I. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION. FRAMEWORK

"...the single greatest barrier to business success is the one erected by culture." Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall

Why study Intercultural Communication?

Cultural diversity and multiculturalism are the realities of everyday life for almost everyone. The growth of interdependence of people and cultures in the global society of the twenty-first century has forced us to pay more attention to intercultural issues. In order to live and function in this multicultural environment as effectively and meaningfully as possible, people must be competent in intercultural communication. Therefore, demands for intercultural communication skills are increasing as more and more businesses go global or international. We realize that there are barriers and limitations when entering a foreign territory.  Without the help of intercultural communication we can unknowingly cause confusion and misunderstandings. For these intercultural businesses to breach the cultural barriers encountered when stepping into foreign grounds it is vital for business people to fully understand the cultural differences that exist so as to prevent damaging business relations due to intercultural communication gaps.

We should also be aware of the reasons for the development of the world into a global system:

a. The development of technology has enabled a constant flow of information and ideas across boundaries. Communication is faster and more available than ever. The development of transportation as well, has increased face-to-face contact with people from different cultural backgrounds immensely

b. These developments have affected the world economy. The business world is becoming more international and interrelated.

c. Widespread population migrations have changed the demographics of several nations and new intercultural identities and communities have been born.

d. The development of multiculturalism

Working, meeting, dealing, entertaining, negotiating and corresponding with colleagues or clients from different cultures can not be perceived outside the frame of intercultural communication. This field is of importance to international businesses as it examines how people from different cultures, beliefs and religions come together to work and communicate with each other. However, the basic skills of intercultural communication are fundamentally general communication skills that can be used universally by all cultures and races. These skills are simply tweaked in a direction that takes the cultural limitation into consideration. An example of such communication skills in the intercultural environment is to listen without judging, repeat what you understand, confirm meanings, give suggestions and acknowledge a mutual understanding.

Starting from these general observations, the main characteristics of intercultural communication can be established:

1

Intercultural communication is a form of global communication. It is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally appear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.

Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them.

IC also studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact.

Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people.

It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages and customs of people from other countries.

Intercultural communication plays a role in anthropology, cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies.

Intercultural communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses and requires the development of intercultural communication skills for the benefit of the business environment.

Being aware of intercultural issues, understanding and appreciating intercultural differences ultimately promotes clearer communication, breaks down barriers, builds trust, strengthens relationships, opens horizons and yields tangible results in terms of business success. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication)

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/introduction-intercultural.html

II. A Short History of Intercultural Communication

1. A review of the development of intercultural communication study Although the phenomenon of intercultural communication is as old as human society, the study of intercultural communication is of recent origin.

It was first started in the United States. Communication scholars commonly recognize E.

T. Hall as the father of the field of intercultural communication study (Condon, 1981; Dodd,

1982; Gudykunst, 1985; Singer, 1987). He conceptualized this new field of ICC in the early

1950s when he worked for the U.S. Foreign Service Institute (FSI). He popularized this new

area of communication in his book, The Silent Language, published in 1959, which is

considered the founder of intercultural communication study and a classic in this field. Hall’s

role in the study of IC is clearly pointed out by Gudykunst and Mody:

2

“After World War II, the United States established a foreign aid program, the Marshall Plan, to help rebuild Europe. Based on the success of this program, U.S. President Harry S. Truman proposed in 1949 the United States should offer its technical and scientific expertise to the then developing nations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia to assist their development process. The FSI was established by the U.S. Congress in the U.S. Department of State to train American development technicians and diplomats. Hall was the key intellectual in the FSI training program from 1950 to 1955.” (Gudykunst and Mody, Handbook of International and Intercultural Communication 2002, 2nd edition, p.2)

Hall introduced terms such as “intercultural tensions” and “intercultural problems” in 1950 and “intercultural communication” in 1959.

The field of ICC has continued to prosper in the United States considering the following reasons: The United States provide many opportunities for people from different cultural

backgrounds to communicate with each; There are thousands of new immigrants entering the country every year; The U.S. has large numbers of foreign students and tourists; and The American involvement in the global economy: the majority of America’s Fortune

500 Corporations are multinational and transnational companies with numerous employees and offices in many different countries in the world.

There had also been an anthropological tradition in the study of race and culture in U.S. that contributed to the further development of ICC. Anthropologists such as Franz Boas, a professor of anthropology at Columbia University and some of his students which included Edward Sapir, Ruth Benedict, and Margaret Mead, contributed to the later development of ICC through their studies and research of race and culture. For example, Ruth Benedict is the anthropologist who coined the term “culture shock,” which is defined as the traumatic experience that someone may encounter when entering a different cultural environment. Benjamin Lee Whorf, a student and colleague of Sapir’s at Yale University, advanced the theory that language influences perceptions and thus human behavior.

The major points in the development of ICC are:

Culture and communication were studied separately until recent years, and it was not until the early seventies that scholars started to relate culture to communication.

