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Integrated Socio-Ecological History of Residential Patterning,

Agricultural Practices, and Water Management at the Classical Burmese

(Bama) Capital of Bagan, Myanmar (11th to 14th Century CE)

Research Proposal for May 2018:

IRAW@Bagan Settlement Archaeology Project

Submitted

by

Dr. Gyles Iannone

Principal Investigator/Professor

Department of Anthropology

Trent University

Dr. Pyiet Phyo Kyaw

Co-Director/Lecturer

Department of Archaeology

University of Mandalay

&

Dr. Scott Macrae

Co-director/Adjunct Graduate & Research Faculty

Department of Anthropology

Trent University

March 1, 2018

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Table of Contents

IRAW@Bagan Mission Statement and Logo 3

IRAW@Bagan Project Summary 5

2018 Field Crew 9

2018 Ethnoarchaeology Study: Water and Ritual at Bagan 10

2018 Nat Yekan Sacred Water Tank Study: Summary 13

2018 Schedule and Major Equipment to be Brought into Myanmar 16

2018 Net Yekan Sacred Water Tank Study: Detailed Description 17

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IRAW@Bagan Mission Statement

The world’s tropical zones are witnessing the negative impacts of unchecked population growth,

increasing wealth disparities, unbridled agricultural expansion, growing water demands,

diminishing biodiversity, environmental degradation, escalating disease rates, and climate

change. These are all urban issues. The proposed IRAW@Bagan study will highlight

archaeology’s true strength – namely the ability to trace changes in urban forms and lifeways

over time, and across multiple climate regimes, technological advances, and socio-ecological

changes – to explore the root causes of the myriad issues faced by contemporary tropical

metropolises.

လပငနးဥ းးတ ခ အေကငးးက

မၻကအပပးရ မပငးးက ဥးနမခကး တ းမမမမ တညလမဥ းအးးးးလကကငး မး

မးမတ တညေ

ေ ြယ၀ခမး ကမမပပႈပမခကးးးးလကကငး ငနးခပမမမပညအ ကႈပခးအးးလပငနးမခကးးးခပ

ခပ လကကငး အးလပခပမမခကးကပကးလကကငး

၀မခးႈပမခးြပမခကးအပခက ြယလကကငး း၊

း၊ က၀ပး၀နးခင ငးက းယးမမမခကး အးကရား၊ ယငမအကပကလကကငး ရငညးက ဥး

းအကပကငလပကငးမခကးအပပ းခးမခ

မခကး အးကလခးရအနေ တ အ ကပအနေ တသခမခကးမရကကမ ကပမခကးေ ပအ

အးြတအန

အနေး တညကပ နကးပမခကးက ႈေ တသပရပIRAWအလညလကအးး အး နလပငနး ကပ

ပလႊက

တ အးရးအ ကငး အး န ငးကမရနးယကးအကငးလခးရအ က

ခလမခကး အပပ

ဓကးငကးလပအ ကင ြကးပာမတက ႈပာ တသအး းတးရပညေ

ေ တည းရငအနငငမမမခကး ရငညကမ

ကမ ကပပပႈပမခကးအကပကငးလပမမးတအကးကပအလညလက ငမတညးတအ ြး မး

မးမတ တညးက ဥးနမခကးကပနလရန ႈပအနေကငး နတ

နတးပတကမခကးးးးလကေကငး ရငညလမမမႈ းပြကးအးး ငးကအကပကငးလပကငးမခကးႈ

ႈ တက ငည လပာ တသ

ဓလပအ ကငမတညအးရးအ ကငး အး န ငးကႈရးပမခကး တအးကပင မပ

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ငးးက ဥးနးြငးးရကမ ကပမခကးးင ငေပအးြတပညေးမတညကပ နကးပမခကးနးငးကမႈ

ႈးရကအ ြအလညလကအ ကငး ငးနက ႈပာ တသ

The IRAW@Bagan Logo

The IRAW@Bagan logo on the cover of this proposal is derived from Jataka plaque #543 from

the West Hpetleik Stupa: Sāma Jātaka (Sāma the Devoted Son). In the traditional Pali canon this

story is listed as #540 of 547, but at Bagan three additional stories are often included as #s 497,

498, and 499 (for a total of 550), which pushes this story to #543.

A summary of the story can be found here:

http://usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/Sama%20jataka.pdf

IRAW ပရပ န လရ အၤး

ကပလႊက မခ ရက ပးးြငအ ကကပငကး တည IRAW ပရပ လရ အၤး တ ပရပအနက

လပး၊ းကးးရ ကးနပပား ၅၄၃ ၀ဏၰ ကမကး းပအ က းပေြမရ က ႈပာ တသ ကးနပပား

ႈဥမရက ကး ပးကးပအပာငးငကး က ငည မမးငး နပပား ၅၄၀ ႈကး ၅၄၃ က ႈအန တသ

ပအပာငး ငကး တည ကး ပးကးမရက ၄၉၇ ၄၉၈ ရငည ၄၉၉ းတက ႈေပာ တသ

ကးပပကပင ခဥးအကပာ ငးကန၀း၊ းြင၀ငအးကေတညးမ ငပာ တသ

http://usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/Sama%20jataka.pdf

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IRAW@Bagan Project Summary

The IRAW@Bagan project (Phase I) will generate an integrated socio-ecological history for

residential patterning, agricultural practices, and water management at the Classical Burmese

(Bama) capital of Bagan, Myanmar (11th to 14th century CE) across a range of significant

ecological, climatic, economic, socio-political, and religious changes. This objective will be

achieved through a settlement archaeology study within the peri-urban (mixed urban-rural)

settlement zone immediately surrounding Bagan’s regal-ritual epicenter, which is still clearly

defined by remnants of its original walls and moat. The importance of the proposed program of

survey, excavations, and geo-spatial inquiry is grounded in the fact that our current

understanding of Bagan society continues to be biased towards its upper echelons, namely its

high-ranking nobles and religious functionaries. A settlement archaeology study within Bagan’s

peri-urban zone will: 1) generate a more nuanced understanding of Bagan as a dynamic capital

city; 2) provide insights into the unique characteristics of early urbanism in the tropics; and, 3)

contribute to considerations of resilience and vulnerability in contemporary tropical

metropolises.

