determinewhether conservation management iseffective, to establish relationshipsbetween cause and effect, and to

distinguish between human-inducedchanges and those brought about bynatural disturbance. A BiodiversityAudit for Western Australia wasundertaken in 2002, and providesinformation on terrestrial biodiversityvalues, threats and appropriate actionsat a bioregional scale.It will also be important to develop

readily accessible databases thatorganise and link data from a variety

LANDSCOPE 4

What is biodiversity?

The term ‘biodiversity’ was coined inthe mid-1980s.Western Australia is asignatory to the National Strategyfor the Conservation of Australia’sBiological Diversity, which defines‘biodiversity’ as ‘the variety of all lifeforms—the different plants, animals,fungi and micro-organisms, thegenes they contain, and theecosystems of which they forma part’. Biological diversity isconsidered at three levels.

• Genetic diversity is the varietyof genetic informationcontained in all of the individualplants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms that inhabit the earth.Genetic diversity occurs withinand between the populations oforganisms that compriseindividual species, as well asamong species.

• Species diversity refers to thevariety of species on the earth.

• Ecosystem diversity is thevariety of habitats, biologicalcommunities and ecologicalprocesses.

Top Prince Regent Nature Reserve in theKimberley is one of two areas in WAclassified as a world biosphere reserve(the other is Fitzgerald River NationalPark on the south coast).Photos – Babs and Bert Wells/CALM

Above Ningaloo Marine Park is thelargest fringing reef in Australia. Thetemperate and tropical currents thatconverge in this region result in highlydiverse marine life.Photo – Clay Bryce/LochmanTransparencies

5 LANDSCOPE

of sources and provide relevantinformation for biodiversity planningand on-ground conservation.The potential impact of climate

change is increasingly being recognisedas posing a major threat to biodiversity.Further knowledge on the likely effectsis needed, so we can develop effectiveresponse strategies, and identifybiodiversity assets particularly at risk.Impacts from other impendingthreatening processes, such as theimminent arrival of the cane toad inthe Kimberley, will also need to beexamined and understood.

Engaging the publicIf we are to bring about greater

support for biodiversity conservationinitiatives, the widerWestern Australianpublic will need to recognise theenvironmental, social and economicconsequences of biodiversity loss, andimpacts on their wellbeing andlivelihoods.This will require educationand awareness—including thedevelopment of formal educationalcurricula at all levels—on the benefitsof biodiversity, to achieve greaterempathy with our natural heritage andappreciation of its values, andrecognition of conservation needs.Involvement of people in the

enjoyment of biodiversity will assist inmaintaining social health and helpthem gain an understanding of

biological values. Involving peopledirectly in conservation initiatives willhelp to address biodiversity threats andbring about long-term support forconservation programs. These strategieswill also help to establish biodiversityconservation decision-making inmainstream businesses and governmentprocesses. All levels of government,non-government organisations, industryand the general public can help toachieve these outcomes.

Integration and coordinationA plethora of existing strategies,

plans and legislation deal in somemanner with biodiversity conservation.Opportunities exist to strengthen someof these mechanisms to accelerate andbetter coordinate and integratebiodiversity conservation initiatives.A Biodiversity Conservation Act is

proposed forWA. It is intended that theAct will provide a regulatory

framework for the protection,restoration and sustainable use ofbiodiversity, and that it will alsoformally recognise conservationactivities by a range of stakeholdersthrough accredited bioregional plans,and help to broaden and strengthenprotection for all species and theirhabitats.Local government action plans for

biodiversity, and community-basedregional natural resource managementstrategies and investment plans, willhelp to better integrate and coordinatebiodiversity conservation initiatives.Guidance to local governmentauthorities for incorporating biodiversityconservation considerations into theirtown planning schemes will help tominimise the impact of developmentand urban expansion, along withenvironmental impact assessments underthe Environmental Protection Act.

LANDSCOPE 6

Above Taxonomic work is needed to helpcomplete gaps in our biodiversityknowledge.Photo – Community Newspapers

Natural resource managementsectors are increasingly adoptingsustainability principles in plans andguidelines, and providing forbiodiversity conservation. There arealso many commercial opportunities toestablish industries based on nativespecies, such as oil mallees, to providealternatives to traditional practiceswhile at the same time providingconservation benefits.

Managing for biodiversityEstablishing and managing

conservation reserves—national parks,nature reserves, marine parks andequivalent areas—is vital to helpconserve biodiversity, and is a centralstrategy to maintaining and reversingbiodiversity decline. It provides long-term protection of representativeecosystems, and establishes managementprotocols and standards for those areas.As well as providing the basisfor conserving biodiversity, theconservation reserve system also playsan important role in the State’seconomy and social wellbeing byproviding opportunities for sustainablenature-based tourism and recreation—increasingly being seen as vital by manyregional communities.While there have been significant

additions to both the terrestrial andmarine conservation reserve systemsover the past few years, there is someway to go to reach the benchmark of atleast 15 per cent of terrestrialecosystems being reserved. Of the 54terrestrial subregions in WA, only tencurrently have 15 per cent or more oftheir area reserved (see map on page59). Of the 18 marine bioregions, 10have no marine reserves. There istherefore an urgent need to add

additional areas to the conservationreserve system, particularly in therangelands, and for the Kimberley andWA South Coast marine bioregions(see ‘Vision Splendid’, LANDSCOPE,Spring 2003). Nevertheless, three newmarine parks, two new marinemanagement areas and extensions toNingaloo Marine Park and RowleyShoals Marine Park, and 29 newnational parks have been created sinceAugust 2004.Recovery of species and ecological

communities on the edge of extinctionis another primary conservation strategyneeded to prevent further biodiversityloss, along with special attention beinggiven to areas of high conservationvalues such as wetlands and naturallyrestricted ecosystems and habitats.The need for landscape-scale

conservation has highlighted theimportant role of conservation outsidereserves to complement the goals ofthe formal conservation reserve system,and to address threatening processes atan appropriate scale. Over the pastdecade, a wide range of mechanismsand programs have been developed toprovide incentives for private andleasehold landholders to manage nativevegetation and other habitat forconservation purposes.Programs such as Urban Nature

and Land forWildlife provide technicaladvice on conservation management toprivate landholders. Innovativeinitiatives, such as market-basedinstruments that provide or increasefinancial rewards for conservation, arecurrently being trialed. The BushlandBenefits scheme encourageslandholders to apply for funds forconservation through a tenderingsystem, and awards funds on the basis of

cost effectiveness and the best possiblebiodiversity conservation outcomes.Through the Biodiversity AdjustmentScheme the State government isbuying high-value biodiversityconservation land and providingassistance to landholders where landshould never be cleared.These and other programs are being

complemented by other voluntaryconservation approaches, direct financialassistance schemes and industry-drivenapproaches such as environmentalmanagement systems.The expansion ofthese types of initiatives and advisoryservices will be needed to achieveeffective biodiversity conservation onprivate and leasehold lands.