In 1970, intercultural communication was recognized by the Intercultural communication Association (ICA), and since that time, many changes in the discipline have taken place, such as ICC being offered as a course of study at many American universities.

In the early 1970s, serious training in the field of intercultural communication was begun. The first training actually started with Peace Corps members, who were being prepared in ICC before being sent abroad in the 1960s and 1970s, to countries in the Asian and African continents.

Sietar (Society for intercultural education, training and research) was set up in 1975; and it is probably the largest international organization engaged in intercultural communication.

3

In 1977, an academic journal entitled International Journal of Intercultural Relations was first published.

The International Association of Communication has a membership of over five thousand members.

As Hart (1996) summarized, this new field of study originated in the United States in the late 1950s when anthropologists made studies of the native Indians and the problems U.S. diplomats at the Foreign Institute Service had with people from other cultures. The study of intercultural communication gained acceptance through training and testing practice in the 1960s and 1970s, formed its basic framework in the late 1970s and has made great achievements in theory and practice ever since the 1980s both inside and outside the U.S. Today intercultural communication not only has become one of the major academic disciplines in the United States but also is widely acknowledged and extensively researched in all parts of the world.

2. The Chronological Development of Intercultural Communication Study

(1) The Burgeoning Period In 1958, Lederer and Burdick's The Ugly American first raised

mass awareness of intercultural issues, but the term "intercultural communication" itself did

not appear until Hall's The Silent Language was published in 1959. The same book paved the

way for the study of intercultural communication. According to Leeds-Hurwitz (1990), Hall

made at least eight contributions to the study of intercultural communication:

 a) Hall extends the single-culture focus of traditional anthropology study to comparative

culture study, with a new focus on the interaction of people from different cultures. This

focus continues to be central to the present time.

b) Hall shifts the study of culture from a macro perspective to a micro analysis. This shift

encourages the study of intercultural communication in terms of the practical needs of the

participants in communication.

c) Hall extends the study of culture to the field of communication. His extension gradually

develops a link between anthropology and communication studies.

d) Hall treats communication as a rule-governed, analyzable, and learned variable, a practice

that permits communication researchers to theorize about cultural patterns of interaction.

4

e) Hall proposes that a holistic understanding of a counterpart's culture is not necessary to

intercultural communication. He enumerates several items that can be used to understand

another culture, including the use of voice, gestures, time, and space.

f) The training methods developed by Hall at the Foreign Service Institute are still applied to

the intercultural communication training.

g) Hall's use of descriptive linguistics as the model of intercultural communication research at

the Foreign Service Institute continues to be the cornerstone of contemporary intercultural

communication study.

h) Hall not only applied intercultural communication training to foreign service officers but

also introduced it to international business. Today, training people in intercultural business

has become one of the major activities of intercultural communication specialists.

Hall continued his theorizing about intercultural communication in other books,

including The Hidden Dimension (1966), Beyond Culture (1976), The Dance of Life (1984),

and Understanding Cultural Differences (Hall & Hall, 1989). His works continue to influence

the development of the field of intercultural communication.

(2) From 1960 to 1970 Hall's writings have attracted numerous scholars to the study of

intercultural communication. In addition to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's (1961) discourse on

cultural value orientations (Variations in value orientations), which provides an important

conceptual contribution to the field, two representative books reflect the continuous efforts

made by scholars in the field in the 1960s: Robert T. Oliver's Culture and Communication

(1962) and Alfred G. Smith's Communication and Culture (1966). Oliver's study focuses on

Asian philosophy and communication behaviors, especially from a rhetorical perspective. His

book establishes a model for the comparative study of communication behaviors between

cultures. Smith's book is a collection of essays on human communication covering thirteen

types of communication studies. Although only four articles on intercultural communication

are included in the book, their presence confirms the status of intercultural communication as

a field of study. The first college class in this field was taught in 1966 at the University of

Pittsburgh.

5

 (3) From 1971 to 1980 The 1970s witnessed rapid development in the field of intercultural

communication. In 1972, after three years of refining his model of intercultural commu-

nication, Edward C. Stewart published his American Cultural Patterns. In 1973, Samovar and

Porter published Intercultural Communication: A Reader, and Indiana University awarded

the first doctoral degree in intercultural communication. Many books on intercultural

communication became available in the years that followed, the most influential including

Michael H. Prosser's Intercommunication among Nations and People (1973) and Cultural

Dialogue (1978), A. G. Smith's Transracial Communication (1973), Condon and Yousef’s

Introduction to Intercultural Communication (1975), Barnlund's Public and Private Self in

Japan and United States (1975), Sitaram and Cogdell's Foundations of Intercultural Com-

munication (1976), Fischer and Merrill's International and Intercultural Communication

(1976), Dodd's Perspectives on Cross-Cultural Communication (1977), Weaver's Crossing

Cultural Barriers (1978), and Kohls' Survival Kit for Overseas Living (1979). The

publication of Asante, Blake, and Newmark's The Handbook of Intercultural Communication

in 1979 highlighted the achievements of intercultural communication scholars in the 1970s.

