integrative approach in teaching

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0 Introductions

Today many libraries are using computers and allied information technologies to improve

their work methods and services. Consequently, the libraries need such professional staff, orneed to train the present one, who could face the challenges placed by the introduction of

these technologies in the libraries. To meet the demand of such professional staff, thedepartments of Library and Information Science in India introduced new courses of studiesto expose their students in the use and application of computers and other allied technologies.

Some courses introduced are: Computer Application in Libraries; Systems Analysis and

Design Technique; Design and Development of Computer-based Library Information

Systems; Database Organisation and Design; Library Networking; Use and Application ofCommunication Technology, and so forth.

We feel that the computer and information technologies biased courses need to be

restructured, revised, and more harmoniously blended with the traditional main streamcourses of library and information science discipline. We must alter the strategy of teaching

library techniques, such as classification, cataloguing, and library procedures, and the

techniques of designing computer-based library information systems and services. The useand application of these techniques get interwoven when we shift from a manually operated

library system's environment to computer-based library system's environment. As such, it

becomes necessary that we must follow an integrative approach, when we teach these

techniques to the students of library and information science or train library staff in the useand application of these techniques to design, develop and implement computer-based

library information systems and services.

In the following sections of this paper, we shall outline the likeness or correspondencebetween certain concepts and techniques formed by computer specialist and the one

developed by the librarians, in their respective domains. We make use of these techniques(i.e. the techniques of both the domains) in the design and implementation of computer-

based library information systems and services. As such, it is essential that lessons of study

concerning the exposition of these supplementary and complementary techniques must beintegrated.

1 Likeness in the Approaches of Techniques Developed by Computer Specialists and

Librarians

Before the arrival of computers, the librarians had formulated certain concepts, tools and

techniques for

Organising the knowledge sources or bibliographic items collected by the libraries ina helpful classified order according to APPUPA pattern, the name given byRanganathan to the desired order of arrangement of the bibliographic items

relating to associated subject on the library shelves. This pattern enables the library

members to easily locate the items of their interest in a specific subject and relatedsubjects kept on the left and right side the specific subject in a library.

Creating and organising surrogates ( i.e. catalogue cards or records of bibliographicitems) in as traditional or online library catalogues, to enable the library users to

search and identify the bibliographic items of their interest through various accesspoints

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With the arrival of computer and database technology, the database designers tospecify a conceptual model of a database or to formulate a data structure design (i.e. a set

of organised data about real word entities) use various database modelling techniques or

approaches. The theoretical base of these techniques is very similar to faceted techniquepostulated and devolved by Ranganathan for designing a scheme for a classification and

cataloguing rules and approaches. Both these techniques are based upon similar orcongruent postulates that can help us:

To design a conceptual schema, To formulate a data structure design to organise the data or data records about real

world entities (such as books, people, animals, plants, etc.),

To create records of entities associated with a library system or any otherorganisation.

To develop and implement search mechanisms, which help us to retrieve therequired information from the library catalogues or online databases.

To identify and retrieve bibliographic items stored on the library selves or digitaldocuments stored in a computer system.

If we compare these concepts, tools and techniques with the concepts and techniques ofdatabase design developed by computer specialists, we find similarity or correspondence

between their purpose and approaches.

1.1 Techniques of Database Design or Structure

The design of a database structure involves three different levels of activities: (i) conceptual

level, (ii) algorithmic or programming level, and (iii) storage level.

Theactivities at conceptual levelrelate to the initial phase of data processing. Duringthis phase one begins by identifying the objects, things, events or entity types whose data is

to be processed and stored by the computer system. Once the pertinent entity types are

identified, their relevant attributes or data elements are listed and the format, in which theyare to be organised and stored, namely the data structure or database structure, is selected.

The selected structure, format or schema at this level represents only conceptual viewor

modelof the data (or the database).

The activities of the algorithmic level represent the initial steps of implementing theselected data structure. These steps involve the specification of the required functions of the

selected data structure and the operations that are to be facilitated by the chosen data

structure. Such specifications are coded in a program using a procedure-oriented language.The mechanism used in the program to implement various data structures includes linear list,

inverted list, linked list, and so on.

The activities of the storage level have to do with physical representation of the data

structure in the computer storage. During this phase one is concerned with physicallyconfiguring the data, that is, with the internal linkage, in the computer storage subsystem.

Array and files are tools used to configure or build such mechanisms.

1.2 Correspondence between the Approaches of Database Design and the Design of

a Scheme for Library Classification

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The data in a database is organised in variety of ways, and the details for structuring thedata or data records with in a database are called data models. A data model has a fixed

set of language constructs that are used for describing data and also have counterpart

graphic representations for each construct, which enable the system designer or analyst tobuild and represent the database structure diagrammatically.