Above Codes of practice andmanagement guidelines help ensureactivities such as swimming with whalesharks in Ningaloo Marine Park aresustainable.Photo – Western Australian TourismCommission

Keith Claymore is acting AssistantDirector of CALM’s NatureConservation Division, based in Perth.He can be contacted on (08) 9442 0342or by email keithc@calm.wa.gov.au.

CALM has released a discussionpaper Towards a BiodiversityConservation Strategy for WesternAustralia. Downloadable copies of thepaper are available fromhttp://www.naturebase.net/haveyoursay or on request from CALM atits main office at 17 Dick Perry Ave,Kensington, phone (08) 9334 0333.

‘Embracing diversity the spice of life’ from LANDSCOPE Autumn 2005 magazine. © Department of Environment and Conservation 2009.All material copyright. No part of the contents of the publication may be reproduced without the consent of the publishers.

Published by the Department of Environment and Conservation, 17 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington,Western Australia.Visit www.dec.wa.gov.au.

2008592-0509-PDF

Many dangers lurk beneaththe ocean waves, but not allof them have sharp teeth.

by John Huisman and Cheryl Parker

The menace belowinvasive seaweeds

he value of the marine environmenttoWesternAustralians is difficult to

quantify. It is probably our favouredplayground, whether for swimming,surfing, diving or other recreationalactivities. In addition, our marineindustries generate around $5 billionper year, and employ more than 14,000people.

On a less positive note, it receivesmuch of our waste, which it mostlyabsorbs very efficiently. Thankfully, weno longer hold the perception that themarine environment can supply aninexhaustible harvest, and that it can betreated as a bottomless dumpingground. If we take care of our marineenvironment and treat it with respect,we should be able to maintain a healthyand productive system.

But our oceans are under threat.Pollution, global warming andoverexploitation of the marineenvironment are major problems inmany places already, potentially leadingto the total collapse of the delicatebalance of the marine ecosystem. InWestern Australia, excessive nutrientpollution often leads to algal bloomsvisible from the surface. Now anadditional menace looms, capable ofreducing diverse and productiveecosystems to virtual monocultures,dominated by a single, all-pervasivespecies. The menace comes in manyguises, but is collectively known as‘invasive marine pests’.

Feathery caulerpaCaulerpa is a widespread genus of

green algae that grows by sending outhorizontal creeping stems, from whichupright branches can arise. Theuprights come in all manner of shapes.Some look like bunches of smallgrapes, some are flattened and almostfern-like, while others resemble thickblades of grass.

Some years ago, a particularlyvigorous form of a common tropicalspecies, feathery caulerpa (Caulerpataxifolia), became a popular decorationin marine aquaria. Plants grew veryrapidly, nothing ate or attacked them,

they tolerated a wide variety ofenvironmental conditions and newplants could be created from thesmallest cuttings. Unfortunately, all ofthese characteristics also meant featherycaulerpa was an ideal weed, potentiallyable to colonise large areas of theworld’s shallow seafloor.And there wereno constraints on transporting Caulerpaaround the world; it could be orderedby mail from aquarium suppliers anddelivered to your door!

It is widely believed that this‘aquarium strain’ of feathery caulerpa isa genetically modified mutant of recentorigin, as there are clear genetic

T

3 LANDSCOPE

Previous pageMain Sea berries (Caulerpa sedoides), alocal green seaweed growing at RottnestIsland.Inset Sea grapes (Caulerpa racemosa var.cylindracea), a green seaweed native tothe Perth region, is now an invasive weedin many parts of the world.

Above The local green seaweed Caulerpadistichophylla looks similar to featherycaulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia).

Left Two dried plants of feathery caulerpa(Caulerpa taxifolia)—the regular strainfrom Broome (far left) and the invasivestrain from Adelaide (left)—are almostidentical in appearance and hencedifficult to distinguish from one another.Photos – John Huisman

differences between the invasive plantsand the tropical, non-invasive plantsalso known as feathery caulerpa.Recently published observations on acold-tolerant variant of featherycaulerpa, which has been found inMoreton Bay (Queensland) since atleast the 1870s, might indicate analternative source of this pest.

In 1984, French marine biologist

Alexandre Meinesz noticed an unusualgreen alga in the Mediterranean,whichin his many years of experience he hadnever seen growing locally. The plantswere adjacent to the MonacoOceanographic Institute, where manydisplay aquaria were in use. Meineszidentified them as feathery caulerpa,and attempted to raise the alarm thatan introduced and potentially invasive

species was growing in theMediterranean. Unfortunately hisconcerns were largely ignored, as theprevailing feeling at the time was that itwas a natural part of the Mediterraneanecosystem. How wrong this proved tobe! In subsequent years, featherycaulerpa ran rampant throughout largetracts of the Mediterranean, displacingnative seagrasses and radically alteringthe entire marine ecosystem. Therenow appears to be no means ofcontainment. Mechanical removal isnot viable, because the plant has spreadso far and so rapidly.

Subsequent outbreaks alsooccurred in California, and in NewSouth Wales and South Australia, butdue to the experience gained fromthe Mediterranean, eradication wasattempted before the species was able togain a large foothold. The success of

Above left A close view of the blade ofthe invasive wakame (Undaria pinnatifida)shows the midrib distinctive to thisspecies. Compare this to the local kelp.

Above The stem of wakame hasdistinctive ruffled reproductive branches.These do not occur in Ecklonia.Photos – CSIRO

Left The common kelp (Ecklonia radiata)found in local waters.Photo – John Huisman

LANDSCOPE 4

eradication is subject to ongoingmonitoring. Eradicating even smalloutbreaks is very expensive, costing$US 6 million (up to 2004) in southernCalifornia and $AUS 6–8 million inSouth Australia.

IsWA at risk? Most certainly. In theMediterranean, water temperaturesdrop to 13°C over winter, and featherycaulerpa survives. It could certainlysurvive WA’s winter sea temperatures,which are around 16-23°C in thevicinity of Perth. In New SouthWales,feathery caulerpa survives intemperatures from 12–25°C, andelsewhere is reported to toleratetemperatures from 7–32°C. Thereseems no question that it could survivealong most parts ofWA’s coastline.