In addition to these books, The International Journal of Intercultural Relations began

publication in 1977. The journal influenced research in the field of intercultural

communication in the years that followed.

Disorder characterizes the initial development of the field. Intercultural communication

scholars pursued their own directions and definitions and it was not until the 1980s that the

field began to move from disarray to a more coherent focus.

(4) From 1981 to the Present Time Condon and Yousef’s Introduction to Intercultural

Communication (1975) and Samovar and Porter's Intercultural Communication: A Reader

(1973) are two major forces from the early 1970s in the integration of the study of

intercultural communication in the 1980s. Condon and Yousef’s stress on cultural value

orientations and communication behaviors parallels Hofstede's (1984) later work on cultural

values and Hall's writing on high-context and low-context cultures in Beyond Culture (1977).

Their writing on the relationship of culture and verbal and nonverbal communication is still

important to contemporary intercultural communication study. In addition, their discussion of

the interaction between language, thinking patterns, and culture drew from Oliver's method of

comparative cultural study. In the 1980s, Starosta (1984) continued to draw upon this line of

research.

6

Scholars who received formal academic training in intercultural communication in the

late 1960s and the early 1970s began to make their contributions in research and teaching by

the 1980s. Many of their mentors had been trained in rhetoric, including John Condon,

Michael Prosser, William Howell, and Arthur Smith, whose students defined the course of

intercultural communication in the 1980s and 1990s. Five volumes published in the 1980s

advanced an agenda for the study of intercultural communication: Gudykunst's Intercultural

Communication Theory: Current Perspectives (1983), Gudykunst and Kim's Methods of

Intercultural Research (1984), Kincaid's Communication Theory: Eastern and Western

Perspectives, Kim and Gudykunst's Theories in Intercultural Communication (1988), and

Asante and Gudykunst's Handbook of International and Intercultural Communication (1989).

Theory building and methodological refinement characterize intercultural communication

study during this decade.

It should also be pointed out that from the 1970s to the present time the direction for the

study of intercultural communication has been determined mainly by three influences: (1) the

International and Intercultural Communication Annual (IICA), (2) the Speech

Communication Association (SCA), and (3) the International Communication Association

(ICA).

Early volumes of IICA were edited by Casmir and Jain. Starting with 1983, each volume of

IICA focused on one specific topic. Intercultural Communication Theory: Current

Perspectives (Gudykunst, 1983) and Theories in Intercultural Communication (Kim and

Gudykunst, 1988) are two of the IICA volumes. The editorial direction of IICA was strongly

oriented toward quantitative research in the 1980s and early 1990s.

SCA and ICA are the two major professional associations for communication study. Both

associations have a division promoting research and study of intercultural communication,

the International and Intercultural Communication Division of the SCA, and

Intercultural/Development Communication Division of the ICA. In addition to SCA and ICA,

other associations, including SIETAR, Eastern Communication Association (ECA), Western

Communication Association (WCA), Southern States Communication Association (SSCA),

Central States Communication Association (CSCA), and journals sponsored by these associa-

tions also make significant contributions to the development of the field of intercultural

communication.

7

Recently, three additional journals, The Howard Journal of Communications,

Intercultural Communication Studies, and World Communication, a publication of the World

Communication Association, have begun to specialize exclusively in the cultural issues of

communication research.

 3. The Content of Intercultural Communication Study

Four decades after Hall's emphasis on the study of nonverbal messages in different

cultural settings, the study of intercultural communication has expanded to cover a diverse set

of variables deriving from the concepts of "communication," "culture," and the combination

of communication and culture. As is the case for the communication discipline itself, the

study of intercultural communication is influenced by traditional disciplines such as

anthropology, linguistics, philosophy, psychology, and sociology.

According to Rich (1974), intercultural communication is an ambiguous concept. For the

purpose of her study, Rich argues that the content of intercultural communication can be

classified into five forms. First, intercultural communication focuses on the study of

interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds, such as interactions between

people from America and China. Second, international communication focuses on the study

of interaction between representatives of different nations, such as the interaction between

representatives in the United Nations. Third, interracial communication focuses on the study

of interaction between members of the numerically or politically dominant culture and co-

culture in the same nation, such as the interaction between whites and African Americans.

Fourth, interethnic or minority communication focuses on the study of interaction among co-

cultures in the same nation, such as the interaction between Hispanic and Japanese

Americans. Lastly, contracultural communication focuses on the study of the developmental

process linking intercultural communication to interracial communication, such as the

developmental process that led from the interaction between Columbus and Native

Americans to the interaction between First Nation tribes and Canadians. Rich considered that

the study of intercultural communication should include all these five areas. Rich's

classification clearly shows that intercultural communication study should be approached

from an interpersonal or rhetorical level. Except for contracultural communication, Rich's

categories remain visible today.