One of history’s great Buddhist kingdoms, Bagan’s peri-urban settlement zone covers

roughly 80 km2 and encompasses over 2800 Buddhist monuments, including temples with

decorated interior space, solid stupas containing relics, and monasteries. Given the context, it is

understandable that scholarly investigations at Bagan have almost exclusively focused on elite

and/or religious architecture, art work, and texts. Nevertheless, inscriptions and retrospective

chronicles suggest that Bagan’s peri-urban zone was also home to a large and diverse support

population that lived in well-organized (i.e., orthogonally planned) “clusters” or “wards” based

on commonalities in status, ethnicity, occupation, and clientage (i.e., formal “bondage” to a

patron, such as the Crown or Church). Unfortunately, the veracity of this tightly integrated and

highly organized, “cellular” residential pattern has yet to be confirmed on-the-ground. Recent

archaeological investigations have also suggested that Bagan’s peri-urban zone was of the

“dispersed,” agrarian variety, and included significant green space as well as productive land, in

addition to a small-scale, but nonetheless sophisticated water management system. Once again,

these suppositions require empirical confirmation. Taking these issues into consideration, the

following questions will serve to frame both the methodological approach for the IRAW@Bagan

settlement archaeology study, and the integrated socio-ecological history that will result from

this long-term research program.

1) How accurate is our current understanding of the commoner population that inhabited

Bagan’s peri-urban settlement zone, given the elite-centric focus of our current data sets?

2) Can the posited heterogeneity and cellularity of Bagan’s peri-urban population be

materially confirmed, given the diversity in status, ethnicity, occupation, and bondage

suggested by the historic records?

3) If such diversity can be recognized archaeologically, what might this tell us about

commoner agency, and shifting levels of adherence or resistance to the dominant, merit-

based, Buddhist ideology, and the system of bondage that supported it?

4) Did different segments of Bagan’s peri-urban population exhibit varying degrees of

resilience to changing socio-ecological circumstances – such as climate change – and if

so, why?

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5) How were individual Bagan houses, house-lots, and villages configured, what kinds of

activities took place in these residential spaces, and did the nature of these spaces

change over time?

6) Does the residential patterning in Bagan’s peri-urban zone reflect the

orthogonal/compact tradition of China, or the quasi-orthogonal/dispersed tradition

found elsewhere in the tropics?

7) Did Bagan’s city-scape transition from being more dispersed and haphazard to more

compact and grid-like over time?

8) How extensive and interconnected were Bagan’s peri-urban water management and

agricultural systems, how did they develop, and in what ways did different stakeholders

engage with them?

အး နလပငနးခဥးခပ IRAW အး နလပငနးပးရခ(ပငး ၁) တ ငငးရကးမမးရအ ကအရ ႈနႈ းက ဥး ႈ ပြကးအးး လမမမ ငငပအးး ရငည း၊ က ကအးး ငးကအကပကငးလပမမမခကးႈြကက း နလကပည တည (းႈ ရႈ ၁၁းကႈမရ ၁၄းကႈ) ကမနမကးတန ရ ၀ငကမ အးကေ းးႈက ႈပညအ က ပရပအ းရ လမအနငငမမပပႈပမခကး ႈပခးအးးလပငမမမခကး ရငညအးး ငးကမႈႈ မပနတြပမမမခကးးြ းအပာငးးႈတးငပ လပင အ ကငးြမတည လမမမႈ းပြကးအးး မငး အး နကပလပမတက ႈပာ တသ ဥ းးတခအကငကမငအႈးနးြ အးရးအ ကငးကမ းက ခပးးကမခကး ရငည းရငးလငးငငးရကးမမးရ တညအးရးအ ကငးကမ န း း၀အ မခကးးြငအးြတးအလညးရ တည (ကမ ရငညးြကအနးကမခကးအးကအ ရကအန တည) အကခအနငငမမ ရငည ငအ ကအးရးအ ကငး အး နပတကးပ ငးကအလညလကအးးလပငနးမခကးအ ကငးြ မတက ႈပာ တသ ြငး ငးးငးးကအလညလကကငး းမးအ ကအလညလကကငး ရငည း၊ မမ- ငးလငးကပင င းက ႈမးႈမးအလညလကအးးမခကးးြ ကပငကး တည ႈ ႈဥမခကးန အးးပာမမ လးရၽြနပးတ နကးလတငကးအ က ငညကမငညလမတ ြပတႈတးက ႈ တည း၊ းင မရ း မး လမနငန း၊ က ကအးး ငးကႈရးပမခကးအပပးြင က အလးအပးငကး တည ပရပလမမမ ြပတႈတး အပပအကပငကးပာ တသ ပရပအ းရကမ ကပ ရငညႈပ အန တည းြကအ မခကးန လမအကခအနငငပညမမမခကးအလညလက မတညအးရးအ ကငး အး နလပငနး(၃)းရ တသ (၁) းးးႈတပငလခးရ တညကမ ကပးႈ က ႈ ပရပပမနကးလတလကအႈးနအ ကငးြကငးသ (၂) ပမပငး မးက ဥးနးြငးးရ အႈကပငးကမ ကပပပႈပမခကးန ြငကပငလ ကဏကးပမခကး နကးလတပႈကးးးလကအႈးန အငကပပည က ႈအႈကငးသ (၃) လးရပမပငး မးက ဥးနးြငးးရကမ ကပေ းမခကးန ကးနတးယးအလခကညလကကငး ရငည ပမခကး ငအကပအကငအခကလႊက ငပညကငးမခကး အလးငကးမလကအႈးန ကးငးကငးမခကးက ႈ တသ ေ းခယနးနကးအ က ဗ ၶး၊ က ကးငးကပတးႈကပတက ႈပည တည ပရပန းး၀းရ ကမ ကပ ရငည ငႈပအနအ ကအခးးြကမခကးန လမအနငငမမနမခကးမရက (၈၀)ႈးးနး လမ းကနတးရကပ း လးက