But it has to get here first, and withproper management we might remainfree of this pest. The invasive featherycaulerpa is apparently all male and doesnot reproduce sexually, so can onlyspread (other than by human means) byfragmentation and by growing laterally.Unfortunately, it can survive from thesmallest fragments, and can also surviveout of water for many days in humidconditions.The best means of control isto stop it getting here in the first place,so we need vigilant policing ofquarantine procedures of living marineplants. Greater community awareness isalso important, to stop people dumpingaquarium contents into waterways.Thespecies is now banned from import andsale, but remnant populations probablysurvive in many home aquaria.

Community awareness is alsoimportant for other reasons. Anoutbreak of feathery caulerpa might gounnoticed for years if no-onerecognises it. Divers, snorkellers, fishersand others must be made aware of theproblem so any suspect outbreaks canbe immediately reported to theDepartment of Conservation and LandManagement (CALM) orWA Fisheries.

5 LANDSCOPE

Unlike the terrestrial flora, the vast majority of marine plants are virtuallyunknown to all but a handful of biologists.The problem of introduced and invasivespecies is compounded by this general lack of awareness; if you didn’t know thatthe plant you were looking at was introduced, you wouldn’t think to be concerned.CALM’sWA Herbarium is undertaking a project to increase awareness about ourmarine plants, by providing online information, including descriptions,photographs and distribution data of the marine flora. This will eventually be amajor resource, accessible via CALM’s FloraBase information system.

The first phase of this project included databasing the State’s scientificcollections of marine plants and was a joint venture between CALM’s WAHerbarium and its Marine Conservation Branch. Coastwest/Coastcare providedfunds for the initial stage and CALM received a Natural HeritageTrust grant tocontinue the project into 2006. Additional funding is being sought to support theproject beyond this.

The WA Herbarium already had an extensive marine plant collection but onlydata on seagrasses were available through FloraBase. In collaboration withCSIRO, Murdoch University and The University of Western Australia, existingspecimens collected by these agencies will be permanently housed at theHerbarium. A combined specimen database will provide information on morethan 20,000 specimens.

The resulting database will besupported by an authoritative censusofWA’s marine plants, includingaround 1000 macroalgae and seagrassspecies, together with references toother sources of information aboutthem.The comprehensive work carriedout by Roberta Cowan from MurdochUniversity in compiling the AustralianMarine Algal Name Index (AMANI) hasprovided a sound basis for theWAMarine Plant Census.

This project will provide extensivesupport to agencies and researcherscontributing to conservation ofWA’smarine biodiversity. Scientists,community groups and volunteers willhave ready access to up-to-dateinformation on marine plants.

FloraBase is available on CALM’s website at http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/.

Recognition of WA’s marine flora

Above left A diver collects seaweeds atthe Houtman Abrolhos Islands, as partof ongoing surveys of WesternAustralia’s marine plant biodiversity.Photo – John Huisman

Sea grapesIn the early 1990s, a second invasive

species of Caulerpa was observed in theMediterranean. This species appearedto be even more vigorous than featherycaulerpa, outgrowing it in head-to-head encounters. It was not identifieduntil a study published in 2004 showedthe invasive species was in fact seagrapes (Caulerpa racemosa var.cylindracea), a species with a naturaldistribution centred on the Perthregion. The spread of this species inEurope has been described as ablitzkrieg, and it is proving to be asproblematic as feathery caulerpa. Partsof South Australia are also nowbecoming inundated by this species,illustrating that pest species do not haveto travel far to be problematic. As theWestern Australian ecosystem hasevolved to accommodate sea grapes,the species is unlikely to become a pestin our waters.

WakameWakame (Undaria pinnatifida) is a

largish (to three metres tall) brown kelpthat is widely eaten in Asian and othercuisine. It is native to Japan, China andKorea and has been collected and eatenin Asia for centuries.Wakame has beenaccidentally introduced to New Zealand,California and the Mediterranean Sea(France, Italy). It was also deliberatelyintroduced into the North Atlantic, toBrittany, for commercial exploitation,then was recorded in naturalcommunities in France, Britain, Spainand Argentina. In 1988, populationswere observed in Tasmania, andwakame now grows over a large area ofTasmania’s east coast. It has also spreadto Port Phillip Bay inVictoria.

Unlike Caulerpa, wakame growsupright from a single holdfast. Thismight lead one to think that it couldnot spread rapidly, but wakame has

other means of getting around. Eachplant produces many thousands ofspores—from specialised branchescalled sporophylls that arise laterally onthe stem—that can drift in the waterand settle some distance away,eventually producing new plants.Wakame looks very similar to aWestern Australian species, commonkelp (Ecklonia radiata), and couldpossibly supplant that species if it tookhold. Wakame generally inhabits onlycold temperate coastal areas and growsbest in waters below 12°C, but cansurvive in temperatures from 3–20°C,and the microscopic gametophyte stagecan survive up to 25°C, so many partsof WA’s coastline are probably at riskfrom an invasion.

As with Caulerpa, vigilance isimportant to keep this pest at bay.

Sightings should be reportedimmediately. Wakame has a distinctmidrib running through at least part ofthe blade and, when mature, producesspecialised spore-bearing branchesknown as ‘sporophylls’. These areconvoluted and easily distinguishedfrom the main frond.Common kelp hasa flat blade with no distinct midrib andlacks specialised spore-bearing branches.

Fragile fingersFragile fingers (Codium fragile var.

tomentosoides) is a large (sometimesmore than 20 centimetres tall), darkgreen plant, regularly divided intopaired branches.The branches, up to acentimetre in diameter, are spongywith tufts of whitish hairs just belowthe tips.The species is probably nativeto Japan, but is now one of the most

LANDSCOPE 6

Right After storms, the accumulation ofdrift seaweed on Perth beaches can besubstantial.Photo – John Huisman

7 LANDSCOPE

invasive seaweeds in the world, havingfound its way to New Zealand andthen to south-eastern Australia, whereit is forming dense populations. Itgenerally grows on hard surfaces andattaches itself to shellfish, which makesit particularly unwelcome toaquaculturists.

It seems likely that this species willeventually spread across southernAustralia to WA, probably by drifting

or as a fouling organism. It lookssimilar to several WA species, andscientists need to examine its internalstructure to identify this species. Itsurvives in a broad temperature rangeand could easily invadeWA waters.

Other seaweed invadersThe four species mentioned above

have become invasive in Australia andmany other parts of the world. But

many more marine plant species arenow regarded as pests. It is difficult topredict if a species is likely to become apest in a new environment, as manyintroduced species remain relativelyinnocuous and do not dominate theirnew homes.

Some introductions of otherwisesedate species, however, have haddisastrous consequences. In the 1970s, awell-meaning researcher at theUniversity of Hawaii introducedseveral species of red seaweed toHawaiian waters, to test their suitabilityfor aquaculture. These studies resultedin major seaweed aquacultureindustries in several tropical Pacificcountries, including the Philippinesand Indonesia.