8

In his Outline of Intercultural Communication (1978), Stewart pointed out that the study

of intercultural communication should lead to application in real-life situations. Stewart

emphasized intercultural training programs similar to those from his experience as a Peace

Corps trainer, and based on a comparative culture model of cognition. He emphasized that

intercultural communication training should lead trainees through nine stages of gradual

change, enabling them to:

a) select information among alternative facts they already possess.

b) understand the goal of training and apply it in their decision making.

c) identify or recognize generalizations and concepts to modify their perception of events

and guide their performance at a general level.

d) master the content of the training.

e) sensitize them to cultural concepts that will assist them in their interaction with people

from other cultures.

f) change aspects of their conscious attitudes, such as cultural self-perception and certain

emotional and cognitive perceptions, to reach a higher level of empathy.

g) govern their behavior and emotions in working and in living with people from other

cultures by increasing their adaptability.

h) adopt a changed way of perceiving and behaving so that they can improve their social

performance in other cultures.

i) integrate the emotional and perceptual change which govern their actions prior to the

training.

 William B. Gudykunst (1987) classified the contents of intercultural communication study by

using interactive-comparative dimensions to divide the field of research into four

categories: (1) intercultural communication, (2) cross-cultural communication, (3)

9

international communication, and (4) comparative mass communication. According to

Gudykunst, intercultural communication includes a focus on both the "interactive" and the

"interpersonal." It deals with interpersonal communication between people from different

cultures or co-cultures, such as that among Chinese and Americans, or between whites and

African Americans, and encompasses the areas of intercultural, interracial, and interethnic

communication identified by Rich. Cross-cultural communication focuses on the concepts

of "interpersonal" and "comparative" and deals with the differences in communication

behaviors between people of different cultures, such as the differences in negotiation

strategies between Swazis and South Africans. International communication stresses the

concepts of "interactive" and "mediated." It mainly deals with media communication in

another countries, exploring, for example, the role media play in Korean society. Finally,

comparative mass communication focuses on the concepts of "mediated" and

"comparative." It deals with the differences and similarities of media systems in different

countries, as in China and Russia. Gudykunst further delineated five subareas of

intercultural communication study based on the concepts of "interactive," "comparative,"

"interpersonal," and "mediated."

In sum, in four decades of theorizing and research in intercultural communication

advances occurred on several fronts. More and more intercultural communication training

programs developed, including long-term and short-term workshops and seminars. While the

content of intercultural communication has been classified by scholars into different cate-

gories, it maintains its historical focus on intercultural, cross-cultural, interracial, and

interethnic communication that was developed by J. Condon, W. B. Gudykunst, E. T. Hall,

R. T. Oliver, Rich, and A. Smith.     (http://210.46.97.180/jpk/backg/3.html)

4. Communication Theories

The following types of theories can be distinguished in different strands: focus on effective outcomes, on accommodation or adaption, on identity negotiation and management, on communication networks, on acculturation and adjustment.

Theories focusing on effective outcomes Cultural Convergence

o In a relatively closed social system in which communication among members is unrestricted, the system as a whole will tend to converge over time toward a state of greater cultural uniformity. The system will tend to diverge toward diversity when communication is restricted.

10

Theories focusing on accommodation or adaption Communication Accommodation Theory

o This theory focuses on linguistic strategies to decrease or increase communicative distances.

Intercultural Adaption

o This theory is designed to explain how communicators adapt to each other in "purpose-related encounters", at which cultural factors need to be incorporated.

Co-cultural Theory

o In its most general form, co-cultural communication refers to interactions among underrepresented and dominant group members.[ Co-cultures include but are not limited to people of color, women, people with disabilities, gay men and lesbians, and those in the lower social classes. Co-cultural theory, as developed by Mark P. Orbe, looks at the strategic ways in which co-cultural group members communicate with others. In addition, a co-cultural framework provides an explanation for how different persons communicate based on six factors.

Theories focusing on identity negotiation or management Identity Management Theory

Identity Management Theory (also frequently referred to as IMT) is an intercultural communication theory from the 1990s. It was developed by William R. Cupach and Tadasu Todd Imahori on the basis of Erving Goffman's Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior (1967). Cupach and Imahori distinguish between intercultural communication (speakers from different cultures) and intracultural communication (speakers sharing the same culture).

To understand IMT, it is important to be familiar with Cupach and Imahori's view of identities. Among the multiple identities which an individual possesses, cultural and relational identities are regarded as essential to IMT. Cupach and Imahori claim that presenting one's face shows facets of an individual's identity. Whether an interlocutor is able to maintain face or not, reveals his or her interpersonal communication competence. The use of stereotypes in intercultural conversations often results from the ignorance of each other's culture; the application of stereotypes, however, is face threatening. Being able to manage the resulting tensions, is part of intercultural communication competence. For becoming competent in developing intercultural relationships, the following three phases have to be passed:

1. "trial and error": act of looking for similar aspects in certain identities.2. "mixing up" the communicators' identities to achieve a relational identity acceptable

for both participants

3. renegotiating the distinctive cultural identities with the help of the relational identity that was created in phase 2

11

Cupach and Imahori call these phases "cyclical" as they are gone through by intercultural communicators for each aspect of their identities.

