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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND GEOSCIENCES

Volume 5, No 2, 2014

© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4380

Submitted on August 2014 published on November 2014 345

Integration of high resolution satellite data, DEM and GIS for large scale

mapping – A case study from lower Gangetic alluvial plain of India Tapati banerjee1, Singh S.K.1, Dharumarajan S1, Dipak sarkar2

1N.B.S.S & L.U.P (ICAR), Block – DK, Sector-II, Salt Lake-Kolkata-700 091, West Bengal,

India

2N.B.S.S & L.U.P (ICAR), Amaravati Road, Nagpur-440 010, Maharashtra,

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present paper deals with the technique of large scale mapping using satellite data of 5.8m

resolution accompanied by DEM in GIS environment essential for farm level planning and

development. The study area is located in the lower gangetic alluvial plain of India where

elevation ranges from 5 to 14 meter above Mean Sea Level (MSL). Digital interpretation of

IRS P6 LISS IV satellite image in conjunction with Survey of India topographical maps and

ASTERGDEM of 30meter resolution and subsequent ground data helped to prepare PPU

(Physiographic cum photomorphic unit) map which were further correlated with elevation

and NDVI values. Soils occurring in different PPU were examined and PPU-soil relationship

was developed. The technique of mapping thus can be extended through faster as well as

precision mapping at farm level with plot wise information for site-specific management on

cost-effective basis.

Keywords: Large scale mapping, remote sensing, lower gangetic alluvial plain,

Physiographic cum photomorphic unit, PPU-soil relationship

1. Introduction

Over the past few decades planners and researchers are highly concerned with precision

farming and crop management that requires detail inventory and characterization of the farm

or group of farms in order to make realistic, economically viable and environmentally sound

crop production decision. For this purpose large scale mapping (1:25,000 or more) and

database is the prerequisite as because small and medium scale (1:1M to 1:50,000) data pose

problems sometimes not proper due to their coarse resolution. Depending upon the area

concerned, either physiographic mapping and/or soil mapping or both are taken into

consideration based on catena or toposequence concept. In most cases, landform

classification by photo interpretation is considered as the primary step to prepare soil map

since landform delineations are mostly associated directly with natural soil bodies (Buringh

1960). In recent trend, there has been the interest in replacing or supplementing the expert

judgment of the surveyor by the use of digital terrain analysis… (Moore et al 1993; Gessler

et al 1995; Bell et al 2000). Rapid development of remote sensing and GIS provide new

approaches to meet the demand related modeling (Mermut and Egwarnan 2001; Saheli et al.

2003) which allow to express the relationship explicitly and mathematically for rapid

production of output relevant to meet the environment and socio-economic demand. Irvin et

al. (1997) were among the first to use terrain parameters to derive soil landscape elements

and provide more objective basis for production of soil maps. They compared automated

classification of landform with that of the manual delineations by Aerial Photo Interpretation

(API) using a small study area. The surface features associated with different land use/land

cover reflected on satellite image provide good information to delineate boundaries

Integration of high resolution satellite data, DEM and GIS for large scale mapping – A case study from lower

Gangetic alluvial plain of India

Tapati banerjee

International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences

Volume 5 Issue 2, 2014 346

accurately through systematic interpretation. This reduces time and traversing for validating

soil boundaries. The present study deals with the technique for large scale mapping using

high resolution satellite data in continuation of the previous work done for the same area

mapped at 1:250,000 (Soil Survey Staff 1992) and 1:50,000 scale (Sarkar et al.2001).

2. Study area

The study area is Polba-Dadpur and Chinsurah-Mogra block of Hugli district in Lower

Gangetic Alluvial plain of India (Figure 1) covering nearly 18,000 ha area. The mean

elevation varies nearly 5 to 14 meter above mean sea level (MSL) and local relief varies from

nearly level plain (0-1% slope) to very gently sloping plain (< 2% slope) developed on the

alluvium borne by Hugli river in the east and Damodar river in the west. The area is

characterized by sub-humid tropical climate with ‘Hyperthermic’ temperature regime; Ustic

soil moisture regime. Paddy is the principal crop followed by vegetables especially potato

and other mixed vegetables, wheat and mustard in rabi season including summer vegetables

with sporadic distribution of plantations like mango, banana etc.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area