Unfortunately, the test sites did notfare as well.The plants were left to theirown devices and began to dominate

Above Caulerpa racemosa var.laetevirens at Dampier Archipelago, avariety very similar in appearance to thelocal Caulerpa racemosa.

Left Duthie’s fingers (Codium duthiae),one of many native species of dead man’sfingers (Codium) found in the Perth region.Photos – John Huisman

the ecosystem in parts of Hawaii.Aftersoutherly storms, Waikiki Beach (oneof the world’s most famous beaches anda major tourist destination) isinundated with large piles of beadedgracilaria (Gracilaria salicornia) derivedfrom that first introduction. KaneoheBay now supports huge tracts ofjellyweeds (Eucheuma denticulatum andKappaphycus alvarezii), also introducedintentionally. On Maui, blooms ofanother red seaweed, hookweed(Hypnea musciformis), result in massivebeach drift that eventually rots andbecomes foul smelling. Once-pristinebeaches have become intolerablytainted. The costs of cleaning thebeaches are huge and ongoing, adjacentland values have dropped dramatically,and the local tourist industry hassuffered. Manual eradication has beentrialled, but is presently not feasible andthere seems no way to halt the spreadof these species.

What to do?It is often impossible to predict

how one species might fare in newenvironments, but it is painfullyobvious that we should ban theintentional movement of living marineplants and do our utmost to preventaccidental introductions. Accidentalintroductions can occur by hull foulingand ballast water, and new regulationsaddressing at least some of thosesources will soon come into force.Community awareness is vital, toprevent introductions and to alert theappropriate authorities if any invasivespecies are sighted. If only one or twopeople in WA can actually recognise apest species, it is likely that anyinfestations will go unnoticed, but, ifwe all familiarise ourselves with at leastthe major pest species, then the chance

of recognition is vastly improved. If youare regularly involved in marineactivities, make a note of what younormally see.That way, you will be ableto recognise any major changes, andnotify the appropriate agency.

Once marine pests gain a foothold,it is very difficult—if not impossible—to eradicate them. By being vigilantand keeping a watchful eye over ourmarine environment, we can hopefullykeepWA free of these unwanted aliens.

John Huisman, author ofMarine Plantsof Australia, is a contract seaweedspecialist at theWA Herbarium, andalso research fellow at MurdochUniversity. He can be contacted byemail (johnhui@calm.wa.gov.au).

Cheryl Parker is a curator at theWAHerbarium and manages the State’smarine plant collection.

A forthcoming bush book, MarinePlants of the Perth Region, will bepublished by CALM in late 2006.

Below right Sea grapes is native tosouth-western Australia but a major pestelsewhere.Photo – John Huisman

Many marine species have found their way around the world’s oceans, either bynatural means, such as currents, or unnatural pathways such as hitching a rideon a ship or yacht, or being imported for aquaculture or the aquarium trade. Mostof these species are fairly innocuous and unlikely to have a major impact on theenvironment. In the past, these species were often described as ‘cosmopolitan’,indicating their widespread distribution. Nowadays they are also known as‘cryptogenic’, which essentially means that their original source is unknown,obscured by their now-ubiquitous presence.They may, or may not, be introduced.‘Introduced’ species are those that have clearly established a new populationoutside their natural distribution. They tend to be initially encountered in thevicinity of ports and harbours, and have not previously been recorded from localwaters. Nowadays, further proof that a species is introduced comes fromcomparing DNA sequences between the newly established population and anypossible source populations. Introductions do not necessarily have to come froma different country. Australia is a big place, and introduced species can also betranslocated from elsewhere in the country.

Occasionally, some imports flourish in their new home, displacing native speciesand seriously affecting the marine environment. At this point, the species aredescribed as ‘invasive’ or ‘pest’.

Introduced, cryptogenic, invasive or pest?

‘The menace below invasive seaweeds’ from LANDSCOPEWinter 2006 magazine. © Department of Environment and Conservation 2009.All material copyright. No part of the contents of the publication may be reproduced without the consent of the publishers.

Published by the Department of Environment and Conservation, 17 Dick Perry Avenue, Kensington,Western Australia.Visit www.dec.wa.gov.au.

2008592-0509-PDF

A 100-year Biodiversity Conservation Strategy for Western Australia

Activities for Case Studies (boxed stories with photo) between pp 3

and 61.

Kay Simpson

Case Study 1 Fauna conservation significance of offshore islands

Who am I? Give out cards (laminated, Students to read out clue, answers on back

Front: Question

Back: Answer

1. Front:

• Once lived in SA?

• Only found in Bernier and Dorre Islands?

Back:

• Western Barred Bandicoot.

2. Front:

• 3 Largest offshore are?

Back:

• Barrow, Bernier, Dorre.

3. Front:

• Introduced to Escape Island?

Back:

• Dibbler

4. Front:

• Introduced to Trimoville Island?

Back:

Newly introduced Mala Species

Front: Island

Back: Organism

1. Front:

• Trimoville Island

Back:

• Mala

2. Front:

• Escape Island

Back:

• Dibblers

3. Front:

• Doole Island

Back:

• Shark Bay mouse

4. Front:

• Bald Island

Back:

• Noisy Scrub Bird

• Gilberts Potoroo

Shevaun Claassen

Case Study 2 Genetic and species variability within trigger plants

Research 3 other species of triggerplants (other than Stylidium hispidum, shown in

the photo) describing the shapes, column lengths and strike angle.

• Explain why each feature differs between species and how habitat may affect

these.

• How may a species population be affected by the surrounding habitat?

• How may food chains or biodiversity be affected by the loss of the triggerplant

in any habitat?

• Draw a food web involving the triggerplant and at least 8 other species.

• Describe how energy passes through a food chain. Use your food web to

illustrate your answer.

• Name a producer and a consumer.

• Which features of the south-west climate are best suited to triggerplants?

Zane Saunders

Case Study 3 Seagrass meadows

Google Dugongs and describe research findings about this species.

What other animals inhabit Shark Bay?

Are there other animals that eat the sea grass?

How long does sea grass take to grow?

• What specific conditions does it require to grow?

• Where else in the world does sea grass grow?

• Describe the many advantages in having rich seagrass meadows.

How important are dugongs and seagrass in the listing of Shark Bay as a World

Heritage area? http://www.sharkbay.org/ View the 360o panorama of Shark Bay.

Case Study 4 Environmental weed or improved pasture? List reasons buffel grass has been identified as a high priority.

• How did buffel grass enter Australia?

• Why has the weed persisted?

• How has buffel grass changed its environment?

• What has this meant for the ecology of the Northern half of WA?

• Describe the effects on the biodiversity of areas invaded by buffel grass.