Identity Negotiation// Cultural Identity Theory// Double-swing model

Theories focusing on communication networks Networks and Outgroup Communication Competence Intracultural Versus Intercultural Networks

Networks and Acculturation

Theories focusing on acculturation and adjustment Communication Acculturation

o This theory attempts to portray "cross-cultural adaption as a collaborative effort in which a stranger and the receiving environment are engaged in a joint effort.

Anxiety/Uncertainty Management

o When strangers communicate with hosts, they experience uncertainty and anxiety. Strangers need to manage their uncertainty as well as their anxiety in order to be able to communicate effectively with hosts and then to try to develop accurate predictions and explanations for hosts' behaviors.

Assimilation, Deviance, and Alienation States

o Assimilation and adaption are not permanent outcomes of the adaption process; rather, they are temporary outcomes of the communication process between hosts and immigrants. "Alienation or assimilation, therefore, of a group or an individual, is an outcome of the relationship between deviant behavior and neglectful communication."

Other Theories Meaning of Meaning Theory - "A misunderstanding takes place when people assume

a word has a direct connection with its referent. A common past reduces misunderstanding. Definition, metaphor, feedforward, and Basic English are partial linguistic remedies for a lack of shared experience."

Face Negotiation Theory - "Members of collectivistic, high-context cultures have concerns for mutual face and inclusion that lead them to manage conflict with another person by avoiding, obliging, or compromising. Because of concerns for self-face and autonomy, people from individualistic, low-context cultures manage conflict by dominating or through problem solving"

Standpoint Theory – refers to the situation in which an individual experience, knowledge, and communication behaviors are shaped in large part by the social groups to which they belong.

Stranger Theory - At least one of the persons in an intercultural encounter is a stranger. Strangers are a 'hyperaware' of cultural differences and tend to overestimate the effect of cultural identity on the behavior of people in an alien society, while blurring individual distinctions.

12

Feminist Genre Theory - Evaluates communication by identifying feminist speakers and reframing their speaking qualities as models for women’s liberation.

Genderlect Theory - "Male-female conversation is cross-cultural communication. Masculine and feminine styles of discourse are best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects rather than as inferior or superior ways of speaking. Men's report talk focuses on status and independence. Women's support talk seeks human connection."

Cultural Critical Studies Theory - The theory states that the mass media impose the dominant ideology on the rest of society, and the connotations of words and images are fragments of ideology that perform an unwitting service for the ruling elite.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication

Bibliography Ellingsworth, H.W. (1983). "Adaptive intercultural communication", in: Gudykunst,

William B (ed.), Intercultural communication theory, 195-204, Beverly Hills: Sage. Griffin, E. (2000). A first look at communication theory (4th ed.). Boston, MA:

McGraw-Hill. n/a

Gudykunst, William B., & M.R. Hammer.(1988). "Strangers and hosts: An uncertainty reduction based theory of intercultural adaption" in: Kim, Y. & W.B. Gudykunst (eds.), Cross-cultural adaption, 106-139, Newbury Park: Sage.

Gudykunst, William B. (2003), "Intercultural Communication Theories", in: Gudykunst, William B (ed.), Cross-Cultural and Intercultural Communication, 167-189, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Kim Y.Y.(1995), "Cross-Cultural adaption: An integrative theory.", in: R.L. Wiseman (Ed.)Intercultural Communication Theory, 170 - 194, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McGuire, M. & McDermott, S. (1988), "Communication in assimilation, deviance, and alienation states", in: Y.Y. Kim & W.B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Cross-Cultural Adaption, 90 - 105, Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Oetzel, John G. (1995), "Intercultural small groups: An effective decision-making theory", in Wiseman, Richard L (ed.), Intercultural communication theory, 247-270, Thousands Oaks: Sage.

Wiseman, Richard L. (2003), "Intercultural Communication Competence", in: Gudykunst, William B (ed.), Cross-Cultural and Intercultural Communication, 191-208, Thousand Oaks: Sage.

13

II. CULTURE. COMMUNICATION. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Culture and Communication

The term “culture” refers to the complex collection of knowledge, folklore, language, rules, rituals, habits, lifestyles, attitudes, beliefs, and customs that link and give a common identity to a particular group of people at a specific point in time.

All social units develop a culture. Even in two-person relationships, a culture develops over time. In friendship and romantic relationships, for example, partners develop their own history, shared experiences, language patterns, rituals, habits, and customs that give that relationship a special character—a character that differentiates it in various ways from other relationships. Examples might include special dates, places, songs, or events that come to have a unique and important symbolic meaning for two individuals.

Groups also develop cultures, composed of the collection of rules, rituals, customs, and other characteristics that give an identity to the social unit. For example, issues such as where a group traditionally meets, whether meetings begin on time or not, what topics are discussed, how decisions are made, and how the group socializes become defining and differentiating elements of the group’s culture.

Organizations also have cultures, often apparent in particular patterns of dress, layout of workspaces, meeting styles and functions, ways of thinking about and talking about the nature and directions of the organization, leadership styles, and so on.