The database modelling (or design) is a process of determining the structure andcontents of a database. It is a complex process and constitutes of three phases namely, (i)

conceptual design phase, (ii) logical design phase and (iii)physical deign phase.The conceptual design phase starts from requirement analysis and description and

results in the global or conceptual schema of the database. A conceptual schema is high-

level description of the structure of the database and is independent of any particularDatabase Management System (DBMS). A conceptual data model is the language that is

used to describe conceptual schema. A conceptual model specifies the rules according to

which database records are to be logically structured and helps us describe the logicaldatabase structure.

The logical design phase starts from converting conceptual schema into a logical

schema. A logical schema is the specification of the structure of database that can beimplemented on and processed using DBMS software.

The physical design phase is concerned with the description of the implementation of

database in a storage device; it describes the storage structures and access methods used

to effectively and efficiently access data from storage devices. A physical design iscustom-made to a specific database management system. Low level or physical data

models, also called implementation-oriented models provide concepts that describe the

details of how data is stored in the computer storage device. The three most widely usedimplementation-oriented models are relational, network, and hierarchical model (Vossen,

1991).Systems analysts or database designers use logical database-modelling techniques,

such as entity-relationship modelling technique and object modelling technique, to

analyse and document the conceptual and logical design of a database, and data flowdiagrams to illustrate how the data will be captured, stored, used and maintained in a

database system environment.

Logical data modelling approach first gained recognition in Dr. Peter Chen's article

Entity-Relationship Model: Towards a Unified View of Data (1976). Since then, data

modelling or database modelling has become the common practice in design and

development or of database systems. Using a data modelling technique, we can establish,

organise or structure database of an information system and document its details.The Entity-Relationship data analysis and modelling approach is basically an

analytical technique that can be used to identify and describe the entities associated with

an enterprise/ organisation/ problem area or about which an enterprise, organisation orperson wishes to store information and designing a conceptual schema or model of a

database. This database design technique is based on the following fundamental concepts

is aided by graphical display known asEntity-Relationship Diagrams (E-R diagrams):

Entity: An entity is something that can be seen, touched, conceptualised, orotherwise sensed, and about which collect and store data , or describe it

Entity Type (or Entity Set), which represent a set of distinguishable real-worldobjects or things (mini world) with common properties and about which an

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organisation or a person wants to collect and keep facts, data or information.BIBLIOGRAPHIC ITEM, LIBRARY, EMPLOYEE, CITY, and MOUNTAIN

are examples of entities.

Attributes, which represent the elementary properties of entities or the attributesacquired entities due to relationships with other entities. For attributes, attributes

of entity PERSON are: Name, Height, Weight, Address, Date-of-Birth, Place-of-Birth and so on. Place-of-Birth is the attribute that is acquired by the entity

PERSON due its connection or relationship with the entity PLACE; therelationship being Is-Born-In between the entities EMPLOYEE and PLACE

(CITY, TOWN, VILLAGE). The date_of_birth is the attribute of the relationship

Is-Born-In between the entities EMPLOYEE and PLACE (CITY, TOWN,VILLAGE).

Relationships, which represent the associations or connections among entities.Examples of typical relationship are: Employee-of that relates EMPLOYEE and

his place of work LIBRARY. The entities acquire certain descriptive elements orproperties due to their association, connections or relationships with other entities.

Relationships between entities are either one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-to-many.

Beside the entity-relationship analysis and modelling approach, another datamodelling approach, named the object-oriented analysis and modelling approach, is also

popular these days. There is some similarity between the concepts or terms used in both

of these data modelling approaches. Object modelling is a technique for identifyingobjects within the systems environment and the relationships between them. According to

the object modelling technique the real world consists of objects like, men, women, trees,

books, tables, and so forth. All objects belong to some class and have certain set ofdefined attributes and behaviours. An object, then, is an instance of a class. Consider the

object (class) LIBRARY BOOK or MONOGRAPH. It has certain attributes: a title,

extent, subjectandprice. It has also certain behaviours or functionalities. For Example, itcan be borrowed by a library member for certain time and returned to the library in given

time. Finally it has an identity: a call number that distinguishes it from other library

books or monographs. These concepts are briefly described below:

Object: An object is something that can be seen, touched, or otherwise sensed,and about which users store data

Object Class: An object class is something that constitutes of a set of objects withsimilar attributes (properties), common behaviour, and common relationships

(association) with other objects.

Attributes: Attributes are the characteristics of interest (data) about an object. Behaviour: Behaviour of an object either changes or returns the state of on object.