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3. Methodology

3.1 Data and Datasets

Map overlay techniques coupled with statistical analysis to describe the quantitative

relationship between landscape components: landform-land use-soil have been worked out as

follows

1. Interpretation of topographical maps and digital elevation model for relief

identification

2. Digital image interpretation for land use and land cover study

3. Ground truth verification and soil sampling

4. Automated data management and analysis in GIS

5. Soil laboratory analysis

6. Farm level soil mapping

Elevation and slope database prepared for the study area combining with ASTERGDEM of

30 meter resolution and topographical maps of 1:50,000 scales having numbers 79A/4, 79A/8,

79B/1 and 79B/5 prepared by Survey of India. Digital interpretation of IRS-P6 LISS IV

satellite image was interpreted using NDVI [(NIR - RED) / (NIR + RED)] techniques for

land use and land cover study. The flow chart for the methodology of large scale mapping is

shown in figureure 2.

Figure 2: Flow chart showing methodology of soil mapping

3.2. Physiographic mapping

A series of maps at 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scales had been consulted for the study area. As

the study area is small with single morpholithological character i.e. alluvium; morphometry

viz. relief amplitude and slope derived from DEM is considered as basic discriminating

criteria for mapping. The area represents a vast monotonous plain with a relief difference of 0

to 2% as such it poses problems to identify landforms observed in surface form. Therefore



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DEM was used as an additional variable with satellite image as the vegetation/ crop

cultivation is largely governed by altitude which ultimately helps to divide the area into

discrete segments. Following this idea, relationship was established between altitude and land

use after transferring raster properties (DEM) into vector attributes (Land use) in GIS

environment using TNT mips Pro. Finally a detailed PPU (Physiographic-cum-photomorphic

unit) map layer generated and legend was given in continuation of the previous physiographic

legend which was further correlated with NDVI values. In this PPU map first, second and

third letter represents parent material/physiography, fourth letter presents slope, fifth and

sixth letter with subscript of seventh letter (if any) represents landform and lastly eighth

and/or ninth letter with subscript (if any) represents land use with image characteristics

(Figure 3).

Figure 3: Explanation of (a) Physiography cum photomorphic unit and (b) Soil mapping

legend

3.3 Ground truth verification and soil sampling

Ground truth was done to verify the PPU in the field and depending upon the variation of

PPU soil sampling sites were selected. Detailed soil profile study was carried out as per the

norms laid down in the soil survey manual (Soil Survey Staff 1993). Soil samples with auger

boring were done for specific PPU, soils were correlated and series were identified with

phases. Horizon wise soil samples were collected from the representative sites for physical

and chemical analysis as per standard methodology. At each site the variation in

morphological and site characteristics of soils were studied and recorded. The soil samples of

representative soil profile were collected for further studies in the laboratory. Finally soils

were classified according to latest Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2003).

3.4 Soil mapping legend

Delineation of soil boundaries was made by observing soil characteristics by auger boring

observation. Soil distributions were mapped at 25,000 scale showing soil series association

and their phases. As the study area represents monotonous flat terrain with negligible relief

difference in slope, erosion and stoniness the phases were identified mainly by surface

texture. Therefore soil legend depicts the name of series (first one to two letters) followed by

surface texture (one to four letters) for phase identification (Figure 3).

4. Results and discussion

As per the physiographic mapping of 1:250,000 scale prepared by NBSS & LUP, the study

area comes under Bengal basin mainly alluvium and have a great impact on geomorphic units

that have occurred under different formation. Two major slope categories were identified i.e.

nearly level plain (0-1%) occupying an area of 1,921.7 ha (50.8% of total study area), very

gently sloping plain (1-2%) cover an area of 11,568.8 ha (41.9% of total study area). Rest of

the area near Hugli river bank comprises of gently sloping (2-3%) area covering nearly

4509.5 ha (7.3% of total study area). The bank of river Hugli (2 to 4 km wide) stands out on



Tapati banerjee



levee (12 to 14 meter above MSL) which is stable in nature. This levee can be subdivided

into subunits viz. 1) upper levee and 2) lower levee. The upper levee is densely populated and

occupies an area of 4,950 ha. The lower levee which is the back slope of upper levee formed

terraced land with altitudinal range of 10 to 12 meter occupied by plantation. Rest of the area

is level plain which was further subdivided into three categories viz. concave, convex and

straight slope.