The most rich and complex cultures are those that are associated with a society or a nation, and the term “culture” is most commonly used to refer to these characteristics, including language and language-usage patterns, rituals, rules, and customs. A societal or national culture also includes such elements as significant historical events and characters, philosophies of government, social customs, family practices, religion, economic philosophies and practices, belief and value systems, and concepts and systems of law.

Thus, any social unit—whether a relationship, group, organization, or society—develops a culture over time. While the defining characteristics—or combination of characteristics—of each culture are unique, all cultures share certain common functions. Three such functions that are particularly important from a communication perspective are (1) linking individuals to one another, (2) providing the basis for a common identity, and (3) creating a context for interaction and negotiation among members.

The Relationship between Communication and Culture

Cultures are created through communication; that is, communication is the means of human interaction through which cultural characteristics (customs, roles, rules, rituals, laws, or other patterns) are created and shared. Cultures are a natural by-product of social interaction. In a sense, cultures are the “residue” of social communication. Without communication and

14

communication media, it would be impossible to preserve and pass along cultural characteristics from one place and time to another. One can say, therefore, that culture is created, shaped, transmitted, and learned through communication. The reverse is also the case; that is, communication practices are largely created, shaped, and transmitted by culture.

The communication-culture relationship has to be approached in terms of ongoing communication processes rather than a single communication event. While communicating, the members of a group bring with them individual thought and behavioral patterns from previous communication experiences and from other cultures of which they are, or have been, a part. As individuals start to engage in communication with the other members of the group, they begin to create a set of shared experiences and ways of talking about them. If the group continues to interact, a set of distinguishing history, patterns, customs, and rituals will evolve. New members would in turn influence the group culture as they become a part of it. In a reciprocal fashion, this reshaped culture shapes the communication practices of current and future group members. This is true with any culture; communication shapes culture, and culture shapes communication.

Characteristics of Culture

Edward Hall (1959, 1979) is one of the most significant contributors to the general understanding of the complexity of culture and the importance of communication to understanding and dealing with cultural differences at the societal level.

There are several key characteristics of cultures that must be taken into account:

1. Cultures are subjective. There is a tendency to assume that the elements of one’s own cultures are logical and make good sense. It follows that if other cultures—whether of relationships, groups, organizations, or societies—look different, those differences are often considered to be negative, illogical, and sometimes nonsensical. People who are used to informal meetings of a group might think that adherence to formal meeting rules is strange and stilted. Employees in an organization where suits are worn every day may react with cynicism and questioning when they enter an organization where casual attire is standard practice. With regard to culture, the tendency for many people is to equate “different” with “wrong,” even though all cultural elements come about through essentially identical communication processes.

2. Cultures change over time. In fact, cultures are ever changing—though the change is sometimes very slow and imperceptible. Many forces influence cultural change. Simce cultures are created through communication, it is also through communication between individuals that cultures change over time. Each person involved in a communication encounter brings the sum of his or her own experiences from other (past or present) culture memberships. In one sense, any encounter between individuals in new relationships, groups, organizations, or societies is an intercultural communication event, and these varying cultural encounters influence the individual and the cultures over time. Travel and communication technologies greatly accelerate the movement of messages from one cultural context to another, and in small and large ways, cultures come to influence one another through communication. Phrases such as “melting pot,” “world community,” and “global village” speak to the inevitability of intercultural influence and change.

15

3. Cultures are largely invisible. Much of what characterizes cultures of relationships, groups, organizations, or societies is invisible to its members. Language, of course, is visible, as are greeting conventions, special symbols, places, and spaces. However, the special and defining meanings that these symbols, greetings, places, and spaces have for individuals in a culture are far less visible. Consequently, opportunities to “see” culture and the dynamic relationship that exists between culture and communication are few. Two such opportunities do occur when there are violations of cultural conventions or when there is cross-cultural contact.

When someone violates an accepted cultural convention, ritual, or custom - for example, by speaking in a foreign language, standing closer than usual while conversing, or discussing topics that are typically not discussed openly the other members of the culture become aware that something inappropriate is occurring. When “normal” cultural practices are occurring, members of the culture think little of it, but when violations occur, the members are reminded of the pervasive role that culture has on daily life.

When visiting other groups, organizations, and, especially, other societies, people are often confronted by—and therefore become aware of— different customs, rituals, and conventions. These situations often are associated with some awkwardness, as the people strive to understand and sometimes to adapt to the characteristics of the new culture. In these circumstances, again, one gains a glimpse of “culture” and the processes by which people create and adapt to culture.

4. Cultures are influenced by media. All institutions within society facilitate communication, and in that way, they all contribute to the creation, spread, and evolution of culture. However, communication media such as television, film, radio, newspapers, compact discs, magazines, computers, and the Internet play a particularly important role. Because media extend human capacities for creating, duplicating, transmitting, and storing messages, they also extend and amplify culture-building activities. By means of such communication technology, messages are transmitted across time and space, stored, and later retrieved and used. Television programs, films, websites, video games, and compact discs are created through human activity—and therefore reflect and further extend the cultural perspectives of their creators. They come to take on a life of their own, quite distinct and separate from their creators, as they are transmitted and shared around the increasingly global community.