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မခကး ဓကးအးကမခကး ရငည း၊ နအးကေ းအခကငးမခကး ရငညးမ ရမး၊ းကး ရငအႈး ပငးမခကးပာ၀င တည ဗ ၶး၊ က က အ ကဥ (၂၈၀၀)အခကးရ တသ ႈပ းရငကး မရခအ က ပရပ ရငည င တည အေကငးးကကးလပးလလမရက လမနငနမခကး ရငည/ တ း၊ က ကအးး ငးကဗ က ပတက ရငည ႈကအပမခကးပငက ႈေ တသ မတ တပငက ႈအႈအခကႈကမခကး ရငညအးရးးက ၀ငမခကး ပရပကမ ကပ ရငည ငႈပအန တညအနးကမခကးးြငအနငငေ တည မယကမခကးမရ မခကးကပကးကပ း မခးႈပလင လရအ က လမအနငငမမဥ းအးအ ကကပအနေ တသ တအ က ပမအကငး တမရက ယအနတငပင ပရပအ န လမအနငငပည တည မနးမခကး မယကအငကငကးမခကး အကမကပငအပပးြင အ ငငမကမက မအးြတးရးအ းကငးပငက ႈ တသ လးရအးရးအ ကငး အး န ငးကအလညလကမမမခကး ပရပကမ ကပ ရငညငႈပအန တညအခးလးအ မခကး ကပနတ ရပတအနကငး ႈပခးအးးလပင မမမခးမခး ရငည ငငးရကး တည ႈမးအးကငနယအကမးယကမခကး ကပင ငးနမခကးငးလပ တညအကမယကမခကး ငတကပင အ းငယ တညအနငကးက ႈအ က လတး ငညးနးးရ တညအးႈ မပ နတြပမမႈနႈမခကး အ ကကပအနေ တသ ငတကပင ငငကမငယမ ခမခကး တ လအးြတ းြင အ ငမးနလပလခးရ တသ တအ က ႈရးပမခကး အလးငကးလခ အကပာအမးြနးမခကး IRAW ပရပလမအနငငမမ ငးကအးရးအ ကငး အး နအလညလကအးးလပငနး ရငည းအပာငးးႈတးးတးလပအ ကငမတညအးးရတ အ းနလပငနးမရးးရလကမတညလမမမႈ းပြကးအးး မငး းတ းြ ပးကပမတညနတးလမးမခကးက ႈ နယပယ းမရးမတက ႈပာ တသ 1) လးရ အနေအ က လမနငနမခကးအပပ က အလးအပးအလညလကအနေး တည ခ

လမခကး ပရပကမ ကပ ရငညငႈပအန တညအခးလးအ မခကးးြငအနငငေ တည ကမန လမးနးႈကးလမဥ းအး မရနနႈြကနကးလတ အး၊ ကအပားန မတပည တကပလပးမတနတး?

2) မငးမရးးမးမခကးအ ကကပငကး တည မခးမခးအ က ငညးနးမခကး လမမခးမခကး လပ ငမခကး ရငညအခးၽြနလပ မကးမခကးအေကငး းပ၀းပႈရတးအငကငကးမခကး ရငည မခးႈကးႈပလငမခကးကပကးကပ းႈႈႈတးႈတးးရပညအေကငး အ ကပ ငမတလကး?

3) မခးႈကးမခကးကပကးႈပလငမမအးရးအ ကငး အး နနတးက ငည နကးလတ အး၊ ကအပာကပ း လရခင ကမနလမးနးႈကးမခကးန းငးခလမခကး အကပကငးအးႊ မမ ငညမခကး( တ) ေ ပပညေ ပပညပအနငင ငမမမခကး လရ းနးဓငကးမမ ဗ ၶး၊ က က ငးကအးြးေ ပ ရငညအခး ၽြနႈနႈမခကး မတ တကပနလတးငကပလက ငမတနတး?

4) ပရပအခးလးအ လမဥ းအးန မးမတ အ ကႈးပငးမခကး တ းက ဥးအကအကပကငးလပကငး ပည တအ က လမမမအရ ငးက ပး၀နးခငမခကးအကပကငးလပကငးးြင ေ ပညေ ပညပ ငပည တည မခးမခး အ က ငညးနးမခကးအ ကကပ ငပည လကး? အ ကကပ ငပညလရခငလတး း၊ ယညအေကငညေ ပညေ ပညပ ငပညေ နတး?

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5) ပရပးရမးႈလပးခငးမခကး မယကြ မခကး ရငည းြကပပႈပမခကး တ မတ ပည တ းရပညမတနတး? ယငးအနငငးကးယကခယ၀နးမခကးးြင မတပည တအ က လပအ ကငမမမခကး လပအ ကငပည ေမတနတး? ယငးးယကခယ၀နးမခကးန အး၊ က း၊ က၀ တ ခနးငးအကပကငးလပ လခးရပညပာ လကး?

6) ပရပအခးလးအ းရ လမအနငငမမပပႈပမခကး တအငကငညမရနခ တည/ြ ခခအနငငေ တညးတးတးးက( တ) အငကငညမရနမခးခကကပနတ ခပအနငငးး တည ပမပငး မးက ဥး နမခကးးြငအးြ းးး တဓအလညမခးမခကးလကး?

7) ပရပၿမ ကပဓအလည တကပနတခပၿပ း ငအကပ လအနငငေ တညပပႈပမရ ပမြ ခၿပ း အလးအငကငည ခခပပႈပမခကး တ ခနေကလက တည ရငညမရခအကပကငးလပ ပညေ လကး?

8) ပရပအခးလးအ းရအးႈ မပနတြပမမ ရငည ႈပခးအးးႈနႈမခကးခငးခငး ကပနလရန ြယကငး ရငည းးခပ လပငကငးမခကးမတပည တကပလပေ နတး? ယငးးတမတပည တ းးး အကငလပအ ကငေ နတး? မတ တညနတးလမးမခကးက ငည မးမတ တည င မမခကး ခငးခငးမတပည တ တမ မငးအ ကငးြပညေ နတး?