4.1 PPU mapping

Different land use/land cover categories were identified in the study area and correlated with

altitude by transferring raster properties (DEM) into vector (Land use). From the relationship

between altitude and land use (Figure-4) it has been observed that major habitation is found

within the altitude of 13 to 14 meters demarcated as Upper levee although habitation is also

distributed sporadically throughout the block. Plantation is found within 11 to 13 meters

marked as Lower levee.

Figure 4: Relationship between altitude and raster cell under different land use category

Paddy growing area is mainly concentrated within 5 to 6 meters marked as level plain with

concave slope which was further differentiated by their high and low moisture status. Potato

growing area with dark pink tone is found to be concentrated within 5 to 8 meters demarcated

as level plain with convex slope. Transition zone between paddy and potato growing area

comprises mixed vegetable growing area having light pink tone as image characteristics are

concentrated within 5 to 7 meters altitude marked as level plain with straight slope. The

elements of PPU include parent material/ physiography, slope with curvature or local relief,

land use and land cover based on which six units were identified (table 1). These PPU were

correlated with NDVI values of field crops and established a definite relation with

physiographic units when compared (Table 2). Although the study area covers nearly 18,000

ha of Polba-Dadpur and Chinsurah-Mogra block of the Hugli district detailed PPU

(Physiographic cum photomorphic unit) map of two clusters has been shown (Figure 5a).

Puinan cluster is located in the western part and Gotu cluster in the eastern part of the block

each covering four villages.



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Figure 5a and 5b: Physiography-cum-photomorphic unit map and soil map of study area



Tapati banerjee



Table 1: Description of PPU (Physiographic-cum-Photomorphic Unit)

Table 2: Relationship between NDVI and PPU

NDVI Value Field crops PPU

Minimum Maximum

0.0000000 0.0280000 paddy cultivation having low

moisture

Bab4CeP2

0.0280001 0.0650000 paddy cultivation having high

moisture

Bab4CeP1

0.0650001 0.0970000 mixed type of vegetable cultivation Bab4CxV2

0.0970001 0.1428570 vegetable cultivation dominantly

potato

Bab4CxV1

4.2. PPU-soil relationship

Soil is the result of combined activity and reciprocal influence of parent material, plant and

organisms, climate, age of the land and topography. These were termed as soil formers or

factors of soil formations. The relation may be expressed as S= f (cl, o,r,p,t…) where S

denotes any soil property such as pH, nitrogen, clay; cl, environment climate (rainfall,

temperature); o, flora and fauna as biosphere organisms; r, elevation, slope and depth of

water table as relief; p, parent material; and t, time or age of land (Jenny, 1941). Soils of

alluvial plain are formed under mode of formation. The soils identified in each PPU of

Puinan and Gotu cluster are depicted in figure 5b with description of soil mapping units

(Table 3 and 4) and characteristics of different soil series (Table 5).

Sl

no. PPU Description Tone

1. Bab4Le1H Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very

gently sloping upper levee under habitation

Bluish tone

mixed with

red

2. Bab4Le2Pl Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very

gently sloping lower levee under plantation

Dark reddish

tone

3. Bab4CeP1

Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very

gently concave slope under paddy cultivation

having high moisture

Dark bluish

tone

4. Bab4CeP2


gently concave slope under paddy cultivation

having low moisture

Light bluish

tone

5. Bab4CxV1


gently convex slope under vegetable cultivation

dominantly potato

Dark pink

6. Bab4CxV2


gently convex slope under mixed type of

vegetable cultivation

Light pink



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Table 3: Description of Soil mapping units in Puinan Cluster

