Integrating the

Undocumented

Community A Qualitative Exploration of the Process for Obtaining DC’s Limited

Purpose Driver’s License

January 2016

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Acknowledgements

This report is based on a collaborative research effort of the Center for Social Justice Research, Teaching & Service (CSJ) at Georgetown University, Central American Resource Center (CARECEN), and Trabajadores Unidos de Washington, DC (TU). The following staff from these organizations formed part of the research team and contributed to this report: Diana Guelespe, PhD, Mayra Ibarra, Rogelio Cedillo, Arturo Griffiths, and Abel Nunez. The following Georgetown University students formed part of the research team and contributed to this report: Carolyn Vilter, Isaura Amezcua, Laura Padilla, Clara Mejia, Chris Wager, and Austin Rose. These students were supervised by Dr. Diana Guelespe from the CSJ. The research team would like to thank the Sociological Initiatives Foundation for its financial support of the project and the staff members of community-based organizations and government offices who shared their time and expertise of the Limited Purpose driver’s license with members of the research team. Finally, the research team would like to thank the participants of the study who took time from their daily lives to share their experiences.

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Table of Contents Acknowledgements................................................................................................................... 1

I. Background ............................................................................................................................ 4

II. Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 5

III. Interest and Motivations ..................................................................................................... 8

IV. Challenges In Obtaining the Limited Purpose Driver’s License ......................................... 10

Long and Complicated Process ........................................................................................... 10

Language Barriers Discourage Applicants ........................................................................... 13

Lack of Information Regarding the Process ........................................................................ 14

Barriers to Passing the Tests ............................................................................................... 14

Access to Resources Matters .............................................................................................. 15

V. Conclusion and Recommendations .................................................................................... 16

Process ................................................................................................................................ 16

Language ............................................................................................................................. 16

Knowledge and Road Skills Tests ........................................................................................ 16

Resources ............................................................................................................................ 17

Impact and Efficiency .......................................................................................................... 17

VI. Endnotes ............................................................................................................................ 18

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Integrating the Undocumented Community A Qualitative Exploration of the Process for

Obtaining DC’s Limited Purpose Driver’s

License

A driver’s license is an important means for allowing immigrant families to get to work, take children to school, attend religious services, and run family errands. Ten states, in addition to the District of Columbia, have extended driving privileges to undocumented individuals – people who cannot prove lawful presence in the United States.1 The majority of undocumented immigrants is employed in the service and construction sectors2 and may work more than one job. Positions in these sectors require early and late work hours which pose a challenge for individuals when taking public transportation as it is not always available or conducive to late work hours and makes balancing their family responsibilities problematic. Passage of the District’s Driver’s Safety Amendment Act of 2013 made it possible for the DC Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to implement the Limited Purpose Driver’s License (LPDL) on May 1st, 2014. It allows District residents who meet age, identity, district residency requirements and can prove social security ineligibility to obtain a license in order to drive legally.3 The LPDL cannot be used as a form of federal identification: hence the name ‘limited purpose.’ According to the Pew Research Center, there are an estimated 25,000 undocumented immigrants living in DC who could potentially be eligible for a LPDL.4 As of July 31st, 2015, 4,549 LPDLs have been issued.5 While undocumented immigrants and their advocates are enthusiastic about the District’s decision to extend them driving

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privileges, several challenges have surfaced as individuals try to obtain one. The purpose of this research project is to understand the challenges that immigrants confront when obtaining the LPDL. With this data, we aim to propose recommendations to community organizations, residents, and city officials to address those challenges and increase the accessibility of the LPDL.

I. Background

Prior to 2013, a local coalition of activists including day laborers, unions, and representatives from local community-based organizations, worked together to urge the DC Council to pass legislation that would grant driving privileges to undocumented immigrants.6 Several members of the coalition testified before the City Council and spoke in favor of passing the bill. Although Mayor Gray and the Council supported extending these privileges, differences in opinion surfaced on whether undocumented immigrants should be granted the same license provided to other residents or a new license with a special marking – ‘Not valid for official federal purposes.’ The Driver’s Safety Amendment Act of 2013 passed unanimously and created a license that was distinctly marked.7 Soon after its implementation, the coalition organized a public forum with DMV Director, Lucinda Babers, to encourage those eligible within immigrant communities to apply for the LPDL. Over 300 individuals attended the event. Several individuals voiced their concern over the process of applying online, long appointment wait times, and the lack of bilingual employees.8 Subsequent meetings were held with community representatives and the DMV Director to address these challenges. In response, the DMV made resources such as practice exams and driver manuals available online in several languages with a limited number printed.9 In addition, the DMV and other governmental agencies organized a series of weekend workshops to pre-approve LPDL applicants’ documents and expedite their appointments;10 despite these changes, the undocumented community continues to voice concerns. The following characteristics about the undocumented population are important to keep in mind:

DC’s undocumented population is estimated to be 25,000, 3.1% of DC’s total population;11

78.8% of the US undocumented population come from Latin American countries, 12.4% from Asia, 5.3% from Europe and Canada, and 3.5% from the Middle East and Africa;12

Nearly half of undocumented immigrant households (47%) consist of a couple with children;13

73% of children of undocumented immigrants are U.S. citizens by birth;14

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Among undocumented immigrants ages 25-64, 47% have less than a high school education;15

In 2007, the median annual household income of undocumented immigrants was $36,000.16

The process for obtaining the LPDL requires the use of technology. Internet use and computer ownership rates are closely correlated to one’s educational attainment, household income and race and ethnicity, among other factors. A recent analysis of survey data found adults who have less than a high school education and whose household income is less than $49,999 a year were more likely to not use the internet.17 The lowest computer ownership rates among Latinos (native and foreign born) are among those with no high school diploma (51%) and those who are Spanish dominant (59%).18

II. Methodology

This research was conducted through an academic-community research partnership between Georgetown University’s Center for Social Justice Research, Teaching & Service (CSJ), the Central American Resource Center (CARECEN), and Trabajadores Unidos de Washington, DC (TU). The research team included staff, students, and individuals who had a range of expertise on the issue including direct service experience, research experience, and personal experience in obtaining the license. The project began in January 2015 and ended in December 2015. Qualitative methods were employed in order to gain a deeper understanding of peoples’ behaviors and motivations for obtaining a LPDL, rather than a surface level description of a larger sample population. Data for the research was collected in three ways:

1. Participant Observation

Members of the research team attended community meetings regarding the LPDL. These meetings were held at community-based organizations and government offices. Driver education workshops and community events related to the LPDL were also observed. On occasion, research team members accompanied individuals to their DMV appointment.

2. Semi-structured Interviews with Individuals Eligible for the LPDL

Seventy-five (75) semi-structured interviews were conducted with individuals eligible for the LPDL. Participants were recruited through announcements made at community events and organizations which provide services to the undocumented population. The interviews were conducted in the participants’ native language and

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Graph 1: Location of Participants Interviewed in

the LPDL Process by Percent

39%

45%

16%

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

lasted between 20-30 minutes. Each participant received a $20 gift card to a grocery store as a way to acknowledge their time and participation. In order to be eligible to participate in an

interview, individuals needed to meet two requirements: 1) be 18 years of age or older; and 2) be eligible for a LPDL.19 Based on their experiences, the participants fell within one of three groups (Graph 1): Group 1) had not yet started the process or did not want to apply; Group 2) started the process, but were not successful in obtaining the license; and Group 3) had obtained the LPDL. These three groups represented phases of the process and provided information on why some individuals have not applied for the license; where, when, and how they confront challenges; and strategies for successfully navigating the process.

3. Semi-structured Interviews with Community Stakeholders

Twenty (20) semi-structured interviews were held with community stakeholders or individuals who provide services to the LPDL population. They included staff from community-based organizations and governmental offices. The interviews provided information on the types of services their offices provided and their capacity to address the needs of the LPDL population.

Although thousands of undocumented immigrants qualify for the LPDL, this population is especially difficult to recruit for research purposes for several reasons: 1) undocumented immigrants tend to keep their immigration status private, making it less likely that they will come forward to share their experience; 2) work and family life take priority, which leaves little time for anything else; and 3) they are often employed in low-paying jobs which makes them reliant on extra work hours when available.20 Their daily schedules fluctuate as work is more or less available, which makes it difficult to schedule an interview with them. Several strategies were employed to recruit participants who were representative of the District’s undocumented community, such as occupation, gender, and country of origin

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26%

29%

26%

1%

2% 3%

13%

Cleaning andmaintenance

Construction andextraction

Food preparationand serving

Production

Entertainment

Service

Unspecified

(Graph 2 and 3). For example, day laborers tend to work long hours and weekends at construction sites that are often hours away from the city. When they were not available during the day for interviews or needed to be at a specific sites looking for work, the research team set up early morning, evening, and weekend interviews in neighborhoods where they congregated looking for daily work, such as Mt. Pleasant Street and the Home Depot parking lot on Rhode Island Avenue.