It refers to those things that the object can do and the correspondence functionsthat can act on the objects data (or attributes). In object-oriented circles, an

object's behaviour is commonly referred to as a method, operation or service."

[Whitten, et al, 2001. Pp. 646-672].The basic concepts of entity-relationship analysis and modelling approach are the

foundation of the logical database modelling technique with the help of which we can

outline a conceptual model (also called conceptual or logical view) of a database, which is

an application-independent and storage independent general abstract or logical description

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of the database. The conceptual level design or model of a database relates to therepresentation of that part of the real world that the database is about. For example, when we

design a bibliographic database we are concerned withvarious kinds of Information orKnowledge Resources' (i.e., documents or bibliographic items), a subset of real worldentities.

The conceptual level database involves identifying and specifying:- The entity types, which are the sets of entities with which we are concerned. In

the case bibliographic database design case the entity types or classes involved

are: (i) Monographs - Simple and Composite, (ii) Serials, and (iii) Independent

Works or Contributions (Analytic) forming part of Simple or Composite

Monographs, or Serials.

- The attributes of the entities. An attribute is a property or a fact about an entityor entity types. It is a piece of information or elementary data about an entity or

about a relationship. Title, for example, is the attribute of the entity document (amonograph, a serial or an analytic), and so is a date of publication, size, and

extent. A string of symbols used to represent an attribute of a particular entity is

called a value of the attribute. Thus "1994" and "xx+200p" may be the values ofthe attributes - date of publication and extentof a particular monograph, a serial,

or an individual volume of a serial or a multi-volume monograph.

- The relationships or associations among the entities. For example, therelationship between the entity BOOK (i.e. work) and the entity AUTHOR isthat a book is written by or edited by an author. The terms written by or edited by

indicate the relationship that exists between the entity types MONOGRAPH

and AUTHOR.

Ranganathan's faceted approach (also called theory of knowledge classification) isbased upon the concepts of five fundamental categories or facets, namely Personality,

Matter, Energy, Space and Time (cf., Ranganathan, 1967); 1964; Kashyap, 1983;

Spiteri, 1996; Broughton, Vanda. 2001). If we critically examine the purpose and thedefinition of the conceptsPersonality, Matter, Energy, as provided by Ranganathan, we

find them similar to the three fundamental concepts of Entity-Relationship Data Analysis

and Modelling Technique, namely, Entity Types, Attributes and Relationships (cf.,

Kashyap, 2003).In addition, as Neelameghan points out (cf., Neelameghan, 1992; 1992),

the General Theory of Knowledge Classification developed by Ranganathan can also be

applied in designing specialized databases. Further, designing faceted classifications and

putting on the Web, especially on commercial web sites are increasingly becomecommon. (cf., Adkisson, 2003)

According to Ranganathan, "library classification is the classification of subjects or

knowledge classification" (Ranganathan. 1967, p.94) and a subject is an organised orsystematised body of ideas, facts, data, information or knowledge concerning some

thing/things or an exposition of theoretical construct(s) embodied in a bibliographic item.

The content of a bibliographic item is the product of intellectual, transintellectual,creative activity or the imagination of man recorded in an intelligible, coherent and

communicable form. The focus of study and description in a work or bibliographic

document can be about aconceptual(abstract) or concrete (physical) entity/entities and

their properties. The Ranganathans postulate, principle and cannons for classification

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are concerned with developing a framework for a scheme for subject classification andsubject indexing system for organisation of documents, information about documents and

their contents (i.e., the description of abstract or physical entity/entities or their attributes

in the bibliographic documents).Ranganathan faceted approach is based on the postulates that the subjects of studies can

be broadly divided into BASIC (or Simple) SUBJECTS and their subsequent hierarchicalsubdivisions called COMPOUND SUBJECTS, and COMPLEX SUBJECTS. ABasic (or

Simple) Subjectis field of study or discipline (branch of learning) or an aggregate of such

fields; mutually exclusive and totally exhaustive first order array of subjects of a scheme for

classification (e.g. Mathematics, Arithmetic, Geometry, Physics, Light, Heat, Biology,

Cytology, and so on). According to Ranganathan a Compound Subject is formed bycombination of a Basic Subject and one or more isolate concepts, belonging to the five

fundamental categories or facets, namely Personality [P], Mater [M], Energy [E.], Space [S],

and Time [T].The Fundamental Category Personality [P] and its various levels constitute of

hierarchically organised concepts representing the sets ofentities or entity types and their

subsets, forming the subject studies within the scope of a given field of study or a BASICSUBJECT. By entity or entity type he means: 'any existence, concrete or conceptual, that

is, a thing or idea'.