Map

unit

Soil

Unit

PPU

Units

Soil

series Description Soil Taxonomy

1 Pu-

sil

Bab4Cx

V1

Puinan

Very deep, well drained,

coarse-loamy soils with silt

loam surface texture on

nearly level convex slope

upland with slight erosion

Fine-silty,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Typic

Haplustepts

2 Pu-l

Bab4Cx

V1

Puinan


coarse-loamy soils with




Fine-silty,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Typic

Haplustepts

3 Ra-

sl

Bab4Cx

V1

Ramnaga

r


fine-loamy soils with sandy




Fine-loamy,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Fluventic

aplustepts

4 Da-

sic

Bab4Ce

P1

Dadpur

Very deep, poorly drained,

fine soils with clay surface

texture on nearly level

concave slope lowland with

very slight erosion

Fine,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Typic

Endoaquepts

5 Da-c

Bab4Ce

P2

Dadpur


fine soils with clay surface

texture on nearly level

concave slope lowland with

very slight erosion

Fine,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Typic

Endoaquepts

6 Da-

sicl

Bab4Ce

P1

Dadpur


fine soils with silty clay


nearly level concave slope

lowland with very slight

erosion

Fine,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Typic

Endoaquepts

7 Na-

sicl

Bab4Cx

V

2

Natungr

am

Very deep, Moderately well

drained, fine soils with silty

clay loam surface texture on

nearly level transition land

between upland and lowland

with slight erosion

Fine,

mixed,

hyperthermic,

Typic

Endoaquepts

8 Na-

cl

Bab4Cx

V

2

Natungr

am

Very deep, Moderately well

drained, fine soils with clay


nearly level transition land

between upland and lowland

with slight erosion

Fine,

mixed,

hyperthermic,

Typic

Endoaquepts



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Table 4: Description of Soil mapping units in Gotu Cluster

Map

unit

Soil

Unit PPU Units

Soil

series Description Soil Taxonomy

1 Da-c

Bab4CeP2

Dadpur

Very deep, poorly drained, fine soils

with clay surface texture on nearly level

concave slope lowland with very slight

erosion

Fine,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Typic

Endoaquepts

2 Da-

sic Bab4CeP1 Gotu


with clay surface texture on nearly level

concave slope lowland with very slight

erosion

Fine-silty,

mixed

hyperthermic

Fluventic

Haplustepts

3 Da-

sicl

Bab4CeP1

Gotu


with silty clay loam surface texture on

nearly level concave slope lowland with

very slight erosion

Fine-silty,

mixed

hyperthermic

Fluventic

Haplustepts

4 Ra-l

Bab4CxV1

Ramnagar Very deep, well drained, fine-loamy

soils with loam surface texture on nearly

level convex slope upland with slight

erosion

Fine-loamy,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Fluventic

Haplustepts

5 Ra-sil

Bab4CxV1

Ramnagar Very deep, well drained, fine-loamy

soils with silt loam surface texture on

nearly level convex slope upland with

slight erosion

Fine-loamy,

mixed,

hyperthermic

Fluventic

Haplustepts

6 Go-sil Bab4Le2Pl Gotu

Very deep, well drained, fine silty soils

with silt loam surface texture on nearly

level to very gently sloping levee with

slight erosion

Fine-silty,

mixed

hyperthermic

Fluventic

Haplustepts

7 Go-

sicl Bab4Le2Pl Gotu

Very deep, well drained, fine silty soils

with silty clay loam surface texture on

nearly level to very gently sloping levee

with slight erosion

Fine-silty,

mixed

hyperthermic

Fluventic

Haplustepts

Table 5: Physical and chemical characteristics of soils

Depth

(cm)

Ho

rizo

n Particle size

distribution (%) pH

(1:2.5) EC

OC

(%)

CEC

Cmol (+) Kg-

1

Exchangeable cations

Cmol (+) Kg-1

Sand silt clay Ca+

+

Mg+

+

Na+ K

+

Gotu - Fine-silty, mixed hyperthermic Fluventic Haplustepts

0-15 Ap 2.0 74.4 23.6 6.3 0.11 0.63 16.9 8.8 1.5 0.4 0.2

15-38 2Bw1 0.7 61.7 37.6 6.4 0.07 0.27 19.2 10.0 1.7 0.5 0.2

38-55 2Bw2 0.9 67.5 31.6 6.8 0.17 0.19 18.0 10.0 1.6 0.4 0.2

55-85 3C1 1.2 82.4 16.4 7.2 0.17 0.07 14.0 8.6 1.4 0.4 0.2

85-140 4C2 1.5 49.7 48.8 7.3 0.16 0.24 20.0 12.0 1.6 0.7 0.4

Dadpur - Fine, mixed, hyperthermic, Typic Endoaquepts

0-10 Ap 4.4 41.8 53.8 6.6 0.27 1.1 17.1 9.3 1.6 0.7 0.2



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10-.23 Bw1g 4.5 40.1 55.4 6.7 0.17 0.81 16.8 9.6 1.6 0.8 0.2