• Research the effect of buffel grass on fire in the northern part of Australia.

Case Study 5 Off reserve conservation mechanisms: financial incentives

to private landholders

Which factors should be considered by a private landholder when planning how their

land will be used?

If you have isolated areas of natural vegetation on your land how could you protect

the native species and promote biodiversity.

Explain how Woodland Watch can help land holders protect native species.

Biodiversity report on conservation of woodlands:

http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=5

31&Itemid=1

Rob Miluski

Case Study 6 Ningaloo Community Turtle Monitoring Program

Brainstorm

• Why are turtles a threatened species?

• How are they important?

• Research three threatened species of turtles found in WA waters.

• Find out how the Cape Conservation Group monitors turtle populations.

http://www.ningalooturtles.org.au/

Local study/monitoring:

Identify a local area which needs monitoring or is protected e.g. “Wetland”

Contact Department of Environment and Conservation to find out what species is

being monitored or protected in your chosen area.

Excursion

• Visit area /data collection.

• Impact of your chosen area from various sources e.g. bush-walkers,

government clearing of land for houses, etc.

Dianne Wheatley

Case Study 7 WA’s conservation reserve system

1. What is the reason for establishing conservation sites (reserves)?

2. What is the meaning of a terrestrial conservation reserve?

3. What is the difference between a terrestrial and a marine conservation

reserve?

4. What is biodiversity? Why is it important to maintain areas of biodiversity?

5. Sketch the photo; label the plants, water features, landforms etc. What animals

would probably be found in this area?

6. Use a flow chart to show the possible consequences of this area being used for

settlement (housing/farming etc.). Show what would be the effects on plant

species and animals.

7. What sorts of activities would be allowed in this reserve?

8. In diagram form, show the interrelationships between plant and animal species

on an island. You may wish to draw your island, indicating various features,

animal populations, plant species, etc.

Case Study 8 Gilbert’s Potoroo – Australia’s most threatened mammal

Undertake research on Gilbert’s Potoroo and find out about its:

• Feeding habits – food, native vegetation

• Patterns of activity

• Reproduction

Different groups briefly research different specific impacts on the Potoroo.

• predators; foxes and cats.

• altered fire regimes

• disease causing vegetation decline

Design an eco-sanctuary for an area similar to Mount Gardener

Think about:

- Vegetation required?

- Predator-proof fences?

- Predator elimination?

- Surveillance?

- Similar species/animals/fauna to live alongside?

- Man-made shelters vs. natural?

-size of sancuary

Provide justifications for decisions.

Case Study 9 Altered Fire Regimes

Undertake research on fire. Discuss:

• Fire rejuvenation

• Habitat and structural changes due to fire

• Grazing of the environment –changes in environmental conditions.

• Biodiversity- Endemic

• Introduction of species-Fauna and flora

• Burning off - why do people do it?

• Fire good or bad – reasons why?

Discuss impacts on biodiversity values of different types of fires.

In northern parts of Australia, The government pays local councils to light fires. What

are the advantages and disadvantages for lighting fires? Be sure to include reasons

why fire is advantageous and detrimental for the global environment.

Work program for Threatened Animals of WA, Andrew A. Burbidge, 2004.

Quick quiz (pp13.14)

1. Activities that cause species to decline so they move toward extinction are termed:

a. multiple destruction

b. habitat degeneration

c. systematic decline

d. threatening processes

2. Habitat remnants:

a. are all preserved in WA

b. are connected enabling movement and therefore survival of species

c. are small and isolated in WA agricultural areas

d. reduce the loss of species by reducing the occurrence of disease

3. Clearing land:

a. is a major cause of extinction

b. accelerates species adaptation in most plants

c. was accompanied by significant habitat preservation

d. happened mostly in the last 10 years

4. Describe a process that generally does NOT lead to habitat degradation.

a. changed water conditions

b. yearly change due to seasons

c. increase in weeds

d. introducing a new species

5. What is the most significant threat to biodiversity in the south west of WA?

a. salinity

b. fire

c. disease

d. cane toads

Fire (pp14-16)

Using a highlighter pen, highlight the differences in requirements by different species

to changes made by fires.

Invasive Species (pp16-20)

Make a table including significant invasive species and comment whether they are

predators, competitors or another category. Record their impacts in the table. Using

this information, draw two food chains or a food web using some of the information

given in the text.

Examine a case study of the effects of disease (Gilbert’s potoroo – Australia’s most

threatened mammal, Box 8, p55, * Draft – A 100 year Biodiversity Conservation

Strategy for Western Australia) and weeds (Environmental weed or improved

pasture? Box 4, p13, *) and answer the questions. Write an investigation that a

scientist could carry out to find out the impacts of buffel grass on biodiversity. What

is your hypothesis or research question? How could you control variables in a field

study? What results would support your hypothesis or prediction?

Climate change

Starting with the information given in the text (p21), undertake a research project to

explain how climate change can impact on biodiversity in WA. In your project,

include the ways that climate change can exacerbate other threatening processes.

Discuss the evidence showing climate change in WA and the sources.

Over-exploitation

Write key words that exemplify the problems associated with harvesting natural

species (hunting, fishing, logging) and give examples (pp21-23).

Critical Question:

Describe the multiple impacts of threatening processes on biodiversity. Provide

examples in your answer and relate synergistic effects of these processes.

MARINE Ecological consequences

• causes loss or modification of habitat

• removal of predator or prey animals unbalances the community

• reduces the overall biomass of the ecosystem

MARINE Ecological consequences • removes or modifies native

vegetation and ecosystems • reduces species diversity • increases sedimentation or erosion

MARINE Ecological consequences • loss of biota • decline in species diversity • reduces overall biomass

MARINE Ecological consequences • modifies or destroys habitat • causes nutrient enrichment

MARINE Ecological consequences • accumulates in organisms leading

to poisoning of marine organisms

MARINE Ecological consequences • predate on native species • increases competition for space and

food • alters nutrient cycles • loss of diversity of native species

MARINE Ecological consequences • coral bleaching • displacement of species

MARINE Ecological consequences • changes species composition and

sediments around off-shore installations

• native vegetation is removed and loss of biodiversity occurs

MARINE Factor

Fishing (includes trawling)

MARINE Factor

Dredging and dumping

MARINE Factor

Coastal development

MARINE Factor

Poaching

MARINE Factor

Mariculture (farming of marine plants and animals in brackish

and marine areas)

MARINE Factor

Contamination

MARINE Factor

Introduced marine pests

MARINE Factor

Human-induced climate change

MARINE Factor

Oil and gas industry (oil/chemical contamination

and release of pollutants/on-shore and off-shore impacts)