The Fundamental Category Mater [M] and its various levels constitute of hierarchically

organised concepts of theMatter Material (MM) and Matter Property (MP) type attributesof the focal entity types, included in Personality [P] category of a BASIC SUBJECT.

According to Ranganathan, Fundamental Category Mater [M] represents what something

is made of, or any property, or quality or quantity like measure of an entity. The isolateideas or concepts representing the intrinsic matter, material, properties, or attributes of

entity or entity class; that is, qualities, quantities, functions, activities, processes, growth,change of state, behaviour or characteristics of entities or objects belong to the focal facet.

Examples are Colour, Inflammation, Reliability, Weight, State, Harmony, Authority,

Constitution, Structure, Hardness, Softness, and Iron (as content of Blood or as a

material ofIron-Table)

The Fundamental Category Energy (or Action) [E] covers the isolate ideas or

concepts that represent the energetic actions, operations (mental or physical), howsomething is processed or evolves, or impacts on the focal or core entity (i.e., the object

or thing affected by action on it, by or through another entity and bring change in the core

or focal entity belonging to first roundPersonality Facet [1P]) are deemed to belong to

the category Energy." In other words, this category includes isolate ideas or conceptsrelating to the energetic actions or interactions that exist among and by all kinds of

entities -- inanimate, animate, conceptual, intellectual and initiative." (Ranganathan, 1967.

pp. 400). The entity types that are source of energetic actions, operations (mental orphysical), or any other relationship are deemed to belong to round twoPersonalityFacet

[2P]. The attributes of entity types belonging to second round Personality Facet [2P]

constitute component of second roundMatter Facet [2M], and second roundEnergyFacet[2E] constitute of concepts representing the associations , interrelationships, interactions

(including action on or by other entities) that may exist between the entities belonging to

second roundPersonality Facet [2P] with other entity types, which are deemed to belong tothird round PersonalityFacet [3P] and so on.

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Ranganathan postulated that we always study an entity or entity set, (i.e. any existence,which may be either conceptual (or abstract) - god, democracy, truth, and so forth, or

concrete (or physical) -plant, heat, light, cell, and so forth). Further, when study an entity or

entity set we study its / their attributes (properties), and interrelationships, interactions with(including action on or by) other entities, in space and time context. These postulates are

found useful to develop a scheme for a library classification. With the help of such a schemewe can organise the bibliographic items and their surrogates (i.e. bibliographic records) inhelpful order and enable a library reader to retrieve the bibliographic items of his interest

from the entire library collection with ease, based upon subject approach.

1.3 Correspondence between Methods of Organising Computer Files and

Classified Catalogue Files

An indexed or inverted file organisation is a process or method of organising computer filesso that a record or set of records in a computer file (main or master file) can be searched

through an index or index file. An index or index file is used to access or pick a specific set

of computer records from the master file. There are two types of indexes:primary indexesand secondary indexes. A primary index is one, which is built up using unique identifiers

(i.e. primary key values) and pointers to the corresponding records in the main file. Further

to build a primary index it is necessarily that the individual records in the master file are

stored according to primary key sequence. Whereas, a secondary index is one that is built upusing non-unique identifiers (i.e. secondary key values) and pointers to the corresponding

records.

The librarians already knew the use of indices, for accessing or searching bibliographicrecords or items from a main file of a library-classified catalogue. For this, we refer to the

technique developed by Ranganathan, known as Chain Procedure (cf. Ranganathan,1988). This procedure helps us to prepare class index entries (i.e. an index file) for a

Classified Catalogue. These entries or file enable us to locate bibliographic entries of

bibliographic items, belonging to a particular class (or a subject category) or its subdivisions,in the classified part (i.e. from main or master file) of the catalogue. If a library user wants

to locate a set of bibliographic items on a topic, he would not begin to search all the

bibliographic records in the classified part (i.e. the indexed file) of the catalogue from thebeginning to end until comes across the topic of his interest. Rather he is directed to the

specific location in the classified part (i.e. the indexed file) of the catalogue to actually find

the bibliographic records of bibliographic items of his interest (along with complete data

about them), through the alphabetical part (i.e. the index file) of a catalogue. Thealphabetical part of the catalogue is in turn is arranged sequentially to an alphabetical order.