Women who had not started the LPDL process and individuals who had obtained the license were also difficult to recruit. In order to capture women’s experiences, recruitment announcements were made at organizations providing family services. These organizations tended to cater towards women’s needs by providing services for their children. The research team also relied on individuals who knew of family members or acquaintances who had obtained the LPDL to share recruitment flyers. Staff from community organizations shared recruitment flyers with their clients; however, after their clients received their licenses, they became more difficult to contact because their increased mobility allows them to work longer hours. A similar approach of contacting service providers was used to recruit undocumented African and Asian immigrants; however, this strategy was less successful. Staff who served the African and Asian immigrant communities reported that their clients were not eligible for the LPDL because they could prove legal US presence. Interviews with staff from governmental offices described the African and Asian undocumented community as less

Graph 2: Participants’ Occupation by Percentage

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Graph 3: Participant Country of Origin by Percentage

36%

27%

16%

11%

1%

1% 1%

3%

4%

El Salvador

Guatemala

Honduras

Mexico

DominicanReplublicEthiopia

Colombia

Peru

Unknown

likely to reveal their undocumented immigration status compared to other undocumented groups.21

III. Interest and Motivations

All research participants were asked if they were interested in obtaining a LPDL and how having the license would impact their lives (Graph 4). The top three reasons for seeking a LPDL were:

1) work/employment purposes; 2) family responsibilities; and 3) security purposes.

In describing their interest and motivation for wanting the LPDL, participants stated that a license would increase and/or improve their job opportunities by allowing them to apply for positions that required a license and work longer hours without depending on the availability and efficiency of public transportation. Some examples of job opportunities and promotions included: purchasing constructions materials for their employer; working multiple sites/jobs throughout the day; and starting their own business. During an interview, a participant described their interest by stating: “The majority of jobs, whether you’re a handyman or laborer or whatever, will ask you for a license because they will have you drive

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Graph 4: Reasons for LPDL Interest by Gender

0 50 100

Not Interested

Other

Weather

ID

Social Reasons

Security/Lawfulness

Family

Work

Percentage

Women

Men

“The majority of jobs,

whether you’re a

handyman or laborer or

whatever, will ask you

for a license because they

will have you drive a

company car or your own

personal car. You’ll move

from one site to another

because they’ll never just

send you to one site.”

a company car or your own personal car. You’ll move from one site to another because they’ll never send you to one site. So, [the license] changes your life. Totally better pay, time to spend with your family, to buy groceries.”

Participants also believed the license would benefit their families. Women reported “family”

just as highly as men reported “employment.” All participants similarly discussed a greater

ease in attending to family obligations, such as taking their

children to doctor’s appointments and picking them up

from school while juggling their work schedules, as reasons

for obtaining the license. One woman stated: “[My

daughter] is awaiting a liver transplant. I urgently need a

license because sometimes she unexpectedly gets sick and I

have to catch a bus to get to the hospital . . . A taxi costs

about fifty dollars so I have to take the bus . . . I don’t have

money to afford a taxi . . . her appointments are every two

weeks.”

Participants also described wanting or having a stronger sense of security as motivation for obtaining the license,

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"It would be good if

they made [the wait

for an appointment]

shorter. It takes six

months, and then you

have to wait another

six months before you

can return for

another try."

such as not fearing the police. Those who had obtained the LPDL described the impact on them emotionally. One participant stated: “I was happier than ever [when I got my license . . . Now, I feel like I have more freedom, more confidence, more time and there are no problems with the police . . . Thank God I have my license.”

IV. Challenges In Obtaining the Limited Purpose Driver’s License

The seventy-five semi-structured interviews with immigrants eligible for the LPDL provided an insight to the challenges they confront in various phases of the process. The challenges they experienced were grouped into five themes. The first two themes, the “long and complicated process” and “language barriers discourage applicants” describe recurring challenges reported by individuals throughout the various stages of the process. The last three themes reflect challenges specific to the phases of the process. For example, “lack of information about the process,” was a common challenge among individuals who had not yet started the process. “Barriers to passing the tests” describe challenges of individuals who have been in the process for several months and, in some cases, have had multiple DMV appointments. “Access to resources matters” describes the common strategies individuals used to complete the LPDL process and obtain the license.