MARINE Ecological consequences • increases turbidity and

sedimentation • smothers coral and other sea floor

communities • causes physical loss of habitat • changes the distribution and

condition of native habitats/biota

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Broadscale clearing of native vegetation

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Introduced predators (including European red fox

and feral cat)

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Introduced herbivores and omnivores (including house

mouse, European rabbit, feral goat, feral donkey, feral

horse and feral camel)

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Introduced animal diseases

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Introduced plant diseases (including phytophthora

spp)

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Introduced exotic plants (environmental weeds)

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Land contamination

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Human-induced climate change

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Altered fire regime

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Urban development and infrastructure

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Exploration and mining

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Tourism

TERRESTRIAL Factor

Pastoralism (includes infrastructure development, cattle and sheep grazing and provision of artificial water

sources)

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • removes of flora and vegetation • causes loss of habitat • displaces native fauna • causes extinctions or reduces

species diversity • causes soil erosion • alters nutrient cycling

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • predate on native animals • causes decline or extinction of

species • spreads diseases

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • compete for food and habitat • destroy or degrade habitats • carry and spread harmful diseases • compact soils • accelerate soil erosion

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • native species unable to evolve

immune responses or adaptations • causes death of flora • reduces biodiversity • reduces primary productivity and

habitat for fauna

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • native species unable to evolve

immune responses or adaptations • causes death of fauna • destroys communities • reduces biodiversity

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • reduces growth and reproduction in

plants and animals • causes acute or chronic health

effects

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • removes native vegetation • alters entire ecosystems • displacement of native fauna • reduces species diversity • increases sedimentation or erosion

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • homogenises ecosystems • causes loss of species diversity • causes native vegetation structural

and floristic decline

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • alters the nature and scale of

existing biodiversity pressures • displaces species • prevents species from dispersing

due to large scale changes • increased growth of some

vegetation

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • compete with native plants for

resources • modify habitats • alter fire regimes • do not provide adequate habitats for

native fauna

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • removes native vegetation and

ecosystems • specialised habitats are lost • pollutes habitats • introduces disease • alters hydrology

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • thins native vegetation and habitat • homogenises ecosystems • reduces species diversity • alters hydrology • increases sedimentation or erosion

TERRESTRIAL Ecological consequences • interrupts ecological and

reproductive processes • destroys habitats • pollutes habitats

For teachers: Program enquiries: ecoeducation@dec.wa.gov.au

EcoEducation Manager: elaine.horne@dec.wa.gov.au

Seasons Investigation Activity Sheet

Measuring budding, flowering, fruiting and other seasonal measures Outcome: Recognising changes in organisms in their natural environment over time

(phenology).

The study of how climate affects the annual or seasonal patterns of growth and

development is called phenology.

For every 1o temperature increase, the range needs to change by 125 km south or 100m

altitude to maintain the same environmental conditions.

To better understand long-term climate changes, scientists need more data on the start

and lengths of growing seasons.

Budding, flowering and fruiting are affected by atmospheric temperature, moisture,

location, years and species. Since budding, flowering and fruiting are highly variable

from year to year, students will need to monitor throughout the year.

Draw up a table for monitoring over a year. Consider the following points.

Seasonal markers are indicators of seasonal change. Tracking budding, flowering and

fruiting are a way of tracking seasonal change.

The first appearance of a particular migrating bird, such as a Rainbow bee-eater is a

classic marker of spring.

Examples of other markers are: emergence of butterflies, flowering of eucalyptus and

other species (extent of flowering 1-10 scale), observing the first bobtail, other goannas, snakes,

or reptiles, cuckoos in spring/autumn, winged Queen ant mating times.

develop your own list of local seasonal markers. Monitor these during the year.

For example do changes in temperature correlate with bird migration? You might

predict when a particular marker will occur and see how close your guess is to reality.

Monitoring Marsupials - If undertaking a Monitoring Marsupials program with

EcoEducation, record results and send them into the Centre you used. Kangaroo numbers can be

monitored by country schools or monitor other mammals signs, such as tracks and scats.

Invertebrates: Marron and native giant earthworm numbers in country locations can be

monitored through the year.

Introduced species, such as Black Portugese Millipedes, Mediterranean white snails,

lorikeets and the kookaburra can be monitored and give good information about how introduced

species change over many years.

If you are interested in observing birds, there are many bird guides that will describe

birds in your area such as in the Birds Australia website. The critical aspects of studies of

interest here are when, where and how many different birds are located.

***Share your research with EcoEducation

For teachers: Program enquiries: ecoeducation@dec.wa.gov.au

EcoEducation Manager: elaine.horne@dec.wa.gov.au

Seasons Investigation Activity Sheet, continued

A table to use throughout the year. Pages and columns can be added as needed.

This can be made into a large wall chart to display data in your class.

What to measure Visit 1 Date Visit 2 Date

Location (address)

Time of day

Temperature

Light (eg bright, shady)

Season

Weather

Describe the place you are in

Describe the vegetation

Are there grasses, ferns or small

bushes? Are the shrubs spiky or

soft? Type and appearance of trees

(eg. Jarrah, tall, thin and dense)

Phenology

Note presence of buds, flowers,

fruit and on what type of plant. Use

a 1-10 scale for how much

flowering is occurring. Draw

diagrams.

Observe and record numbers of

flora species relying on different

pollination mechanisms (ie. Insect,

bird, animal, water, wind).

Wildlife – Count numbers or if not

present, look for damaged fruits

and leaves, presence of nests and

type of droppings, listen for calls.

Which animal might live here?

Birds – observe and identify birds

present. How many different types?

Soil –Is the soil dark or light, sandy

or full of clay, wet or dry? Write

the results of your soil tests here.

Invertebrates – 100 invertebrates

results

Fire & people – Are there any signs

of fire or human impacts?

BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

SCIENTIFIC STATEMENT

UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE –

WHY DOES IT MATTER ?

Significant shifts in the climatic regime of Western Australia are now inevitable as a

consequence of rising global greenhouse gas emissions and historical land clearing.

Indeed it is highly probable that at least some of the marked changes in rainfall and

temperature patterns observed in parts of the State over the last few decades will

prove to have been the onset of greenhouse induced processes.

Currently the State’s biodiversity conservation strategies are based on our inadequate

knowledge of the distribution and abundance of flora and fauna and the factors the

may influence these patterns. The ecologies of very few species or biotic communities

are understood in any detail and our predictions of plant and animal responses to

climate change are based on assumptions formulated largely from our understanding

of the familiar Holocene climate.

Plant and animals populations could respond to changes in temperature, rainfall and

productivity by moving (permanently, opportunistically or seasonally), by staying put

and adapting or by dying out.

Populations may move with their ecological niche and colonise other environments.