It may be observed that a classified catalogue of a library and correspondingly a

database of a computerised information system, which is organised using indexed orinverted file organisation method, are split into two parts, each part serving different

function. In case of a classified catalogue, one part, called the classified part, holds all the

records of bibliographic items in classified order. The other part, called the alphabetical part,contains sequentially arranged subject approaches or descriptors, to trace the relevant

records of bibliographic items on a particular subject from the first part. Similarly, one part

of a database called the main file or indexed file. This part holds of all the records of entitytypes, physically organised in some suitable manner. The other part of a database consists of

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sequentially arranged, one or more indexes (index/inverted files), which help us to trace andretrieve a specific entity record or a set of entity records from the main or master file. Both

types of organisation help us in retrieving records and consequently data or information

about a particular bibliographic item/entity or a set of bibliographic items/entities from thecatalogue or database. However, the librarians, to designate the two parts of a library

catalogue and computer specialists to designate the two parts of a database use differentterms.The correlation between some approaches of library science and database designing

techniques, as shown in the previous section, is due to fact that both areas of knowledge are

concerned with information storage, processing and retrieval activities.

After having shown the correspondence between library science and database designand development techniques, in the subsequent part of the paper, we shall examine the

potentialities and means of following the integrative approach in handling the traditional

library science courses and the database organisation and designing techniques ofinformation technology. The traditional library science courses, such as, Library

Administration (i.e. Course relating to library procedures or routines), Library Cataloguing

(Theory and Practice) and the related information technology techniques need to becoalesced into one stream forming an integrated course of study and teaching in library and

information science.

2. Computer-Based Information Systems: Design and Development Approach

We can use computers to carry out near all library functions, activities or work practices.

One can computerise library processes such as acquisition, cataloguing, circulation andcontrol of bibliographic items; membership registration; financial controls; upkeep of

service records of employees, and so on. To do these library functions with the help ofcomputers, we actually develop and install computer-based library information systems.

In any organisation, a computer-based information system is generally designed to

supports the operational and managerial decision making functions of the organisation andprovides information:

a. necessary for day-to-day library operations, planning and decision makingb. to aid tactical or short run planning, andc. for the support strategic or long term planning.

In contrast, a computer-based information system (also called library management

system) of a library serves as an information system for management, and also

bibliographic information systemfor library members. It provides:

Bibliographic information about the holdings of a library and their status, to the librarymembers,

The information required by library staff and management to perform day to day libraryactivities or functions, and

Information which supports managerial and decision making functions of differentlevels of library managers. Information, which is useful to them for tactical (or short run)planning and for a strategic (or a long term) planning.

2.1 Methodology of Designing a Computerised Information System

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A computer-based information system of an organisation is designed, developed and madeoperative using a database management system (DBMS). The databases of an information

system are created and stored on computer hosts and linked to more than one access point

via telecommunication lines. These databases are also developed and searched using theDBMSs.

To design and develop a computerised information system and to set up its databasewith the aid of DBMS, what we required is:1. Comprehensive or total view of the organisation including its objectives, functions,

processes or activities (to be computerised) and the various entities associated with

the organisation, whose database need to be created.

2. Expertise in the design and development of a conceptual schema and sub-schema ofthe database.

3. Knowledge about the capabilities and limitations of the database management

software is being used to create the database of the organisation.4. Proficiency in the use and application of its data-definition and data-manipulation

languages of the DBMS, including its indexing and search techniques and

converting the conceptual scheme into logical structure or a data schema / modelwithin the framework of the given DBMS.

In addition, one must be able to:

a. Identify and describe the entity types (objects about which information is to becollected for use) and their attributes and relationships (i.e. data elements).

b. Recognise, designate and define the essential and optional data fields and their sub-fields (data elements) that may comprise database record structure of an entity type.

c. Provide unique identifiers and names to the data fields and sub-fields (i.e. dataelements), that is; assign unique codes to each data field and sub-fields. Theseunique codes, also called content designators, consist of field tags, indicators, and

sub-fields' codes and serve as means of identifying data elements or values of fields

in a machine readable record, andd. Specify:

1. Set of guideline or rule for identifying and using the authentic sources forcollecting data or pieces of information about an entity. That is, the appropriatesources from where the values of the attributes (data elements) of an entity need

to be collected for description.

2. Set of rules for the domain of attributes, which define the valid values of anattribute and guide, decision in case there are exceptions.

3. Input data format or formats in which records of entities or objects will be inputto the system (i.e. the form in which the given pieces of information about an

entity will be logically recorded).4. Set of rules necessary for the uniform or consistent description or

rendering of the values of the attributes (data elements), or contents of

fields and sub-fields comprising the database records.5. Set of formats in which entity records or information will be displayed ( i.e. the

formats of required outputs or reports), and

6. Identify and specify the types of access points or elements for searching therecords of bibliographic items from a database, and the method or techniques,

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which may be used to construct the elements of search or to formulate queries tosearch the database.

