Inter-War Years

1918-1939

Themes

● Political transformation in the aftermath of World War I, the Russian Revolution, and the Treaty of Versailles

○ New political regimes such as the Weimar Republic, the USSR, and Ireland

● Post-war reconstruction ● Economic dislocation (Great Depression)

○ Caused by financial turmoil in industrialized nations○ Sometimes led to a mixed economy

■ The allure of both fascism and communism increased in the wake of the Great Depression

■ Breakdown of liberalism

● Nationalistic resentment ● The threat of the Soviet Union

○ Allowed fascists who were anti-Communist to rise to power

Failure of the Treaty of Versailles ● Failure of collective security and peace● Treaty of Versailles (1919) did not create an enduring peace

○ The severe punishment of Germany due to Article 231 resulted in conservative German resentment against the "dictated peace" (“diktat”).

■ Germany deeply humiliated○ The League of Nations, without the U.S. and USSR, didn't have the will

nor the support to maintain peace.■ During the 1930s, the League essentially stood by while aggressors like Germany and

Italy invaded other countries and violated provisions of the Versailles Treaty.○ Some provisions of the Treaty, such as self-determination, were ignored,

while others such as reparations and boundaries lines were a source of constant dispute

■ Great political turmoil domestic and international ○ The resentment and discontent from the Treaty were the chief political

factors of the Inter-War Years

Cont.

● “Paper agreements” of the 1920s had few enforcement mechanisms.○ Locarno Pact, 1925: Germany and other European nations agreed to settle

all disputes peacefully.■ It gave Europeans a false sense of security about the future.■ The “Spirit of Locarno" was no longer relevant once Hitler took power

in 1933. ■ Its provisions were not enforceable.

○ Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928■ 62 nations signed the treaty proclaiming "war is illegal" (unless for

purely defensive purposes).■ The treaty lacked enforcement provisions.■ Hitler later claimed that his aggressive military ventures were for

“defensive purposes.”

Great Depression● 1929-1939 (Breaking point: 1931)● Impossible to return to the economic “normalcy” of the pre-War years

○ Loss of producers and consumers in the wake of the war ○ Largely affected farmers in Central Europe (agricultural decline affected everything else)○ Widespread unemployment

● Causes: ○ Financial crisis from the war and the Treaty of Versailles ○ Crisis of production and distribution of goods

● Lack of economic leadership, particularly since the U.S. faced its own Depression, prolonged the catastrophe

● French were particularly harsh with Germany over the payment of reparations (Germany’s payment was the key to settling all debts among the Allies) but they alienated both Britain and Germany by their attitude

● By 1932, Germany’s reparations to the US were canceled to ease the economic turmoil

Cont.

● Led to demand for social reform and experiments in Socialism ○ In France, the Popular Front took control

■ Composed of Socialists, Radicals, and Communists ● 40-hour week ● Paid vacations for workers ● Compulsory arbitration of labor disputes

■ Collapsed in 1939

● The political experiments with long-term success were those of Soviet Russia, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany

Totalitarianism● Government controls all aspects of the lives of the people.● Totalitarianism vs. conservative authoritarianism: a contrast

○ Conservative authoritarianism: traditional form of anti-democratic government in Europe (absolutism)■ Examples: Louis XIV, Peter the Great, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, Klemens von

Metternich○ Regimes sought to prevent major changes from undermining the existing social order.

■ Most people went about their lives and were more concerned with local affairs that directly affected them rather than national affairs.

○ Popular participation in government was forbidden or severely limited.■ This is a stark contrast to 20th century totalitarianism where people were expected to participate

in the system and actively support the regime.● Stalin’s 5-Year Plans in Russia● Hitler Youth in Germany

○ It was limited in power and in objectives (it usually sought the status quo).■ It lacked modern technology and communications and could not control many aspects of their

subjects’ lives.■ Conservative authoritarianism reemerged after WWI, especially in less-developed eastern Europe

and in Spain and Portugal.The Great Depression in the 1930s ended various levels of democracy in Austria, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Estonia, and Latvia.

Cont.● Totalitarianism

○ New technology made total control possible (e.g., radio, automobile, and telephone).■ Governments could wiretap telephone lines to spy on suspected dissenters.■ Improved communication enabled regimes to coordinate quickly with local officials.■ Radio was a new tool used for propaganda (in addition to the traditional printed media).■ Automobiles and trucks gave regimes increased mobility.