Long and Complicated Process

Individuals who wish to obtain a LPDL go through a slightly different process than those who apply for a traditional driver’s license. The main difference is that LPDL applicants must book an appointment to start the process and each time they return to the DMV until they complete the process.22 LPDL applicants can book an appointment on the DC DMV website or by calling 311. The wait time for an appointment ranges 4-6 months (Image 1).

At their first appointment, applicants must present documents to prove identity, age, DC residence and social security ineligibility. If the applicant’s documents are not approved, they must schedule another appointment, which could take another 4-6 months before presenting their documents again. If their documents are approved, applicants proceed to take a series of vision, knowledge and road skills test. If they fail any of these tests, they must schedule another appointment to re-take the tests. In comparison, applicants seeking a regular driver’s license are allowed to re-take the knowledge test 72 hours after failing it.23

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Individuals interviewed described the process for obtaining the LPDL as long and complicated. They expressed frustration with the online appointment system which requires them to submit an email address and assumes the applicant is technologically connected. A participant made this suggestion regarding the process: "It would be good if they made [the wait for an appointment] shorter. It takes six months, and then you have to wait another six months before you can return for another try." Staff from community-based organizations reported assisting applicants in setting an appointment by helping them create an email address. However, they are unsure how often the applicant accesses their account to review messages after it has been created.

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Image 1. Acquisition Process for Limited Purpose Driver’s License as Experienced by Research Participants

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“The day I went to take

my [road skills] test they

had me complete

another form and that

form was not in

Spanish . . . then, I had a

problem again because

the examiner did not

speak Spanish. I don’t

think we spent more

than 30 seconds in the

car before he turned it

off because we could not

understand each other.”

Language Barriers Discourage Applicants

Since the implementation of the LPDL, the DMV has taken steps to comply with the DC Language Access Act of 2004 which requires District of Columbia government programs, departments, and services to offer limited or no-English proficient populations with oral language services or written translations.24 These languages are determined by continual assessment of populations encountered or likely to be encountered. In general, DC Government Agencies with major public contact, including the DMV, are required to translate written materials into 6 primary languages: Spanish, French, Amharic, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Korean, while oral interpretation should be available in any language as necessary. The DMV has translated the online practice exam into the 6 primary languages, as well as created informational signage at DMV locations regarding rights to interpretation for individuals seeking services and offers the knowledge test in 14 languages.

Unfortunately, several barriers remain for limited-English proficient (LEP) individuals seeking the LPDL. As previously mentioned, the applicant can only make an appointment through the DMV website or by calling 311. Calling 311, however, connects the caller to an automated system that offers a Spanish language menu as the final, eighth, option. No other menu language options are offered. The Spanish language option connects the caller to another menu of options listing city offices. The options for DMV services does not include requesting a LPDL appointment, so the applicant must choose to speak to a representative. If the representative is not bilingual, a third-party interpreter will need to be requested in order to complete the appointment. Upon arriving to their appointment, LEP individuals must request interpretation, but few do. Community stakeholders reported instances in which they observed DMV staff requesting fellow clients and accompanying family members to interpret rather than following the protocol of using the interpretation line. LEP individuals face a steep language barrier in the final stage of the process which is the road skills test. There are no bilingual road test examiners and use of interpretation is not allowed. A participant shared a strategy of successfully completing the road skills test by

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“I wasn’t able to

pass the test the

first time. I didn’t

know how to use

the computer

properly and I

couldn’t hear the

audio very well.”

learning basic driving-related vocabulary in English, such as “left,” “right,” and “straight.” A participant described his experience in the last phase of the process highlighting a combination of language barriers: “The day I went to take my [road skills] test they had me complete another form and that form was not in Spanish. The form asked for information like the color of my eyes –everything. Thank God there was a security officer there who helped me. He made a hand gesture for every word. . . then, I had a problem again because the examiner did not speak Spanish. I don’t think we spent more than 30 seconds in the car before he turned it off because we could not understand each other.” The unavailability of multilingual road examiners impedes the process for obtaining the license and is a violation of the Language Access law.

Lack of Information Regarding the Process

A subgroup of twenty-nine individuals who had not started the process were interviewed and asked about their interest in obtaining the LPDL. All but four expressed that they were interested in obtaining the license but were unsure how to start the process. They were also unsure of the types of documents that could qualify as proof of residency and identification and where they could receive assistance with the process. Lack of information for obtaining a LPDL at the community level deters people from starting the process.