9

2018 Field Crew

1. Dr. Gyles Iannone (Trent University), Principal Investigator

2. Dr. Pyiet Phyo Kyaw (Mandalay University), Co-director

3. Dr. Scott Macrae (Trent University), Co-Director

4. Kong Cheong (American University), Field Director

5. Dr. Nwe New Moe (Mandalay University), Unit Supervisor

6. Saw Tun Lin (University of Yangon), Unit Supervisor

7. Nyein Chan Soe (Yadanabon University), Cultural Anthropologist

8. Keiko Lui (Eco K Company), Environmental Consultant

9. Naing Soe (University of Yangon), Cultural Anthropologist

10. Ellie Tamura (Trent University), Field Assistant

11. Kathleen Forward (Trent University), Field Assistant

12. Raiza “Stephany” Rivera-Borbolla (Trent University), Field Assistant

13. Khin Lay Maung (University of Yangon), Field Assistant

14. Kyawswar Win (Mandalay University), Field Assistant

15. Paing Thet Phyo (University of Yangon), Field Assistant

16. Moe Sat Wathan (Mandalay University), Field Assistant

17. Yuan “Lucy” Qin (George Washington University), Field Assistant

18. Khin Kyi Phyu Thant (University of Yangon), Field Assistant

19. Hsu ThinZa Toē (Mandalay University), Field Assistant

10

2018 Ethnoarchaeology Study: Water and Ritual at Bagan

In May 2018, the IRAW@Bagan team will continue its ethnoarchaeology study in ten

traditional villages located in the vicinity of Old Bagan. Some of the villages lay inside what was

once the ancient city’s peri-urban settlement zone, while others are located in more rural settings.

The general goal of the ethnoarchaeology study is to explore the material correlates of domestic

lifeways specific to Myanmar’s “dry-zone.” This information will enhance our ability to both

recognize and interpret the archaeological residues of ancient settlement patterning in Bagan’s

peri-urban zone. The May 2018 research activities will include site visitations, written and

photographic record taking, and strategic questioning of residents concerning ritual practices

relating to water use and water management features. Ethics Board approval for the interviews

has been obtained through Trent University. The information generated through this

enthoarchaeology study will inform the future analysis of water usage, perceptions, and symbolic

meaning in ancient Bagan. The goal of the latter research will be to provide a better

understanding of the relationship that water management had with other institutions within

Burmese society, such those relating to religion, politics, and agriculture production. The villages

to be visited as part of this study include the following:

1) Minnanthu

2) East Pwa Saw

3) West Pwa Saw

4) Thuhtaykan

5) Kon-Tan-Gyi

6) Kon-Sin-Kye

7) Hypauk-Seik-Pin

8) Zee O

9) Shwe Hlaing

10) Thae Pyin Taw

အမ ၂၀၁၈ းငးးငး ကး ငးကအးရးအ ကငး အး နအလညလကအးး ပရပးရ အး ရငည ယပေတ းြယမမ ၂၀၁၈ ရႈ အမလးြင IRAW ပရပ အး န ငး တ းငးးငး ကး ငးကအးရးအ ကငး အး နအလညလကအးးးြ ပရပအ းရးြက(၁၀)းြကကး လြငး ငးအလညလကမတက ႈပာ တသ ခ းြကမခကး တ အးရးအ ကငးပရပၿမ ရငညငႈပအန တညအခးလးအနးကမခကးးြင းတးရအနေၿပ း ခ မရကၿမ ရငညလရမး ြကအ၀းလရ တညအခးလးအနးကအ မခကးးြင းတးရအနေ တသ းငးးငး ကး ငးကအးရးအ ကငး အး နအလညလကအးးလပငနးနအယး၊ ယခးတးြယခခမရက ကမနမကပမပငးအ းရ မယကငမအငကငမမး၊ ၀မခကး တပ၀းပႈရတးမခကး ရငည မငးယရဥအလညလကးန ႈမးႈမးေးနက ႈပာ တသ ယငး းငးခလမခကး တ ၽြနပးတန ပရပအခးလးအ းရအးရးအ ကငးအကခအန ငငမမ ရငည င တညအးရးအ ကငး အး န ငးက ေ ြငးခနမခကး ဓပၺာယ ြငည ကငး ရငည နကးလတ အး၊ ကအပာကငးးြ မခကးႈြကခးကပမတက ႈပာ တသ

11

၂၀၁၈အမ အ းနလပအ ကငမမမခကးးြင ြငး ငးအလညလကကငး ႈက ဓကးပပမရးးမးမခကးယမကငး ရငညအးႈ မပနတြပမမလ ကဏကမခကး အး ပးကပကငး ရငည င တည း ြယယပေတမမဓအလညမခကး ရငည င တည အးးပာအ ကအမးြနးမခကးအမးကမနးကငး ႈ တးတပာ၀ငပာမတသ ငးကဗခ းးြ လနကးမတည ခငည၀း ငးကႈရမခကး ရငညတ ငးနတး လ ြငညကပခးယမပညပာ တသ းငးးငး ကး ငးကအးရးအ ကငး အး နအလညလကအးးလပငနးမခကးမရးးရ တည းငးခ လမခကး တအး ပးကပကငး နကရားးြင ြပကမးႈးက ကအလညလကးန ကမငးးရအႈးန ရငညအးရးအ ကငးပရပန အ ၤးဓပၺာယမခကးႈြက းရအႈမတက ႈပာ တသအနကငလကမတည အး န လပငနးမခကးန ဥ းးတခမရက း၊ က ကအးး ငငပအးး ရငည ႈပခးငးလပအးးႈရမခကး ပာ၀ငအန တညကမနမကညလမမမ ြပတႈတးမခကး ရငည ႈပအန တညအးႈ မပနတြပမမအကငးႈြကနကးလတအႈးန မတ အငကပပညအပး ငမတက ႈပာ တသ ယငးအလညလကအးးန ႈးပငး းႈက ႈ တညအခးးြကမခကးမရကအကပားငးက ႈပာ တသ 1) မငးနန မ 2) အးရ ြကးအႈက 3) အနက ြကးအႈက 4) မအဌးန 5) နးးနးေ း 6) ြနးႈငေယ 7) အ ခက ပပင 8) း 9) အးႊလမငး 10) ပကပငအးက

12

Figure 1. Map showing the seven traditional villages located within the Bagan peri-urban

settlement zone (modified from http://dpsmap.com/bagan/).

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2018 Nat Yekan Sacred Water Tank Study: Summary

Project Title: Water, Ritual, and Prosperity at the Classical Capital of Bagan, Myanmar (11th

to 14th Century CE): Exploration of the Tuyin “Water Mountain” and the Nat Yekan Sacred

Water Tank.