23-51 Bw2g 3.9 40.6 55.5 6.8 0.14 0.32 17.0 9.6 1.6 0.8 0.3

51-95 Bw3g 5.7 42.7 51.6 6.7 0.09 0.35 16.7 9.5 1.5 0.7 0.3

95-135 Bw4g 10.1 50.4 39.5 6.6 0.1 0.27 15.8 8.7 1.5 0.5 0.2

Puinan- Coarse-silty, mixed, hyperthermic Typic Fluvaquents

0-10 Ap 15.6 68.7 15.7 4.9 0.11 0.65 8.2 3.9 0.9 0.2 0.1

10-30 A2 10.1 72.2 17.7 5.3 0.14 0.34 8.8 4.0 1.3 0.2 0.1

30-44 2C1 7.8 82 10.2 5.6 0.08 0.13 8.0 3.9 1.2 0.2 0.1

44-84 2C2 10.7 67.6 21.7 5.7 0.07 0.1 10.4 5.0 1.4 0.3 0.1

84-112 2C3 19.6 55.5 24.9 5.9 0.07 0.12 12.0 6.2 1.4 0.3 0.1

112-

148

2C4 21.3 56.1 22.6 5.9 0.08 0.12 12.1 6.4 1.4 0.3 0.1

Ramnagar- Fine-loamy,mixed, hyperthermic Fluventic Haplustepts

0-15 Ap 37.0 43.1 19.9 7.4 0.38 0.69 9.0 5.5 1.1 0.3 0.1

15-32 2Bw1 30.8 37.5 31.7 7.6 0.24 0.17 11.8 7.5 1.4 0.5 0.1

32-56 2Bw2 30.1 39.4 30.5 7.7 0.15 0.20 12.2 8.0 1.4 0.1 9.9

56-91 3C1 44.5 33.7 21.8 7.8 0.13 0.14 9.8 6.6 1.2 0.3 0.1

91-130 3C2 37.9 35.9 26.2 7.7 0.07 0.06 11.4 7.2 1.3 0.4 0.1

Natungram- Fine, mixed, hyperthermic, Typic Endoaquepts

0-13 Ap 13.6 50.5 35.9 5.9 0.29 0.82 14.8 7.8 1.3 0.6 0.4

13-29 Bw1 10.8 46.3 42.9 6 0.36 0.53 14.2 8.0 1.2 0.7 0.2

29-50 2Bw2 7.6 63.6 28.8 6.2 0.4 0.27 16.0 8.8 1.4 1.0 0.2

50-77 2Bw3 7 44.3 48.7 6.3 0.38 0.19 15.7 8.9 1.3 0.9 0.2

77-101 2Bw4 10.4 42 47.6 6.5 0.32 0.27 14.2 8.2 1.3 1.0 0.2

101-

135

3C 24 50.1 25.9 6.7 0.24 0.1 15.9 9.3 1.5 1.0 0.3

4.2.1. Bab4Le2Pl (Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very gently sloping lower

levee under plantation)

Levee soil (Bab4Le2Pl) consists of very deep, well drained very gently sloping levee and

have yellowish brown to dark yellowish brown silt loam to silty clay loam surface soil and

dark brown to very dark grayish brown, silty clay loam to silt loam sub surface soil.

Yellowish brown to dark yellowish brown mottles present in the profiles. Levee soil is mostly

occupied by banana and mango plantation. The levee soil (Gotu series) is a member of fine-

silty, mixed, hyperthermic family of Fluventic Haplustepts.

4.2.2. Bab4CeP1 (Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very gently concave slope

low land under paddy cultivation having high moisture)

The Bab4CeP1 soil (Dadpur series) consists of very deep, poorly drained; very dark grayish

brown to dark brown silt clay to silty clay loam surface soil and dark gray to very dark

grayish, with yellowish brown to dark yellowish brown mottles, having silty clay to clayey

sub surface soil and medium sized iron and manganese concretions are common throughout

the profile. The soil of Bab4CeP1 (Dadpur series) is a member of fine, mixed, hyperthermic

family of Typic Endoaquepts.