Sedentary species may become migratory / nomadic or alternatively migratory species

may become sedentary. Arrival, departure and residency times may change.

Responses of this kind are now being frequently documented from the strongly

seasonal environments of the Northern Hemisphere.

There is evidence that many endemic Western Australia species have lineages of great

antiquity and may have evolved in situ in relatively stable environments (refugia)

during the arid phases of the Pleistocene period. The majority of species, including

the short-range endemics, are unlikely to respond to changing climatic conditions by

dispersing. The extent to which these species could adapt at the predicted rates of

change is unknown but of considerable significance for biodiversity conservation.

The ecological niche occupied by plants and animals depends on their pre-existing

adaptations but not all of these adaptations may be observed in the context of a

biological community packed with competitors and predators. For example, animals

on islands, with fewer species, have much broader niches than they do in equivalent

mainland areas. Changing environmental conditions or changed community

composition could result in a response based on phenotypic plasticity ie, the

expression of existing latent adaptations.

Phenotypic plasticity might be difficult to differentiate from another potential

response from those species that must stay put. Changes in gene frequency (micro-

evolution) might see a changing balance in some variations within a population. For

example within the same widespread animal population small individuals

predominate in hot dry habitats and larger individuals in cooler, more humid places, a

phenomenon known as Bergmann’s Rule. In a warming and drying region, small

individuals might increasing predominate over larger ones but the population as a

whole would persist within its original geographic range. Character displacement of

this type would be expected in species with broad distributions and characteristics that

vary across a gradient (ie. that are clinal).

Unfortunately there will many species that will probably be unable to move or adapt

without significant management intervention. A proportion of higher plants and

vertebrate animals are already known to be threatened by a range of other changes

such as increasing fire frequency, competition with weeds, plant and animal diseases

and feral animals. However many others, including those from poorly known taxa,

may not as yet have been identified as requiring specific protection or recovery

measures.

Biodiversity conservation strategies in relation to climate change may involve

accepting change and recasting objectives, resisting change in threatened habitats or

facilitating change to attempt to achieve some preferred outcomes.

Conventional conservation strategies have generally attempted to resist anthropogenic

changes to natural habitats but this approach may not be adequate to save some

species in the face of rapid climate change. It is assumed that the effective

management of the other proximal threats will assist in maintaining resilience and buy

time for natural adaptation. These assumptions need testing in an adaptive

management framework. For example, the establishment of vegetated corridors to

combat the island effects of fragmented landscapes is commonly promoted as a means

of increasing the resilience of populations in the face of climatic shifts. However in a

climate change situation some threatened species in remnant vegetation may also be

protected by their isolation from indigenous competitors or predators moving with

their ecological niche. Historically, species have survived on islands insulated from

the broad-scale changes operating on mainlands and in a climate change context

corridor projects may need to be assessed against very specific conservation

objectives.

Faced with ‘a new nature’ biodiversity conservation strategies may need to, at least in

some contexts, revisit objectives and approaches. The ‘let it happen and pick-up the

pieces later’ approach might be popular with Treasury but risks a scale of ecosystem

change that will have catastrophic socio-economic consequences through the loss of

ecosystem services. It is also unlikely to be politically acceptable.

Interventionist approaches will be controversial, costly and complex. They will

require a vastly superior understanding of ecological processes than is currently

available. They will also need a much more sophisticated approach to developing

objectives, both technically and politically. Such approaches might involve the

modification of ‘natural’ areas, the physical or otherwise facilitated translocation of

vulnerable or ‘valued’ species and the control, manipulation or even eradication of

existing indigenous species in ‘receiving’ habitats.

Climate change is arguably the greatest challenge facing conservation biologists.

Ecological information on the responses of Western Australia plants and animals to

historical, current and future climate shifts will be essential for the formulation of

strategies to meet biodiversity conservation objectives in this environment. The

Western Australian Biodiversity & Climate Change Forum took place to review the

current state of knowledge, to identify specific, research / monitoring requirements

and to make recommendations to decision-makers concerning priority projects.

CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE

CHANGE.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) utilized 28, 671 data sets in

making its assessment on the impact of the enhanced Greenhouse Effect on global

biodiversity. Of these 28, 115 (98%) were from Europe and only 6 (0.02%) were from

Australasia (Lynda Chambers presentation). It is not clear from the IPC report how

many of these 6 papers relate to changes in biodiversity. Suffice to say the amount of

reported research on climate change and biodiversity in the Australasian region is

currently negligible.

Whilst climate change is happening faster at the higher latitudes of the northern

hemisphere and is more apparent in strongly seasonal, temperature driven ecosystems,

the differences are more likely to be attributable to the cultural value placed on

scientific knowledge as opposed to commercial technology. The North American

economies for example are located in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere

but they also have a low base in terms of biodiversity research in relation to climate

change.

The Western Australian Biodiversity & Climate Change Forum (the Forum) called for

expressions of interest from Australian scientists with published or unpublished work

on biodiversity responses to climate change in this State. As anticipated very few data

long term time-series were identified.

The widespread tree decline syndrome affecting Tuart, Wandoo and Marri in south-

western Australia may be directly or indirectly related to the significant and ongoing

decline in rainfall in the region since the 1970s but at this stage this has not be

confirmed. Currently thinking is that it is likely to be a factor in Wandoo however

other potential causes have been identified in Tuarts related to tree nutrition and

changes in mycorrhizal associations. Determining the relative importance of climate

change in tree decline is confounded to varying degrees because drought stress may

be interacting with a raft of other factors including plant pathogens, insect pests and

declines in insectivorous birds, soil nutrition and salinity, changing relationships to

groundwater, fire frequency and so on.

Declining water tables on the Nangara Mound north of Perth attributable to declining

rainfall and groundwater abstraction have caused a transition in winter wet wetlands

to dry land vegetation types and now threaten the biodiversity of the regions Banksia

Woodlands.

The tree-rings of native Cypress Pine in fire protected habitats in the Pilbara indicate

significant increases in rainfall and reduction in temperature in that region over the

last century and particularly since the 1980s. The associated changes in primary

production may underpin an apparent increase in the frequency and scale of fires in

the Pilbara region with unknown ecological / biodiversity consequences.

Rising sea temperatures in the marine environment over the last 30 years have

changed probably changed the rate of growth, age of maturity, moult and movements

of the Western Rock Lobster. Changes in the behaviour of the Leeuwin Current,

which is potentially another manifestation of climate change, may be dramatically

altering settlement patterns in the lobster puerulus.

The distribution and abundance of at least 8 tropical seabird species populations has

changed south of the Houtman Abrolhos Island since 1900 but particularly since the

1970s. These changes cannot be interpreted simply in relation to shifts in sea-

temperature, salinity or Leeuwin Current strength but are probably the result of the

interplay between a changing marine environment, prey resources and the intrinsic

population biology of colonial, central-place foragers.