Project Summary: The IRAW@Bagan project is aimed at developing an integrated socio-

ecological history for residential patterning, agricultural practices, and water management at the

Classical Burmese (Bama) capital of Bagan, Myanmar (11th to 14th century CE). As part of this

long-term research program investigations have been initiated on Mount Tuyin, located 11.25 km

southeast of Bagan’s walled and moated epicenter. This upland area figures prominently in the

chronicles of early Bagan, given that it was one of five places around the city that a royal white

elephant carrying a Buddhist tooth-relic kneeled down, prompting King Anawrahta (1044-1077

CE) to build a pagoda (i.e., temple) there. Numerous 13th century religious monuments were

subsequently built on the summit of the mountain. Recent explorations on Mount Tuyin have

drawn attention to an additional feature of historical significance, a rock-cut tank located along

the eastern edge of the Thetso-Taung ridge. Referred to by local villagers as Nat Yekan (Spirit

Lake), this reservoir appears to have been integral not only to the initial collection and

subsequent redistribution of water across the Bagan plain via a series of interconnected canals

and reservoirs, but also, through its associated iconographic imagery, it may have been intended

to symbolically purify this water, enhancing its fertility prior to its flowing into the city’s peri-

urban zone. The proposed investigations will employ hydrological modelling, excavations, and

both iconographic and epigraphic analysis to build a multilayered understanding of Nat Yekan’s

economic, political, religious, and ideological significance during Bagan’s classical era.

Project Importance: Our proposed research program will further our understanding of the

multifaceted character of human-water relationships in the early state formations of the

seasonally wet-dry tropics. These investigations also hold broader significance for 21sts century

communities. For one, they will generate insights into the efficacy of traditional rainwater

harvesting systems. The proposed research will also help elucidate the unique aspects of urban

development in the tropics today, particularly as these relate to issues of both water and food

security. More broadly, we firmly believe that the examination of the development, expansion –

and at times demise – of water management systems is one of the key ways that archaeologists

can contribute to our understanding of socio-ecological systems, and social change in general.

Project Funding: Funding for this field research has been provided by a National Geographic

Society grant.

၂၀၁၈ နးအးန အးႈငအးကနအလညလကအးး ခဥးခပ

အး း ြယယပေတမမ ရငည ရ ၀ငကမ အးကက ႈ တညကမနမကးတန ပရပကမ ကပးရ ႈတပငးးးမမမခကး (းႈ ရႈ၁၁းကႈ မရ ၁၄ းကႈ) ႈး “အး ရငည င တညအးကင” ရငည နးအးနအးအးႈငအးကန

14

လပငနးခဥးခပ: ပရပ အး နလပငနး တကမနမကးတန ရ ၀ငကမ အးကက ႈ တည ပရပးရအးႈ မပနတြပကငး ႈပခးလပငကငး မယကအနငငမမပပႈပမခကးးြ းအပာငးးႈတးးတးအ ကငးြ မတည လမမမအရ မငး းးးမမးရလကအႈးန းတးြယပာ တသ အးးရတ အ ကငးြမတည အး နႈ ႈဥန ႈးပငးအနက ငည ႈပႈမးအလညလကကငးမခကး ပရပကမ းး ခပးမခကးန အးရ အးကငး၊ (၁၁.၂၅) လမ းကြကးြင းတးရအ က းးင း အးကငငပမရ ႈးငအ ကငးြပညကပ းက ႈ ပာ တသ နးကမငညးယက တ ပရပကမ း၀းရ ဗ ၶ ြယအးက ယအ ကငလက တည ငက အးက၀ပးကအနးက(၄)အနးကနမရ းႈအနးကက ႈအးရးပရပးက၀ငမခကးးြင ငငးရကးက ႈ တသ အနကးငကမငး(၁၀၄၄-၁၀၇၇) တ ငက ၀ပးကအနးကမခကးးြင း၊ းကးမခကးးတငကးပညအေကငး းက၀ငက ႈ တသ း၊ က ကအးး အ ကဥ မခကး အးကငငပမခကးးြင းတငကးအလညးရပာ တသ းးငအးကငအပပးရ လးးအလကႈမးႈမးအလညလကအးး း းမခကး တ မငး ငးကငမးကကးမမးရ က ြငကပငလ ကဏကမခကး းအးကငးနး အးရ း၊ ႈြနးရအခက ႈအးနမခကး ပမ းရလကအႈပာ တသအ အ ပးြက ကးမခကး း နးအးန းကပ း အးနေ း တအး အလရကငးကအနးကကပင ပရပလြငကပင တအးက နတက းးကအနးက းႈအနးကက ႈကပ း းမးအကမကငးမခကး အးနမခကး ရငည ငည ငည ပႈပငကးလခးရက ငးက းပးမခကး အးႈငအးကယမ အ ကတႊနးအန တည အ ၤးက ႈယမ ငမတညကမ ကပအခးလးးယကမခကး တ မႈ း ငးမ နတႈငလခ အကမေ က ေ ြယ၀အႈးနႈ မပအ ကငးြငကးကငး အး၊ က းရးပာ တသ ကပငကး တည ႈမးႈမးအလညလကအးးလပငနးမခကး တ နးအးန ရငည င တည ႈ းပြကးအး ငငပအးး း၊ က ကအးး ရငည ငမးကကး တည အး၊ ကးးကယမ မခကး း၊ အပာငးႈပမရ ခတးပနကးလတလကအႈးနးြ အး းငးကမႈ ရငည င တည နမမနကပပႈပ းမးအ ကအလညလကကငးမခကး းပ း ငးးအလညလကအးးနရငညအးရးအ ကငးႈကမခကးြပကမးအလညလကကငးမခကး လပအ ကငမတက ႈပာ တသ

အး နလပငနးနအးးပာမမ ၽြနပးတန အး နလပငနး ကပလႊက တ းက လ ႈြးကငး အကကအ ြတကငးးရအနးး တည ပမပငး မနမခကးန အႈကပငး အကအနမခကးးြင လမ ရငညအးကပနလရန ႈပအနအ က း၊ အပာငးႈပမရ ြငးကပငလ ကဏကးပမခကး ပမနကးလတ အး၊ ကအပာလကအႈးနအ ကငးြမတက ႈပာ တသ ႈမးႈမးအလညလကမမမခကး တ ၂၁းကႈလမတ ြပတႈတးမခကးးြ ပမခယကပနတလက တည ငငးရကးမမးႈလပက ႈပာ တသ းးးကဓအလညက ႈ တညမးအး ပးကပႈပခးးပ မး တညႈနႈ ပမလပအလကလက တငလပငလက ငးန