Thus, to design or developcomputerised library systems and services, including an on-

line catalogue, the requisites are:

1.

Comprehensive or total view of a library system including its objectives, functions,processes or activities (task systems) and the various entities associated with thesystem.

2. Expertise in the design and development of a conceptual schema and sub-schema ofa library database.

3. Knowledge about the capabilities and limitations of the database managementsoftware being used to create a given library database system.

4. Proficiency in the use and application of its data-definition and data-manipulationlanguages of the DBMS, including its indexing and search techniques andconverting the conceptual scheme into logical structure or a data schema / model

within the framework of the given DBMS.

In addition one should be able to explicitly:

State the objectives, functions, processes or activities (work practices*) of a librarysystem.

Describe the various entity-types (e.g. the various types of bibliographic items,library members, staff, etc.) about which information is to be collected for use and

their attributes and relationships.

Designate and define the essential and optional data fields and their sub-fields (i.e.attributes or data elements of entity-types) that may comprise database record

structure

Assign unique codes to the identified mandatory and optional fields and sub-fields.The unique codes or identifiers are also called content designators. These arecomposed of field tags, indicators, and sub-fields codes and serve as means of

identifying data elements or values of fields in a machine readable record.

Specify a set of rules for uniform or consistent description of the values of theattributes - i.e., the data elements or contents of fields and sub-fields comprising the

database records

Stipulate the guideline or rules for identifying and using the authentic sources forcollecting data or pieces of information about an entity, that is, the appropriatesources from where the values of the attributes (data elements) of an entity need to

be collected for description.

Delineate the domain of attributes, which define the valid values of an attribute andguide decision in case there are exceptions. Specify a set of rules necessary for the uniform or consistent description or rendering

of the values of the attributes (data elements), or contents of fields and sub-fieldscomprising the database records.

Outline: (i) an input data format or formats in which records of entities or objectswill be input to the system (i.e. the form in which the given pieces of information

about an entity will be logically recorded), and (ii) a set of formats in which entity

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records or information will be displayed (i.e. the formats of required outputs orreports).

Identify and specify the types of access points or elements for searching the recordsof bibliographic items from a database, and

Describe the methodology to construct the elements of search and query formationtechniques, appropriate for computer environment.

*Note: The work practices are the methods used by people to do work, with

or without the aid of computers and other equipment. Methods define the

sequence of events that produce outputs from their requisite inputs.Specifically, a method is a way or procedure of doing something - step-by-

step instructions (or an algorithm) for doing a task, or a set of detaileddirections to carry out work. Library staff requires well-defined objectives,

policies, methods, procedures, and controls to ensure that the system function

properly. We need to understand the existing system, manual orcomputerised, if we want to do our work efficiently with or without the aid of

computers and other equipment.

3. Specialisation Required for Designing, Developing and Operating a

Computer-Based Library Information Systems

Based on what has been discussed in the previous part of this paper we can surmise thatto design, develop and manage computerised library systems and services, we need to

have

knowledge about the library objectives, functions, policies, rules, procedures, command on library tools and techniques (i.e. library classification, cataloguing

and indexing techniques), and expertise in the application database design and development techniques.

In other words, collectively or blended together these techniques form special skills in thearea of library applications.

Thus, the use of computer technology in libraries forces us to examine and describe

afresh almost all traditional library policies, rules (including cataloguing rules),procedures, and techniques as a whole and incorporating certain additional elements from

the database design and development technology.

In this context, if we examine the traditional cataloguing codes, like AACR-II (cf., 2)

and Classified Cataloguing Code of Ranganathan (cf. Ranganathan, 1988) we findpresently these codes serve as a tool only to develop bibliographic databases. To develop

a database(s) of library system as a whole or of all entities associated with the librarysystem we need augment these codes and make efforts to revise them so that they coverthe rules and guideline to create databases of other entity types associated with the

libraries. These codes need to incorporate guidelines to define conceptual schema,

logical data design or structure of a library database. One must also assimilate thecomponents of Common Communication Format (CCF) (cf., Simmons, and Hopkinson)

in these codes. A revised code developed incorporating all the aspects discussed may be

calledCode for Library Database Design and Development.