Some historical (permanent plot) data sets potentially provide a baseline to establish a

more extended time series. One in a strategically important (high climate stress)

location was established in the early 1980s to mid 1990s in the Karri-Tingle Mosaic,

Kari Forest and Blackwood Plateau of the lower south-west.

In the absence of long-term monitoring the Forum identified a number of

experimental approaches. The deliberate removal of kelp Ecklonia cover from rocky

reefs demonstrated different recovery rates and relative competitiveness in different

sea-temperature regimes. This was thought to have implications for the long term

distribution of kelp dominated marine habitats around south-western Australia.

Experiments with seed germination temperatures indicated that many plants may shift

zonally in an altitudinal continuum whilst others would be unable to propagate with

the predicted changes in climate.

Genetic research into native flora has tracked the evolution of species have persisted

in refugia during the arid phases of the Pleistocene. If this is, as suspected, the case

for much of the endemic south-western flora then contraction to micro-habitats,

adaptation and phenotypic plasticity are the most probable survival responses to

climatic shifts in this region. Verification of the existence of refugia and mapping

their geographical extent will be important for future conservation strategies.

Bio-climatic modelling approaches have potential but are constrained by the scale and

resolution and reliability of existing data sets and assumptions about the climatic,

edaphic, historical and biotic factors that account for current distributions. More

extensive specifically designed mapping projects (possibly assisted by Citizen

Science Programs), continuous ‘observatory’ programs, improved data collection and

management systems, genetic research and experimental approaches may all help to

improve models and future biodiversity conservation strategies.

RESEARCH AND MONITORING REQUIRED TO UNDERPIN BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION

The Forum identified a range of approaches towards building a better understanding

of the impact of climate change on the biodiversity of Western Australia. An initial

brain-storming session identified approaches that might be applied in marine / aquatic

and terrestrial environments as well as broadly integrated ones. Smaller groups

worked in more detail on some aggregated areas of proposed activity.

Approaches fall into three broad groupings, monitoring, experimentation (research)

and modelling. Similar approaches are aggregated below under the most general

descriptors of the approach. All the areas identified would require coordination, novel

partnerships and new resources whilst making better use of existing capacity.

MONITORING APPROACHES

1. Monitor the effects of climate change on ecosystem drivers (marine, aquatic,

terrestrial).

a. Monitor a range of sites for biodiversity parameters and the environmental

variables (marine, terrestrial).

b. Monitor the ecological effects of management actions – long term (marine,

aquatic, terrestrial).

c. Monitor outcomes of extreme climatic events (marine, terrestrial).

Specific Proposals

I. Collate data and undertake gap analysis.

II. Rapidly establish a system of bio-physical monitoring stations, particularly in

stress zones and regions where meteorological data is lacking. Measurements

should include soil temperature and moisture, groundwater, stream flow and

overland flow.

III. Establish an open access fire database to track fire histories at potential

monitoring sites.

IV. Establish an open access groundwater database.

V. Establish integrated projects with between ecologists and the agencies

responsible for managing drivers, eg. water (DoW),fire (DEC, FESA) and

soils (Agriculture) as well as the Bureau of Meteorology and NRM groups and

local government authorities.

VI. Design appropriate monitoring systems to support adaptive management

approaches.

2. Establish some long term time series for biota in strategic (stress zone)

regions (marine, terrestrial).

a. Set up observatories on the bio-geographical boundaries of ecological

stress zones (marine, terrestrial).

b. Revisit and resample historical plots, biological survey areas and research

study sites (marine, aquatic, terrestrial).

Specific Proposals

I. Establish multi-partner (government research, universities, citizen

science) observatories on sharp biogeographical boundaries in

predicted climate stress zones. For example woodlands of the

north-eastern wheatbelt (terrestrial), Abrolhos Islands (marine).

II. Continue to search for long-term datasets (eg. Middlesex Bird

Observatory (terrestrial), Rock Lobster puerulus collectors

(marine).

III. Use morphometric, genetic or eco-forensic (eg. stable isotope)

methods to investigate historical climate – biodiversity change

using herbarium and museum collections and dendrochronology.

3. Monitor a wide range of phylogenetic groups (marine, aquatic, terrestrial).

a. Monitor for changes in functional relationships (marine, terrestrial)

b. Monitor short range endemic taxa (terrestrial)

c. Establish a Citizen Science Program to collect data on indicators at an eco-

regional scale (marine, aquatic, terrestrial).

I. Develop a coordinated Citizen Science program with a suite of

projects operating on eco-regional spatial scales and specifically

designed to detect biodiversity responses to climate shifts.

II. Initiate the planning process with a major workshop involving

government, scientists from research institutions, science

educators, NGOs and natural history oriented community groups.

EXPERIMENTAL / RESEARCH APPROACHES

4. Systems – based approach to vulnerability (marine, terrestrial).

a. Identify syndromes of vital attributes that make species vulnerable to

climate change (marine, terrestrial).

b. Identify and map refugia (terrestrial).

c. Prioritise stress zones for research and monitoring.

d. Do gap analysis to see where data is most needed.

Specific Proposals

I. Conduct a major research program to determine if and where refugia exist

(genetic methods, geographical – plot based to pin-point areas of peak species

richness for a variety of taxa).

5. Phenological studies of plants and interdependent (co-evolved) animals

(terrestrial).

6. Field and laboratory experiments to investigate species tolerance and climate

change interactions (marine, terrestrial).

II. Establish a coordinated program of ‘in situ’ experiments in different terrestrial

systems manipulating temperature, light / shade, hydration and CO2.

III. Establish a coordinated program of ‘comparative latitudinal’ or mesocosm

experiments to investigate the responses of marine biodiversity to temperature,

light / shade, salinity and dissolved O2 and CO2.

IV. Design experiments to test for thresholds.

V. Design experiments to test for multiple interactions.

VI. Conduct transplant / translocation experiments starting with rare species.

VII. Possibly use rehabilitation / regeneration programs to assess performance of

transplants or translocations before manipulating undisturbed vegetation.

VIII. Use ‘natural experiments’ based on extreme events to investigate biological

responses (eg. severe droughts, fires in normally protected fire-tender

vegetation types, coral bleaching events).

MODELLING APPROACHES

7. Improve historical data management strategies and practices to provide data

at an appropriate scale, resolution and detail to support climate change

research.

1. Link modelling requirements to strategic monitoring and experimental

approaches to ensure models are well populated with data and validated.

2. Allocate responsibility for managing records and databases and provide the

human and technology resources.

3. Communicate monitoring findings and outcomes to the wider community.