15

လတး အငက မက ႈက ႈလကပာမတသ ကပငကး တည အး နလပငနးမခကး တ ယအနတအးပမပငး မနးြငးးရကမတကပမခကး ြပ က းအးးးြ ပမးရငးလငးလြယမလကအႈမတက ႈ တည ကပင အး ရငည ႈကးႈကလပအလကမမးရအႈအးးးြ ပာ ငအနမတက ႈပာ တသ ပမ ခယကပနတႈြကအကပကးမတ လရခင အးႈ မပနတြပမမႈနႈန ြပတက းးးးမမ နယပယခ ပငြငမမမခကး ပခ ဥး ြကးခန တအးရးအ ကငး အး နပတကးရငမခကး လမမမႈ းပြကးအးးႈနႈမခကး လမမမအးး ငးကအကပကငးလပမမမခကး ပမနကးလတ အး၊ ကအပာလကအႈးနအ ကငးြနငမတည ဓအ ကညခနတးလမးမခကးက ႈ တ ၽြနပးတ ငမကႈြကယပေတပာ တသ

အး နလပငနး း၊ ႑ကအငြ ြငး ငး အး နလပငနးမခကးးြ း၊ ႑ကအငြ း၊ က၀ပင၀ ၀င ငးက ြပတႈတး National Geographic Society အငကပပညအငြက ငညးးရ ပးႈြပ မတက ႈပာ တသ

16

2018 Schedule and Major Equipment to be Brought into Myanmar

April-May 2018 Research Schedule

Major Equipment to be Brought into Myanmar for Research Purposes

1) Total Station (N=1)

2) Total Station Tripod N=1)

3) Total Station Prism (N=1)

4) Total Station Prism Pole (N=1)

5) Laptop Computers (N=8)

Note: No major equipment will remain in Myanmar after the 2018 field season.

◄ March April 2018 May ►

Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 22

23

24

25 KE074 departs 12:40

26 Arrive ICN 15:20

KE471 departs 18:40

Arrive RGN 22:15 Yangon Hotel

27 Night bus to Bagan

28 Arrive Bagan

Bagan Hotel Set-up Day & Tour 2 Vans

29 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

30 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

1) Foreign staff hotel days = 26 (24+2); Myanmar staff hotel days = 24 2) Foreign staff meal days = 27 (25+2); Myanmar staff meal days = 25

3) van rental days = 22

◄ April May 2018 June ►

Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 1 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

2 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

3 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

4 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

5 Bagan Hotel

Day Off

6 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

7 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

8 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

9 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

10 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

11 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

12 Bagan Hotel

Day Off

13 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

14 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

15 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

16 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

17 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

18 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

19 Bagan Hotel

Day Off

20 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

21 Bagan Hotel

Field Day 2 Vans

22 Pack-Up

2 Vans Night Bus to Yangon

23 Yangon Hotel

KE472 Depart 23:25

24 Arrive ICN 7:35

KE073 departs 9:35 Arrive YYZ 9:45

25

26

Yangon Hotel: Crystal Palace Hotel (April 26, May 23) http://www.crystalpalacehotelyangon.com/en-us Bagan Hotel: Aung Su Pyae Hotel (April 28-May 22) https://www.agoda.com/en-ca/aung-su-pyae-hotel_2/hotel/bagan-mm.html?cid=-112

17

2018 Nat Yekan Sacred Water Tank Study: Detailed Description

Project Title: Water, Ritual, and Prosperity at the Classical Capital of Bagan, Myanmar (11th

to 14th Century CE): Exploration of the Tuyin “Water Mountain” and the Nat Yekan Sacred

Water Tank.

Project Description: Bagan, like most of the historic Buddhist capitals of Myanmar, was

located in the central “dry zone” (Aung-Thwin 1987:88, 1990:1; Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin

2012:38; Hudson 2004, 2008:553; Stadner 2013:12; Strachan 1989:8; Stargardt 1968),

Myanmar’s “most arid” region (Cooler 1997:19-20). As the only significant upland area on the

Bagan plain, Mount Tuyin is believed to have played a significant role in water management

strategies at the ancient city (Moore et al, 2016; Win Kyaing 2016), especially with respect to the

flow of runoff downslope, from the western side of the Mount Tuyin summit, towards the

expansive Mya Kan Reservoir (aka Emerald Lake or Kyanzittha Reservior; Aung-Thwin

1990:28; Luce 1969:56; Figures 1 and 2). Located atop Mount Tuyin, Nat Yekan (Spirit Lake)

was likely a key collection node within this broader water management system (Figure 3). This

rectangular tank is 26.5 m x 14 m in size, 7.3 m deep, and could have held as much as 2660 m3 of

water (Ni Tut 2013:161; Figure 4 and 5). Nat Yekan was largely hewn from the sandstone

substrate – possibly initially having been a quarry – although on its east side an 11-m long, 5 m

high sandstone slab retaining wall was used to close off the reservoir (Ni Tut 2013; see also

Moore et al. 2016:295; Figure 6). A smaller (2.7-m long) section of retaining wall was also used

to close off the eastern corner of the north wall. A round hole, ca 20 cm in diameter, is carved

into the very center of the tank, possibly having served to hold a pillar to measure water depth

(Figures 7 and 8).

Figure 1. Location of the Tuyin-Thetso Range, Mya Kan Reservior, and Nat Yekan Sacred Tank.

18

Figure 2. The Tuyin-Thetso range, looking from the west.

Figure 3. Nat Yekan Tank and its associated religious and water management features.

19

Figure 4. Drone photo of Nat Yekan Tank (note stairway on the bottom right-hand side).

Figure 5. Nat Yekan Tank interior, looking northwest, towards the proposed spillway.

20

Figure 6. Multi-course sandstone wall closing-off the eastern side of the Nat Yekan Tank.

Figures 7a & b. A hand-cut round hole in the center of the Nat Yekan Tank (a, left) which was

possibly used for holding a “lotus pillar” that was symbolic of fertility and useful for gauging

water volume (b, close-up on right).