Barriers to Passing the Tests

The largest subgroup comprised thirty-four individuals who were interviewed as they were in the process of obtaining the license – having made an appointment with the DMV but had not yet obtained their license. Participants in this group had a median time of eleven months in the process when we interviewed them. Over this time, they had encountered a variety of challenges with taking the knowledge and road skills test which extended their time in the process and made progress difficult. In addition to the language barriers previously mentioned, challenges stemmed from their: 1) limited technology skills; 2) lack of knowledge of DC driving rules and practices; and 3) unfamiliarity with the test format.

Participants interviewed received assistance with booking DMV appointments online through a friend, family member, private entity, or a community-based organization. However, the knowledge test is administered on a touch-screen computer. Participants reported having difficulty using the computer and referred to their lack of knowledge using

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the equipment. An example of this challenge was described by a participant after they were asked to describe their experience at their DMV appointment: “I wasn’t able to pass the test the first time. I didn’t know how to use the computer properly and I couldn’t hear the audio very well.”

In other cases, participants did not have the knowledge of DC driving rules and practices necessary to pass the knowledge test. They either had trouble finding the time to study, neglected to study, or had difficulty understanding the vocabulary on the test. Passing the knowledge test can be difficult for low-literacy populations, both native and foreign-born individuals. Although the DMV has translated the driver manual, practice tests and the knowledge test, these resources are only available online. As noted in the ‘background’ section of this report, internet use is closely correlated to one’s educational attainment and household income. The LPDL population may find it difficult to access study materials that could increase their chances of passing the tests when those resources are only available online.

Participants also reported being unfamiliar with the multiple-choice format of the knowledge test. The test format was a new experience to some participants who described the test response options as “tricky” because multiple options could be correct. A participant described their frustration by stating: “A person from [the US] knows computers. They know all of that, but there are some [from our country] that have never seen a computer. Then you put them in front of a machine, a computer, and they have option A, option B, option C and option D, all of the above. So, they are not familiar with that.”

Access to Resources Matters

Twelve participants who were interviewed had obtained the license. Among them, they had a median time of 7.5 months in the process; 75% failed the knowledge test at least once; and 50% failed the road test at least once. All of these participants reported either receiving assistance from a family member, friend, community-based organization, or a private entity to prepare for the knowledge and road skills tests. Examples of assistance varied from having the driver manual printed for them, practicing driving and borrowing a car from a friend. Having access to resources or people with resources were critical factors that led to the obtainment of a LPDL. Women may confront a unique challenge in obtaining a LPDL compared to men. All but one participant interviewed who had successfully completed the process were men. A limitation of this research project was that more women who had obtained a LPDL could not be identified and interviewed. The woman who was interviewed was the only participant who reported the challenge of having to learn how to drive. She also prolonged setting her road skills appointment so that she could practice driving. If women face an added barrier of

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learning how to drive, the financial cost of seeking professional assistance could further hinder their opportunity of obtaining the license. A brief review of six local registered and insured driving schools quote an hourly rate between $40-$55 per hour for driving lessons. Two schools provide instruction in Spanish and allow for their vehicles to be rented and used for the road skills test for a cost of $65-$149. In response to this financial barrier, a staff member from a community-based organization reported how a group of women who were part of a community program pooled their money to pay for the driving lessons of a friend who had applied for the LPDL.

V. Conclusion and Recommendations

Important steps have been made to increase undocumented immigrants’ access to the LPDL, but a number of challenges persist. The following are recommendations for all community stakeholders to consider and implement as they see fit within their role and responsibility as a resident, service provider, governmental agency and office. The implementation of these recommendations will not only increase the accessibility of the LPDL among the 75-80% who have yet to obtain one, but it will also ensure a more fair and efficient process for all.

Process Phase out the LPDL appointment system and integrate LPDL applicants into daily

service schedule;

Launch an ongoing public information campaign regarding the LPDL process which includes a referral list of entities that can provide assistance and emphasizes test preparation.

Language Inform and educate applicants of their right to an interpreter at DMV offices;

Implement and/or strengthen DMV protocols and trainings regarding the use of the interpretation line;

Hire and/or identify multi-lingual DMV personnel at each location which can assist limited-English proficient population.

Knowledge and Road Skills Tests Increase accessibility of study materials offline in hardcopy format;

Review translation of knowledge test and implement ‘plain language’ guidelines appropriate to the educational level and cultural background of the limited-English population;

Provide road test examiners in languages required by the Language Access law.

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Resources Identify and/or increase funding opportunities for community organizations

providing assistance with the process and test preparation.