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Examining the Classified catalogue Code (CCC) of Ranganathan (Cf., Ranganathan,1988), we find that this code has inherent potentiality to be used, with some modification,

as a code or guide for creating a comprehensive library database covering all types of

entities associated with a library system (cf., Kashyap, 2001; 2002A; 2002B).Careful study of the Classified Catalogue Code (CCC) reveal that the CCC is one

code that before the development of database technology identifies and specifies differentbibliographic entity types, namely: Serial, Monograph and their sub sets. We find thatthe list and definitions of various kinds of conventional and non-conventional

bibliographic items provided by him are still valid (refer CCC, Chap FE & FF). This

code also lists and defines all the possible attributes of the entity set - document. That is,

it specifies all the discrete attributes or data elements of various types of bibliographicitems, and has framed the rules for the description or rendering of their values and

grouping and fixing their relative order or sequence within a printed bibliographic record

or a catalogue card. These guidelines can be effectively used for entry and display in acomputer.

At present the rules framed in Chapter H and J of CCC are being effectively used, for

the rendering of names of PERSONS (Authors, Collaborators, Library Members, Library staff, and so forth); CORPORATE BODIES (Governments, Institutions, may be an Author, a

Collaborator, a Publisher, a Library Vendor, a Sponsor, and so forth)

GEOGRAPHIC ENTITIES (Continents, Countries, Constituent states, of a largecountry, Cities, Town, Sees, and so on)

SUBJECT OF STUDIES,consequently name of any entity (abstract or concrete)- Animals, Plants, Minerals etc. and other abstract entities - God, Ghost etc.

The other entities associated with the library system (not listed in the CCC) and theirrelevant attribute can be identified and the required details can be incorporated in the

code (cf., Kashyap, 2001; 2002). The rules for rendering the values of the relevant

attributes of these entity types can also be specified. Most of the other entity typesassociated with the library system (e.g. Invoice etc.) and their attributes can be identified

and picked up form any book on library administration.

The absence of well-defined objectives, policies, methods, procedures, and controls inmany library systems or information organisations makes the task of staff, particularly

newly appointed staff very arduous. We need to have clear idea about the working of

library systems and its procedures to develop logical process designs concerning variouslibrary functional systems, to develop library application programs and to operate a

computer-based information system. For this purpose, that is, to make the library work

practices or functional activities transparent, we need to analyse them or decompose them

into smaller subsystems and their elements. Books like 'LIBRARY

ADMINISTRATION' written by Ranganathan, which describe all library routines or wokmethods and serve as textbooks for the traditional LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION

course are partially suitable as textbooks for teaching or as a guide book for developingcomputerised library procedures or processes. Such books need to be revised, describing

the library procedures and processes using several types of modules, which may be

developed using certain structure techniques and diagramming methods. For example, wecan use

Organisation charts to depict managerial responsibilities and line of command

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Structured English to describe procedure logically Decision tables giving tabular views of the decision logic in procedures or

programs

Flowcharts depicting and clarifying the relationship between various activities,and

Data flow diagrams showing the over all data flow through a system and draw thebasic procedural components and the data that passes among them.Selection of the appropriate model depends upon, what is being described by the

author. (cf., Kashyap, 1999)

We have developed subject indexing techniques, classification techniques, and query

formation techniques to create a subject search terms, formation of effective queries orto develop efficient search strategy for extracting bibliographic records. These

techniques can be used and further developed to retrieve data for the management and

control of library system by management and staffhandling daily library routines.

For developing computerised functional systems professional library staff not onlyneed expertise in the use of the bibliographic techniques such as, subject classification,

indexing and techniques used for developing vocabulary tools (such as, thesauri), but alsohigh level proficiency in the use and application computers and related informationtechnologies. It may be pointed out that the various tools and techniques develop by

library profession for organising bibliographic items and their surrogates, and to generate

access elements useful to search and retrieve relevant information from a librarycatalogue can be effectively used to generate access elements of computerised database

system of a library containing data both of bibliographic and non-bibliographic in nature.

Thus fresh approach is required in the teaching of these techniques to the students so that

they can use them in developing an effective search mechanism to retrieve informationfrom a library database, required by library user and the library staff to carry out day to

day library work.

References and Related Documents

1. Adkisson, Heidi P. (2003). Use of faceted classification.http://www.miskatonic.org/library/(2 November 2003).

2. Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, ed. by Michael Gorman and PaulW Winkler. (1988). Second Edition. Revised. American Library

Association, Chicago.3. Broughton, Vanda. (2001). Faceted Classification as a Basis for

Knowledge Organization in a Digital Environment; the Bliss

Bibliographic Classification as a Model for Vocabulary Management and

the Creation of Multi-Dimensional Knowledge Structures. The NewReview of Hypermedia and Multimedia.7 (2001): 67-102.

4. Chen, Peter Pin-Sen. (1976). The entity relationship model - towards a unitedview of data.ACM Transactions on Database Systems. 1, 1; 9-36.

5. Chen, Peter Pin-Sen, ed. (1983).Entity-relationship approach to informationmodeling and analysis. North-Holland, Amsterdam.