21

Figures 8a & b. Lotus pillars in the center of the water tanks at the Damma-Yazika Pagoda (a,

left) and Minnanthu Village (b, right), the latter tank being seasonally dry.

Three carved stairs lead down into the Nat Yekan tank, with each stairway descending to a

different water level (Figures 5, 6, 9, 10). These are reminiscent of the intricate stairway systems

associated with the stepwells (baoli) of Medieval India (Bhattacharya 2015:36; Shubhangi and

Shireesh 2015). As with the Indian stepwells, which “were often carved profusely with elaborate

detail” (Bhattacharya 2015:36), a number of iconographic images are incised into Nat Yekan’s

walls (Figures 9-13) , including a lizard, water labyrinth, Naga-serpent, three hamsa birds

(geese), a crocodile or Makara (water monster), an egret, two tortoises, two small fish, one large

fish, a crocodile, and a Naga-Buddha or Muchalinda image within a niche (referencing the time

when the Naga King used his hood to protect the meditating Buddha from a rain storm; Fisher

1993:23, 175; Leidy 2008:170; Luce 1969:171; Moore 2007:244; Stadner 2013:34). Water

imagery is clearly evident in all of these depictions, and many are also tied to notions of purity,

fertility, and power within the Buddhist belief system (e.g., Beer 2003:5, 69, 72, 77, 97; Fisher

1993:23).

Also noteworthy is that the natural sandstone rim in the northwest corner of the tank has been

purposely cut down by roughly 1-2 m, in a clearly symmetrically manner (Figure 9). The very

center of this lower portion of the tank rim – which is roughly 8 m in length – articulates

precisely with the top of the carved niche enclosing the Naga-Buddha image. The northwest stair

also begins its descent into the tank at exactly the same elevation, confirming that this lower wall

level was once an exposed “living” surface, possibly a spillway for the tank. Above this lower

section of the tank rim is an inward sloping, 3-4 m high embankment containing myriad

sandstone boulders (>25.6 cm in length) configured in a series of terraces (Figure 14). This

artificial embankment appears to have been used to dam off the proposed spillway in the

northwest corner of the reservoir at the same level as the higher rock-cut and stacked sandstone

slab walls enclosing the rest of the tank. To the north of this embankment the hillside gradually

descends to the western foot of Mount Tuyin, and the area of the Mya Kan reservoir (Figure 15).

22

Figure 9. Images associated with the northwest corner of the tank, beneath the proposed

spillway.

Figure 10. Images associated with the southwest corner of the tank.

23

Figure 11. Images associated with the west wall of the tank: Left, a goose? Right, a lizard?

Figure 12. Images associated with the south wall of the tank: Left, two fish facing each other;

Right, an egret?

Figure 13. Two possible tortoise images on the south wall of the tank, both highly eroded.

24

Figure 14. Terrace-style embankment that is posited to have dammed-up the proposed spillway.

Figure 15. The slope descending from the base of the proposed Nat Yekan spillway towards the

Mya Kan Reservoir (the green area in the middle of the photo), with Bagan’s peri-urban

settlement zone off in the distance.

25

Nat Yekan clearly offers some tantalizing evidence for ancient water management practices,

but there are many questions that remain to be answered concerning its broader significance to

the Bagan community:

1) How did water enter the Nat Yekan tank?

2) How much water could the tank hold?

3) Could the tank hold water year-round?

4) Would climate changes have impacted the tank’s water storage capabilities?

5) Was Nat Yekan physically connected to a broader water management system?

6) When was the tank constructed, and what was its original form?

7) How was water withdrawn from the tank?

8) Did the lower section of sandstone rim in the northwest corner of the tank initially serve

as a spill-way, and did it direct water into the Mya Kan catchment?

9) If a spillway did exist in the northwest corner, how regularly did the tank discharge

water?

10) When, and why, was the artificial retaining wall/dam in the northwest corner of the tank

constructed?

11) If a spillway originally existed in the northwest corner of the tank, does its surface

contain additional iconography?

12) Where the multiple stairs found within Nat Yekan modelled on those of Indian stepwells,

and if so, what is the significance of this emulation?

13) Does the assemblage of iconographic elements and available inscriptions support the idea

that Nat Yekan was a “sacred water tank” that served to sanctify water, thereby

increasing its powers of fertility?

14) Do further iconographic features exist within the tank, and are there any other

inscriptions of relevance to our understanding of this water management feature?

Goals and Objectives: The Net Yekan investigations will enhance our understanding of water

management at Bagan, in addition to providing information on the efficacy of traditional

rainwater harvesting systems, a topic which has recently drawn considerable attention in India

(Bhattacharya 2015:31). Our research will also allow us to explore the broader significance of

Nat Yekan, both within the classical Bagan cityscape, and with respect to the wider Southeast

Asian cultural sphere. We hypothesize that Nat Yekan’s was a “sacred water tank” from which

water flowed downslope, into an extensive water management system that serviced Bagan’s

agricultural field system and peri-urban settlement zone (Figures 15 and 16). We also posit that

Nat Yekan’s iconographic elements served a similar purpose as the Shaivite imagery found in

association with the intricately carved river beds along the Stung Kbal Spean River in the Kulen

Hills, northeast of the Khmer city of Angkor (Figure 17; see Boulbet 1979; Chevance, 2005;

Feneley et al. 2016:282-284; Hendrickson 2011:451; Jacques and Dumont 1999; Tan 2014:3;

Tawa 2001:134). Across Southeast Asia, such iconographic imagery has long been employed to

reaffirm the ideological connection between water and ritual (Boomgaard 2007:6). As has been

underscored by Barbara Andaya (2016:243): “For Southeast Asian societies generally, ritual

water was highly valued because of its life-giving, healing, and transformative properties.

Together with the appropriate ceremonial, the very act of pouring water over a tangible emblem

26

of fertility (like an upright linga) could ensure the community’s well-being.” If the sacred nature

of Nat Yekan can be verified, it would also imply that Mount Tuyin was a “water mountain”

(Scarborough’s 1998), a specialized ritual and economic node that enhanced agricultural

production through the collection, sanctification, and redistribution of water, under the auspices

and patronage of societal elites (Scarborough 2003:84).

Figure 16. Pyiet Phyo Kyaw in the Nat Yekan Tank in October 2015 (at the end of the rainy

season).