○ Tools of totalitarianism: censorship, indoctrination, and terror■ Virtually no freedom of the press existed; the press became an organ of the government.■ Education was geared towards creating loyal citizens of the state while demonizing

potential enemies.■ Failure to support or comply with government policy often resulted in physical

punishment, imprisonment, or death.○ Totalitarian regimes were either fascist or communist

■ Communism in Russia (Soviet Union)■ Fascism in Italy and Germany

FASCISM COMMUNISM*Glorification of the state Worldwide "dictatorship of the proletariat"

(classless society)

Single party; single ruler (dictator) One party (communist) under the control of the Politburo. Dictatorship is not the final goal.

Condemns democracy: rival parties destroy unity. Man is unable to successfully govern collectively.

Condemns capitalism for exploiting workers (“haves” vs. “have nots”)

Supports the idea of capitalism and owning private property so long as it serves the needs of the state.

Government controls all means of production (industrial & agricultural). No private ownership.

Corporate State: captains of industry become state economic deputies

Economy is centralized under the communist party

Aggressive nationalism Spread of communism for the benefit of the world's working class (Comintern)

Advocates Social Darwinism (powerful states control weaker ones)

Condemns imperialism: advocates a world without nationalism with workers united

Believes desire for peace shows weakness of gov't

Peace is the ultimate goal

Glorification of war (military sacrifice is glorified) Violent revolution to bring about the "dictatorship of the proletariat." War is not the ends but merely the means.

Emphasizes the inequalities among humans Emphasizes the perfectibility of society. Mankind is basically good.

Soviet Experiment Russian Civil War (1918-1920)● “Reds” (Bolsheviks) vs. “Whites” (included officers of old army, and 18 groups

proclaiming themselves the real gov't of Russia—had no leader to unify them)○ The Third International or Comintern blotted out democratic socialism○ Many peasants feared the Whites and thus supported the Reds.○ Both sides proved to be extremely brutal. ○ Over 2 million people left Russia due to the revolution and the civil war.○ The allies sent troops to help the "Whites," hoping to get Russia back into the war.

● “War Communism”: the Bolsheviks mobilized the home front for the civil war.■ Earliest form of socialism in the Soviet Union■ Applied a "total war" concept to the civil war■ Declared that all land was nationalized■ The socialization (nationalization) of all means of production and central planning of the

economy occurred.■ In reality, the Bolsheviks destroyed the economy: mass starvation resulted from crop

failures; a decrease in industrial output occurred.■ The secret police—the Cheka—liquidated about 250,000 opponents including the Tsar

and his family■ Forced peasants to deliver food to towns

Cont.● Kronstadt Rebellion (1921)

○ A mutiny by previously pro-Bolshevik sailors at Kronstadt naval base had to be crushed with machine gun fire.

○ It was caused by the economic disaster and social upheaval of the Russian Civil War.

○ It became a major cause for Lenin instituting the NEP.● NEP – New Economic Policy, 1921-28

■ It sought to eliminate the harsh aspects of war communism.■ It was Lenin’s response to peasant revolts, military mutiny, and economic ruin.■ Some capitalist measures were allowed (Lenin saw it as a "necessary step backwards").

● The gov't would not seize surplus grain; peasants could sell grain on the open market.

● Small manufacturers were allowed to run their own businesses.■ The gov't was still in control of heavy industry, banks, and railroads.■ As a result of the NEP, the Russian economy improved.

● Industry and agricultural output were back to pre-WWI levels.● Workers saw shorter hours and better conditions.● The temporary relaxing of terror and censorship occurred.

Cont.

● Women ○ The Russian Revolution immediately proclaimed complete equality of

rights for women.■ In the 1920s divorce and abortion were made easily available.■ Women were urged by the state to work outside the home and

liberate themselves sexually.● Many women worked as professionals and in universities.● Women were still expected to do household chores in their non-working hours as

Soviet men considered home and children women’s responsibility.● Men continued to monopolize the best jobs.● Rapid change and economic hardship led to many broken families.

Cont.○ Communists were extremely well organized and highly disciplined.

■ The Red Army prevailed under Trotsky’s leadership.○ The Whites were divided and poorly organized.○ The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was created in 1922.

● Results of the Russian Revolution: ○ Costs: 15 million dead, the economy was ruined, international trade disappeared, and millions

of workers fled the country○ Creation of world's first communist society: one of the monumental events of the 20th century.