5. Cultures depend on communication. Understanding the nature of culture in relationship to communication is helpful in a number of ways. First, it helps to explain the origin of differences between the practices, beliefs, values, and customs of various groups and societies, and it provides a reminder of the communication process by which these differences came into being. This knowledge can and should heighten people’s tolerance for cultural differences. Second, it helps to explain the process that individuals go through in adapting to new relationships, groups, organizations, and societies and the cultures of each. Third, it underscores the importance of communication as a bridge between cultures and as a force behind cultural change.

6. Cultures are shaped by communication. A number of questions also concern researchers and policymakers in this area. As communication increases between individuals, groups, and countries, does this mean that cultural differences and traditions will inevitably erode altogether? Will the cultures of individuals from groups, organizations, and societies that

16

have great access to and control of communication media overpower those in cultures that have fewer resources and less access and control? Can knowledge be used to help individuals more comfortably and effectively adapt to new relationships, groups, organizations, and societies? The importance of these issues makes this area an important one for continued examination by scholars and practitioners.

Cross-cultural Communication Challenges

We all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we understand each other, communication is hard. "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together.

As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others'. Therefore we should be aware that cultural differences do exist and influence the way we communicate.

Anthropologists Kevin Avruch and Peter Black explain the importance of culture this way:

“...One's own culture provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the "logic"... by which we order it; the "grammar" ... by which it makes sense. (…) In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves.”

There are Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Difference :

1. Different Communications Styles 2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict

3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks

4. Different Decision-Making Styles

5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure

6. Different Approaches to Knowing

By describing them, we can more easily be aware of the causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties.

1. Different Communication Styles

The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the

17

meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between.

Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some people typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while others often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than others.

2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict

Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict.

3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks

From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together.

When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently.

4. Different Decision-Making Styles

The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode.

5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure

18

In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others.

6. Different Approaches to Knowing

Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.

These different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere.

Respecting Our Differences and Working Together

In addition to helping us to understand ourselves and our own cultural frames of reference, knowledge of these six patterns of cultural difference can help us to understand the people who are different from us. An appreciation of patterns of cultural difference can assist us in processing what it means to be different in ways that are respectful of others, not faultfinding or damaging.

Anthropologists Avruch and Black have noted that, when faced by an interaction that we do not understand, people tend to interpret the others involved as "abnormal," "weird," or "wrong." This tendency gives rise on the individual level to prejudice. Consequently, it is vital that we learn to control the human tendency to translate "different from me" into "less than me." We can learn to do this.

We can also learn to collaborate across cultural lines as individuals and as a society. Awareness of cultural differences doesn't have to divide us from each other. It doesn't have to paralyze us either, for fear of not saying the "right thing." In fact, becoming more aware of our cultural differences, as well as exploring our similarities, can help us communicate with each other more effectively. Recognizing where cultural differences are at work is the first step toward understanding and respecting each other.

Learning about different ways that people communicate can enrich our lives. People's different communication styles reflect deeper philosophies and world views which are the foundation of their culture. Understanding these deeper philosophies gives us a broader picture of what the world has to offer us.

Learning about people's cultures has the potential to give us a mirror image of our own. We have the opportunity to challenge our assumptions about the "right" way of doing things, and

19

consider a variety of approaches. We have a chance to learn new ways to solve problems that we had previously given up on, accepting the difficulties as "just the way things are."

Lastly, if we are open to learning about people from other cultures, we become less lonely. Prejudice and stereotypes separate us from whole groups of people who could be friends and partners in working for change. Many of us long for real contact. Talking with people different from ourselves gives us hope and energizes us to take on the challenge of improving our communities and worlds.

Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration

When working on multicultural collaboration, keep in mind these additional guidelines:

Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those generalizations to stereotype, "write off," or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use of a generalization is to add it to your storehouse of knowledge so that you better understand and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human beings.

Practice, practice, practice. That's the first rule, because it's in the doing that we actually get better at cross-cultural communication.

Don't assume that there is one right way (yours!) to communicate. Keep questioning your assumptions about the "right way" to communicate. For example, think about your body language; postures that indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate aggressiveness in another.

Don't assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on the wrong track. Search for ways to make the communication work, rather than searching for who should receive the blame for the breakdown.

Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes. Especially when another person's perceptions or ideas are very different from your own, you might need to operate at the edge of your own comfort zone.

Respect others' choices about whether to engage in communication with you. Honor their opinions about what is going on.

Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider.

Be prepared for a discussion of the past. Use this as an opportunity to develop an understanding from "the other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive or impatient. Acknowledge historical events that have taken place. Be open to learning more about them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and oppression that have taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective communication.