Figure 17. The carved river bed at Kbal Spean, Greater Angkor region, Cambodia.

27

Methodology: The following methods will be employed to address the 14 research questions

outlined earlier in this proposal:

Hydrological Analysis – Questions 1-5 (Macrae and four assistants): This sub-project will

involve a GIS-based hydrological study of Nat Yekan and surrounding area, including the

Mya Kan Reservoir. The analysis will be based on hydrological modeling programs (Arc Hydro

[see Maidment 2002]) within a geographical information system (ArcGIS [ESRI 2016]). The

foundation of this innovative analysis will be a high resolution digital elevation model (DEM)

derived from existing remote sensing datasets (i.e., recent aerial photographs and prior mapping

initiatives) and traditional total station and GPS survey data collection. The hydrological analysis

will include the direction of flow, flow accumulation, and watershed delineation (see Macrae

2017:214-225; Macrae and Iannone 2016:374-388). The identification of these hydrological

characteristics across the landscape will allow for an advanced, geo-spatially informed

understanding of both naturally occurring features – such as slope, streams, and seasonal ponds –

as well as cultural features, including reservoirs, canals, trenches, and moats. The hydrological

modelling sub-project will build upon the high precision photogrammetric mapping of the Net

Yekan tank conducted by Nyi Lynn Seck of 3xvivr Virtual Reality Productions in December

2017 (Figure 18).

Figure 18. High resolution 3D scan of the Nat Yekan tank produced by Nyi Lynn Seck of 3xvivr

Virtual Reality Productions in December 2017.

Excavation and Artifact Analysis – Questions 6-10 (Iannone and six assistants): This sub-

project will involve the excavation of a 2 x 4 m trench through a portion of the artificial

embankment (i.e., dam) in the northwest corner of the Nat Yekan Tank (Figure 14), thereby

28

exposing the posited spillway surface and any associated iconography (Figure 9). This

excavation unit will be axially aligned with the exact center of the proposed spillway, and the

Naga-Buddha image located just below it. High resolution 3D mapping of the various excavation

levels will be carried out using georeferenced ground control points, a handheld digital SLR

camera, and state-of-the-art “Structure from Motion” (SfM) photogrammetric software that will

stitch together a series of photo images into a 3D point cloud (Agisoft LLC 2017a, 2017b; Green

et al. 2014:173; Koenig et al. (2017). This Structure from Motion (SfM) technique will also be

used to precisely record all excavation contexts, on-floor artifact distributions, features, and both

top plans and sections, allowing for the production of high resolution orthophotos, digital

elevation models, accurate 3D and 2D maps, precise post-excavation measurements, and

geospatial analysis in ArcGIS (Benavides López et al. 2016; Green et al. 2014; Koenig et al.

2017; Quatermaine et al. 2014). All context information will be entered into a Microsoft Access

database. Samples for radiometric and/or luminescence dating will be collected to augment

chronological assessments based on ceramic seriation. All artifacts will be processed, recorded,

and preliminarily analyzed in the field laboratory over the course of the field season.

If time permits, an additional 1 x 2 m trench will be used to examine the interior wall

(north side) of the 2nd water tank that is posited to exist to the east of Nat Yekan (see Figure 3),

on the opposite side of the Tuyin-Thetso summit. Theses excavations will also allow us to

assess the potential depth of the sediments that have infilled this possible tank feature. The

large depression indicative of what we believe to be a 2nd water tank was encountered during

field reconnaissance in December 2017. The feature appears to be similar in size to Nat Yekan in

terms of its circumference. Although it is currently filled with sediments, the posited tank feature

does exhibit evidence for a stacked sandstone enclosure wall on its north side that is reminiscent

of Nat Yekan’s eastern embankment wall (Figure 19). Two evenly spaced, parallel rows of

postholes found in association with the surrounding embankment suggest that a roofed area may

have partially surrounded the presumed water tank.

Figure 19. Section of exposed sandstone brick enclosure wall encompassing the northern

embankment of the 2nd water tank posited to exist on the eastern edge of the Tuyin-Thetso ridge.

29

Art Historical and Epigraphic Analysis – Questions 11-14 (Pyiet Phyo Kyaw and three

graduate students): This sub-project will collect and analyze relevant inscriptions and chronicle

references to Nat Yekan, in addition to examining all the iconography associated with the tank

itself. This will include any iconography associated with the proposed spillway and any newly

documented images located inside the tank. The iconographic study will employ applicable

inscriptions, chronicles (e.g., Pe Muang Tin and Luce 1923), and handbooks focusing on

Buddhist symbols (Beer et al. 2003; Fisher 1993; Leidy 2008) to determine the possible

significance of individual images and/or clusters of images. These investigations will also

consider the history of all religious edifices and institutions located on Mount Tuyin, and those

associated with the Mya Kan reservoir, in order to better contextualize Nat Yekan’s use-life.

Results: In combination, this component of our broader IRAW@Bagan research project will

result in a detailed understanding of the construction history, hydrological characteristics, socio-

political significance, and ritual-ideological meaning of the Nat Yekan Tank. The resulting data-

sets – especially the high precision hydrological and SfM photogrammetric data – will allow for

ongoing GIS analysis of a highly sophisticated quality. It is expected that the dissemination of

results will focus on both culture history and methods, and involve:

1) Four major conference presentations;

2) Four journal publications;

3) Four theses and/or PhD dissertations.

Capacity Building: Myanma academics have recently begun to actively seek out research

collaborations with international scholars. From an archaeological perspective, the stated goal of

such collaborations is to expose Myanma scholars and students to current theories and methods.

Sensitive to these needs, the proposed research program will involve students from both North

America and Myanmar in field-based research based on cutting edge archaeological theory and

methods, including training in excavation and survey techniques, Geographical Information

Systems (GIS), GIS-based hydrological analysis, and SfM photogrammetry.

Future Plans: A single field season of excavations and hydrological analysis is planned for Nat

Yekan. If a spillway with iconography and/or epigraphic evidence is indeed found in the

northwest corner of the tank, a second season of funding may be sought in order to fully expose

this feature. If it can be verified that the eastern tank is similar in size and depth to that of Nat

Yekan, a second field season of research in association with this feature may also be considered

worthy of additional funding.

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