● Lenin’s impact:○ The old social structure was abolished – titles for nobility were eliminated.○ Loss of influence for the Russian Orthodox Church○ Women gained equality (in theory).○ Russians had a greater expectation of freedom than they had during the tsar’s regime (although

expectations were later crushed by Stalin).

Soviet Union (USSR) ● A power struggle ensued after Lenin’s death in 1924.● Lenin left no chosen successor.● Joseph Stalin was more of a realist and believed in "Socialism in one

Country."○ First, Russia had to be strong internally and should defer efforts for an

international communist revolution.○ He sought the establishment of a Socialist economy without the aid of the

West.■ Leon Trotsky was more the Marxist ideologue who believed in "permanent revolution"—a

continuation of a world communist revolution.■ Party leaders believed Trotsky was too idealistic; Russia first had to survive.

○ Stalin gained effective control of the gov’t in 1927 and had total control by 1929.

■ Trotsky was exiled and eventually assassinated by Stalin’s agents in Mexico City in 1940.

Stalin● The entire Politburo from Lenin's time was eventually purged leaving Stalin in

absolute control. The State Planning Committee or Gosplan, set goals and built infrastructure for production to organize the economy

● The Five-Year Plans○ "Revolution from above" (1st Five-Year Plan), 1928; it marked the end of

Lenin’s NEP.○ Objectives:

■ Increase industrial output by 250%; steel by 300%; agriculture by 150%■ 20% of peasants were scheduled to give up their private plots and join collective farms.■ Stalin: “We are 50 or 100 years behind the advanced countries. We must make good this

distance in 10 years. Either we do it or we shall go under.”○ Results:

■ Steel production up 400%: the USSR was now the 2nd largest steel producer in Europe.■ Oil production increased 300%.■ Massive urbanization: 25 million people were moved to cities.■ Yet, the quality of goods was substandard and the standard of living did not rise.

Cont.● Collectivization was the greatest of all costs under the Five-year Plans.

○ Purpose: bring the peasantry under absolute control of the communist state■ Machines were used in farm production to free more people to work in industry.■ The gov't took control over production.■ Socialism was extended to the countryside.

○ It resulted in the consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled enterprises.

○ Farmers were paid according to the amount of work they did.■ A portion of their harvest was taken by the gov't.■ Eventually, the state was assured of grain for urban workers who were more important politically

to Stalin than the peasants.■ Collective farmers first had to meet grain quotas before feeding themselves.

○ Results: ■ Farmers opposed it as it placed them in a bound situation (like the mirs).■ Kulaks, the wealthiest peasants, offered the greatest resistance to collectivization.

● Stalin ordered party workers to "liquidate them as a class."■ 10 million peasants died due to collectivization (7 million were forcibly starved in Ukraine).■ Agricultural output was no greater than in 1913.■ By 1933, 60% of peasant families were on collective farms; 93% by 1938.

Cont.

● Structure of gov't○ The Central Committee was the apex of Soviet power (about 70 people in the 1930s).○ Politburo: About a dozen members; dominated discussions of policy and personnel○ General Secretary: highest position of power; created by Stalin○ Stalin's propaganda campaign

■ Purpose: It sought to glorify work to the Soviet people and encourage higher worker productivity.

○ Technology was used for propaganda.■ Newspapers like Pravda (“The Truth”), films, and radio broadcasts emphasized socialist

achievements and capitalist plots.■ Sergei Eisenstein (1898-1914): quintessential patriotic filmmaker under Stalin■ Writers and artists were expected to glorify Stalin and the state; their work was closely

monitored.○ Religion was persecuted: Stalin hoped to turn churches into "museums of

atheism."

Cont.● Benefits for workers:

○ Old-age pensions, free medical services, free education, and day-care centers for children were provided.

○ Education was key to improving one’s position: specialized skills and technical education○ Many Russians saw themselves building the world’s first socialist society while capitalism

crumbled during the Great Depression.■ The USSR attracted many disillusioned Westerners to communism in the 1930s.

● The “Great Terror” (1934-38)○ First directed against peasants after 1929, terror was used increasingly on leading Communists,

powerful administrators, and ordinary people, often for no apparent reason.○ The "Great Terror" resulted in 8 million arrests.○ Show trials were used to eradicate "enemies of the people" (usually ex-party members).○ In the late 1930s, dozens of Old Bolsheviks (who had been Lenin’s closest followers) were tried

and executed.○ Great Purges: 40,000 army officers were expelled or liquidated (which later weakened the

USSR in WWII).○ Millions of citizens were killed, died in gulags (forced labor camps), or simply disappeared.