6. Codd, E. F. (1970). A relational model of data for a large shared databanks.Communication of the Association of Computing Machinery. 13, 6; 377-87.

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7. Codd, E. F. (1979). Extending the database relational model to capture moremeaning.ACM Transactions on Database Systems. 4, 4; 397-434.

8. Codd, E. F. (1982). Relational database. A practical foundation for productivity.Comm. ACM. 25, 2; 109-17.

9. Denton, William. (2003). How to Make a Faceted Classification and Put It Onthe Web. Nov. http://www.miskatonic.org/library/facet-web-howto.html .10. Godert, Winfried. (1991). Facet classification in online retrieval.InternationalClassification. 18; 98-109.

11. Hopkinson, Alan and Simmons, Peter, ed. (1992). CCF/F: The CommonCommunication Format for factual information. UNESCO, Paris.

12. Kashyap, Madan Mohan. (2005). Computer-based library systems designingtechniques, ed. by A. Neelameghan and K.N. Prasad. Ranganathan Endowment

for Library Science, Bangalore. Second Revised Edition.

13. Kashyap. Madan Mohan. (2003). Likeness between Ranganathans PostulationsBased Approach to Knowledge Classification and Entity Relationship Data

modelling Approach. Knowledge Classification. 30, 1: 2003; 1-19.

14.

Kashyap, Madan Mohan. (2002A). A Sketch of A Code for DevelopingComputer-Based Library Information Systems - Based on Classified Code of

Ranganathan (Part I).Desidoc Bulletin of Information Technology. 22, 1; 2002; 3-

20.

15. Kashyap, Madan Mohan. (2002B). A Sketch of A Code for DevelopingComputer-Based Library Information Systems - Based on Classified Code of

Ranganathan (Part II). Desidoc Bulletin of Information Technology 22, 2; 2002;

27-61.16. Kashyap, Madan Mohan. (2001). Classified Code of Ranganathan: A Proposal

To Make It Compatible for Developing Computer-Based Library InformationSystems. Desidoc Bulletin of Information Technology. 21, 1; Jan, 2001; 1-16.

17. Kashyap, M. M. (1996). Common communication format for on-line ordering, aproposal for book trade and libraries: Paper presented at the Society forInformation 15th, Annual Convention and Conference, 18-20 January 1996,

Bangalore.InMalwad, N. M., et al, eds.Digital libraries: Dynamic storehouse

of digitized information. New Age International, New Delhi. P 75-89.18. Kashyap, Madan Mohan. (1995). On-line library catalogues and standards for

common application in a network environment: Paper presented at XVI IASLIC

Seminar, Bombay, 1994.InIASLIC SEMINAR (BOMBAY) (1995) (16). Net

working of libraries: Problem and prospects. P 1-25.19. Kashyap, M. M. (1993).Database system: Design and development. Sterling

Publishers, New Delhi.

20. Kashyap, M. M. (1993). Integrated database design for a library system:Employing library techniques developed by Ranganathan and CDS/ISIS DBMS.

Journal of Library and Information Science (India). 18; 82-141.

21. Kashyap, M. M. (1983). Algorithm for analysis and representation of subjectcontents of documents in a documentary language.Library Herald. 22, 1; 1-29.

22. Maier, D. (1983). The theory of relational database. Computer Science Press.Rockville, Mary lands.

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23. Neelameghan, A. (1992). Application of Ranganathan's of General Theory ofKnowledge Classification in designing specialized databases.Libri. 42, 3; 202-26.

24. Neelameghan, A. (1991). Concept categorization and knowledge organization inspecialized databases: a case study. International Classification.18; 92-97.

25. Ranganathan, S. R. (1988). Classified catalogue code: with additional rules fordictionary catalogue code. Ed 5.26. Ranganathan, S. R. (1967). Prolegomena to library classification. (Reprint1990). Ed 3. Asia Publishing House. Bombay.

27. Ranganathan, S. R. (1964). Subject heading and facet analysis.Journal ofdocumentation. 20, 1; 109-119.

28. Simmons, Peter and Hopkinson, Alan, eds. (1988). CCF:The commoncommunication format. Ed 2. (PGI-88/WS/2). UNESCO, Paris.

29. Spiteri, Louise. (1998). A Simplified Model for Facet Analysis. CanadianJournal of Information and Library Science. 23(April-July) : 1-30

30. Teorey, T. J, et al. (1986). Logical design methodology for relational database.Computing Survey. 18, 2.

31.

Vossen, G. (1991).Data Models, Database Language and DatabaseManagement Systems. Addison-Wisley, Wokingham.

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