Impact and Efficiency Increase communication and share information between service providers and

government agencies to address challenges and measure impact of outreach and test preparation.

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VI. Endnotes 1 The Pew Charitable Trusts, Deciding Who Drives: State choices surrounding unauthorized immigrants

and driver’s licenses, Nov. 1, 2015, http://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/assets/2015/08/deciding-who-drives.pdf. 2 Passel, Jeffrey S. and D’Vera Cohn. 2015. Immigrant Workers in Production, Construction Jobs Falls

Since 2007: In States, Hospitality, Manufacturing and Construction are Top Industries. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, March. 3 D.C. Municipal Regulations Title 18, § 114 (2014).

4 The Pew Charitable Trusts, Deciding Who Drives: State choices surrounding unauthorized immigrants

and driver’s licenses, Nov. 1, 2015, http://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/assets/2015/08/deciding-who-drives.pdf 5 Lucinda Babers, Agency Director at DC Department of Motor Vehicles, Aug.5, 2015, interview.

6 Arturo Griffiths, Executive Director of Trabajadores Unidos de Washington, DC, June 5, 2015,

interview. 7 District of Columbia Code § 50-1401.01 (2013).

8 Griffiths, interview.

9 Lucinda Babers, “Roundtable Discussion on Challenges for Immigrants Obtaining a Limited Purpose

Driver’s License,” Human Development and Capabilities Association Conference, Georgetown University, Sept. 11, 2015. 10

April 2, 2015, Community meeting, “Introducing Mission Zero Campaign,” Mayor’s Office on Latino Affairs, Washington, DC; Jackie Reyes, Agency Director, Mayor’s Office on Latino Affairs, July 30, 2015, interview. 11

The Pew Charitable Trusts, Deciding Who Drives: State choices surrounding unauthorized immigrants and driver’s licenses, Nov. 1, 2015, http://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/assets/2015/08/deciding-who-drives.pdf. 12

Passel, Jeffrey S. and D’Vera Cohn. 2014. Unauthorized Immigrant Totals Rise in 7 States, Fall in 14: Decline in Those From Mexico Fuels Most State Decreases. Washington, D.C. Pew Research Center, November. 13

Ibid. 14

Ibid.

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15

Jeffrey S. Passel and D’Vera Cohn. A Portrait of Unauthorized Immigrants in the United States. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, April 2009. 16

Ibid. 17

Anderson, Monica, and Andrew Perrin. 2015. "15% of Americans Don’t Use the Internet. Who Are They?" Pew Research Center, July 28 2015, Retrieved March 1, 2015 (http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/07/28/15-of-americans-dont-use-the-internet-who-are-they/). 18

Hugo Lopez, Mark, Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, and Eileen Patten. 2013. “Closing the Digital Divide: Latinos and Technology Adoption.” Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center. http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2013/03/Latinos_Social_Media_and_Mobile_Tech_03-2013_final.pdf. 19

“Obtain a Limited Purpose Driver’s License,” District of Columbia Department of Motor Vehicles. Retrieved March 1, 2015 (http://dmv.dc.gov/service/obtain-limited-purpose-driver-license). 20

Schwartz, Ari, Michael Wasser, Merrit Gillard and Michael Paarlberg. 2015. “Unpredictable, Unsustainable: The Impact of Employer’s Scheduling Practices in D.C., Nov.1, 2015, http://www.dcjwj.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/DCJWJ_Scheduling_Report_2015.pdf. 21

Mamdou Samba, Agency Director, Mayor's Office on African Affairs, and Bezawit Mane, Community Outreach Specialist, Mayor's Office on African Affairs, November 13, 2015, interview; Ngoc Trinh, Outreach Coordinator, Mayor’s Office on Asian and Pacific Islander Affairs, July 24, 2015, interview. 22

“Limited Purpose Credential FAQs,” District of Columbia Department of Motor Vehicles. Retrieved March 1, 2015 (http://dmv.dc.gov/service/limited-purpose-credential-faq). 23

“District of Columbia Driving Manual,” District of Columbia Department of Motor Vehicles. Retrived March 1, 2015 (http://dmv.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/dmv/publication/attachments/dltest.pdf). 24

“Language Access Fact Sheet,” Government of the District of Columbia Office of Human Rights. Retrieved March 1, 2015 (http://ohr.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/ohr/publication/attachments/EnglishFactSheet_2014.pdf).

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Georgetown University

Center for Social Justice Research, Teaching & Service

Poulton Hall, #130

1421 37th Street, N.W.

Washington, DC 20057