Fascism

● Inspired by Benito Mussolini ○ Anti-democratic and anti-liberal○ Anti-Marxist and anti-socialist○ Anti-parliamentary (pro-dictatorship)○ Anti-Semitic (under Hitler) ○ Hyper-nationalistic ○ Nation/State > individual ○ Promoted the life of the middle class and small business owners and farmers○ Open to Capitalism ○ Believed in perpetual struggle (no peace) ○ Life was about achieving a higher spiritual civilization through severity, discipline, and the will to

power ○ Advocated the police state and terror

Rise of Mussolini● Fasci di Combattimento (Band of Combat) founded in 1919 largely by war

veterans disillusioned by WWI and fearful of socialism, inflation, and labor unrest

○ Their leader (Duce) was Mussolini ■ Before the war, edited a Socialist magazine

● Broke from Socialists in support of Italy’s defense of the Allies ● Felt slighted by the lack of representation at the Paris Peace Conference and Treaty

of Versailles ● Watched the signs of the times to seize power- decided to be anti-Socialist to

garner the support of the middle class who did not care about Marxist social justice or equality but rather wanted order and stability

● Practiced “direct action” and soon took control of much of northern Italy● Blackshirts: Fascist paramilitary forces attacked Communists, socialists, and other

enemies of the fascist program (later, Hitler's "Brown Shirts" followed this example)● Elected to the Chamber of Duties and in 1922 (now with hundreds of thousands of

supporters) marched on Rome

Cont.

● Mussolini successfully intimidated King Victor Emmanuel III, who not only did not stop him but asked him to become Prime Minister

○ Thus Mussolini seized power under a legal facade and worked to consolidate power ○ Was given power to be a dictator for one year to “create order”- filled the Chamber of Duties

with fascists and ruled by decree○ Never established a true totalitarian regime (not full fascism) ○ Old power structure of conservatives, military, and church remained intact.

■ Mussolini never attempted to purge conservative classes.○ Lateran Accord (1929)- the Roman Catholic Church and Italian state made peace with each

other, which brought respectability to Mussolini’s regime ■ Recognized the Pope as the ruler of Vatican City ■ Paid the Church for stolen land during Italian unification ■ Recognized Catholicism as the state religion ■ Exempted Church property from taxes ■ Allowed Church law to govern marriage

Cont. o He propagandized and controlled labor but left big business to regulate itself.o No land reform occurredo Did not establish ruthless police state (only 23 political prisoners executed bet. 1926-1944)o Racial laws not passed until 1938 and savage persecution of Jews not until late in WWII when Italy was under Nazi control.

Womeno Divorce abolished and women told to stay home and procreate.o Decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934.o 1938, women limited by law to a maximum of 10% of better-paying jobs in industry & gov't

Fascist accomplishmentso Internal improvements made such as electrification and road building.o More efficient municipal governing.o Suppression of the Mafiao Improvement of the justice system (except for “enemies of the state”)

Fascist failureso Italian democracy destroyed; terrorism became a state policyo Poor industrial growth due to militarism and colonialism.o Disastrous wars resulted from attempt to recapture imperialistic glories of Ancient Rome.

German Situation

● Weimar Republic had been created in the revolution of 1918 against the Hohenzollerns in an attempt to make a liberal/socialist regime

○ It was Germany’s first attempt at self-government ○ Accepted the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles ○ Pursued enlightened principles but had structural flaws that led to its collapse ○ Faced economic instability that led to extreme violence in the early 1920s

■ Hyper-inflation (which increased as France demanded its reparations with the invasion of the Ruhr) → money not worth the paper it was printed on

● Especially hurt the middle class and lower middle class as savings, pensions, and insurance policies were wiped out and debts could not be paid

● Order and security were desired at any cost

c

Hitler’s Rise to Power● 1889-1945 ● Born in Austria → failed to get into art school in Vienna → lost both parents ● Exposed to German hyper-nationalism and anti-Semitism in Vienna

○ Hated Marxism which he associated with the Jews ○ Played on the fears of the middle class

● Fought in WWI for Germany ● After the war in 1920, settled in Munich and became associated with the

National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazis). Bore the swastika.● 25 Points including:

○ Rejected the Treaty of Versailles ○ Desired the unification of Germany and Austria ○ Wanted to oust Jews from citizenship

● Not really a socialist party (about the welfare of the nation, not state control of the economy)

Cont.