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4.2.3. Bab4CeP2 (Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very gently concave slope

under paddy cultivation having low moisture)

The Bab4CeP2 soil (Dadpur series) consists of very deep, poorly drained, very fine texture

soils and have dark brown clayey surface texture with very dark grayish brown to very dark

gray, clay to silty clay texture in subsurface. Medium sized iron and manganese concretions

present throughout the profile. This soil of Bab4CeP2 (Dadpur series) is a member of fine,

mixed, hyperthermic family of Typic Endoaquepts.

4.2.4. Bab4CxV1 (Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very gently convex slope

under vegetable cultivation dominantly potato)

The Bab4CxV1 soil consists of very deep, well drained to moderately well drained, sandy

loam to loam soils on the surface and silty loam to silty clay loam in the sub surface. Two soil

series was identified in Bab4CxV1 unit. Puinan soil series consists of very deep, well

drained, coarse loamy texture in control section. The colour of soil in control section varies

from light yellowish brown to grayish brown. The soils have yellowish brown to dark

yellowish brown mottles in the profile. Puinan soil series is a member of fine-silty, mixed,

hyperthermic family of Typic Haplustepts. Ramnagar soil series consists of very deep, well

drained, fine-loamy texture in control and have dark brown loam to silt loam surface soil dark

brown to very dark grayish brown, clay loam to loam sub surface soil with yellowish brown

to brownish yellow mottles in the profile. Ramnagar soil series is a member of fine-loamy,

mixed, hyperthermic family of Fluventic Haplustepts.

4.2.5. Bab4CxV2 (Bengal basin alluvial plain, nearly level to very gently convex slope

under mixed type of vegetable cultivation)

The Bab4CxV2 soil (Natungram series) consists of very deep, moderately well drained, fine,

dark brown, moderately acidic, silty clay loam to clay loam texture surface soils and dark

brown to very dark gray, silty clay to silt loam texture sub surface soils. Medium sized iron

and manganese concretions are present in the profile. The Bab4CxV2 soil (Natungram series)

is a member of fine, mixed, hyperthermic family of Typic Endoaquepts.

5. Conclusion

From the study it can be concluded that applying the technique of large scale mapping using

high resolution satellite data accompanied by DEM in GIS environment helps developing

PPU-soil relationship for site-specific management on cost-effective basis especially at farm

level. Once the PPU-soil relationship established it can be extended for faster mapping at

precision level with plot wise information on morphology, resource potential and constraints.

6. References

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spatial patterns of soil organic carbon. P295-310. In J.P.Wilson and J.Gallant (ed.)

Terrain analysis: Principles and applications. Wiley & Sons. New York

2. Buringh, P. (1960), The application of aerial photographs in soil surveys. Manual of

Photographic Interpretation. American Society of Photogrammetry. Washington DC



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3. Gessler, P.E., I.D.Morre, N.J.McKenzie and P.J. Ryan (1995), Soil landscape

modeling and spatial prediction of soil attributes. Int J.GIS 9:421-432

4. Irvin. B.J., S.J.Ventura and B.K. Slater. (1997), Fuzzy and isodata classification of

landform elements from digital terrain data in Pleasant Valley, Wisconsin, Geoderma

77:134-154

5. Jenny,H. (1941), Factors of soil formations. New York. Mac Graw-Hill. 1941

6. Mermut A.R., Eswaran,H. (2001), Some major developments in soil science since the

mid 1960s. Geoderma 100:403-426

7. Moore, I.D., P.E. Gessler, G.A., Nielsen, and G.A.Peterson. (1993), Soil attribute

prediction using terrain analysis. Soil Sci Soc. Am. J. 57:443-452

8. Salehi, M.H., Eghbal M.K., Khademi H. (2003), Comparison od soil variability in a

detailed and a reconnaissance soil map in central Iran. Geoderma 111:45-56

9. Sarkar D., T.H.Das, T.Chattopadhyay & M.Velayutham (2001), Soils of Hugli district

for Optimising Land Use, NBSS & LUP, Nagpur,91p.

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27b (Soils of India Seties). National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning.

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