● Nationalism + racism + Nietzsche + Christianity - Jesus = Hitler’s Nazism● SA (stormtroopers or brown-shirts) organized

○ Terrorized political opponents in the streets (direct action)

● Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Hitler failed to overthrow Bavaria and sentenced to jail○ Wrote Mein Kampf at the time→ not taken seriously at the time but would serve as his political

framework ■ Applied imperialism to Jews ■ Concept of lebensraum (living space)- Germany should expand east, liquidate the Jews

and turn the Slavs of eastern Europe into slave labor ■ Concept of the Fuhrer- leader/dictator with unlimited arbitrary power

Cont.

● Stresemann was the de-facto leader of the German republic in the 1920s ○ Helped Germany find self-confidence, overcome many economic struggles, and regain

respectability in Europe in the Locarno Agreements of 1925

● Economic prosperity did not last as American capital failed due to the Great Depression

○ With inflation and unemployment on the rise, Germany accepted a presidential dictatorship ○ Power of the Nazis increased (1 million members by 1933) → many unemployed men joined the

SA ○ Nazi’s won the largest percentage of votes in the 1933 elections and Hitler became the

Chancellor on January 30, 1933 appointed by President Hindenburg

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHHr2SNjbnc

Third Reich (1933-1945) ● Consolidation of power

○ Hitler’s goals: capture full legal authority, crush political opponents, purge rivals within the Nazi party

○ Reichstag fire- mentally-ill Dutch Communist set fire to the Reichstag building in Berlin→ Nazis used it as an opportunity to suspend civil liberties and arrest all Communists (real or alleged)

○ Enabling Act- passed by Reichstag to give Hitler power for 4 years; made Nazi party only legal political party

○ Outlawed strikes and labor unions ○ Joseph Goebbels- minister of propaganda (supported book-burning rallies) ○ Night of Long Knives (1934)- Hitler realized the army and big business were suspicious of the SA

so his elite personal bodyguards, the SS arrested and shot without trial about 1,000 members of the SA and other enemies

■ SS grew dramatically in influence as Hitler’s private army and secret police (52,000 in 1933● Led by Heinrich Himmler ● Joined with the political police, the Gestapo to expand its network of special courts

and concentration camps ■ Hitler Youth- Nazis indoctrinated German youth to obey the state

Early Persecution of Jews

● By the end of 1934, most Jewish lawyers, doctors, professors, civil servants, and musicians had lost their jobs and the right to practice their professions

● Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of all rights of citizenship ○ Jews forced to wear the Star of David so Germans knew who they were

● By 1935, 25% of German Jews had emigrated (usually wealthier) ● Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass) 1938: ordered by Hitler

○ Well-organized wave of violence destroyed homes, synagogues, and businesses ○ Thousands of Jews were arrested and made to pay for the damage

● Holocaust: 6 million Jews eventually killed during WWII (“Final Solution”) ○ Formal plan came at the Wannsee Conference in 1942 ○ 6 death camps were built in Poland in addition to hundreds of concentration camps ○ Auschwitz was the most notorious death camp ○ Other victims were Slavs, gypsies, Jehovah’s Witnesses, communists, homosexuals, mentally

handicapped, and political opponents

Women under the Nazi Regime

● Like in Italy, women were viewed as housewives and mothers (though they still had the opportunity to work outside the home

● Unlike in Italy, women were seen as possessing the special and critical task of keeping the race pure by producing German (Aryan) children healthy in mind and body

● Mixed marriages were not allowed ● Women from impure racial groups, such as Jews, were specifically targeted

during the Holocaust so that they could not breed a new impure generation ○ Sterilization, birth control, and abortion were also encouraged (Eugenics)

Nazi Economic Policy

● Significant German economic recovery contributed to Hitler’s soaring popularity

○ Large public works programs started to get Germany out of the depression (freeways, offices, stadiums, public housing)

○ 1936, Germany began rearmament and government spending began to focus on the military ■ Unemployment decreased; standard of living increased; business profits rose

● “The Nazi economic experiment proved that, by sacrificing all political and civil liberty, destroying a free trade-union movement, limiting the private exercise of capital, and ignoring consumer satisfaction, a government could achieve full employment to prepare for war and aggression.”

Eastern Europe

● Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, and Yugoslavia all came to be under some form of domestic authoritarian government

○ Huge failure of the Treaty of Versailles ○ Increased nationalism ○ Increased anti-Semitism