Awareness of current power imbalances -- and an openness to hearing each other's perceptions of those imbalances -- is also necessary for understanding each other and working together.

Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual. We are all shaped by many, many factors -- our ethnic background, our

20

family, our education, our personalities -- and are more complicated than any cultural norm could suggest. Check your interpretations if you are uncertain what is meant.

Avruch, Kevin and Peter Black, "Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings: Problems and Prospects," in Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice: Integration and Application, edited by Dennis Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993.

Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner, “Cross-cultural Communication Challenges”http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/articles/pages/6491/Culture-and-Communication.htm

http://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html

III. CONTRASTING CULTURAL VALUES AND PERCEPTIONS

Geert Hofstede Cultural Dimensions

   " Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster."     Prof. Geert Hofstede

 For those who work in international business, it is sometimes amazing how different people in other cultures behave. We tend to have a human instinct that 'deep inside' all people are the same - but they are not. Therefore, if we go into another country and make decisions based on how we operate in our own home country - the chances are we'll make some very bad decisions.

 The study of cultural dimensions gives us insights into other cultures so that we can be more effective when interacting with people in other countries. If understood and applied properly, this information should reduce your level of frustration, anxiety, and concern.

The importance of culture

Each of us has her or his unique personality, history, and interest. Yet all people share a common human nature. Our shared human nature is intensely social: we are group animals. We use language and empathy, and practice collaboration and intergroup competition. But the unwritten rules of how we do these things differ from one human group to another. "Culture" is how we call these unwritten rules about how to be a good member of the group. Culture provides moral standards about how to be an upstanding group member; it defines the group as a "moral circle". It inspires symbols, heroes, rituals, laws, religions, taboos, and all kinds of practices - but its core is hidden in unconscious values. We tend to classify groups other than our own as inferior or (rarely) superior. This applies to groups based on national, religious, or ethnic boundaries, but also on occupation or academic discipline, on club membership, adored idol, or dress style. In our globalized world most of us can belong to many groups at the same time. But to get things done, we still need to cooperate with members of other groups carrying other cultures. Skills in cooperation across cultures are vital for our common survival and the development of such intercultural cooperation skills is a must for the modern society.

21

The word "culture" stems from a Latin root that means the tilling of the soil, like in agriculture. In many modern languages the word is used in a figurative sense, with two meanings:

1. The first, most common, meaning is "civilization", including education, manners, arts and crafts and their products. It is the domain of a "ministry of culture".

2. The second meaning derives from social anthropology, but in the past decades it has entered common parlance. It refers to the way people think, feel, and act. Geert Hofstede has defined it as "the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from another". The "category" can refer to nations, regions within or across nations, ethnicities, religions, occupations, organizations, or the genders. A simpler definition is 'the unwritten rules of the social game'.

The two meanings should not be confused. We refer here to culture in the second sense. Human culture is the result of hundreds of thousands of years of evolution. During most of this time, competition between bands of gatherer-hunters was a powerful evolutionary pressure. As a result our social and intellectual skills have become ever bigger. But we did not lose the elements of our behaviour that identify us as social mammals. Fights for dominance, competition for partners, a wish to belong and to know who does not belong - all of these basic drives are alive in us. No wonder that culture revolves around basic issues that have to do with group membership, authority, gender roles, morality, anxiety, emotions and drives. Culture affects our love lives, our professional lives, our wars and our dreams.

An individual human being acquires most of her or his programming during childhood, before puberty. In this phase of our lives we have an incredible capacity for absorbing information and following examples from our social environment: our parents and other elders, our siblings and playmates. But all of this is constrained by our physical environment: its wealth or poverty, its threats or safety, its level of technology. All human groups, from the nuclear family to society, develop cultures as they go. Culture is what enables a group to function smoothly. Here are some prominent levels on which culture functions:

National level

Today's world population is divided into some 200 nations. Comparing nations has become part of most social sciences. Some nations are more culturally homogeneous than others; especially large nations like Brazil, China, India and Indonesia comprise culturally different regions. Other culturally similar areas belong politically to different nations: this is in particular the case in Africa. With these limitations, comparing national cultures is still a meaningful and revealing venture. Research by Geert Hofstede and others has shown that national cultures differ in particular at the level of, usually unconscious, values held by a majority of the population. Values, in this case, are "broad preferences for one state of affairs over others". The Hofstede dimensions of national cultures are rooted in our unconscious values. Because values are acquired in childhood, national cultures are remarkably stable over time; national values change is a matter of generations. What we see changing around us, in response to changing circumstances are practices:  symbols, heroes and rituals, leaving the underlying values untouched. This is why differences between countries often have such a remarkable historical continuity.

Organizational level

22

Many of us spend a large part of their time in organizations. Organizational cultures, the way Hofstede uses the term, distinguish different organizations within the same country or countries. His  research has shown that organizational cultures differ mainly at the level of practices (symbols, heroes and rituals); these are more superficial and more easily learned and unlearned than the values that form the core of national cultures. As a consequence, the Hofstede dimensions of national cultures are not relevant for comparing organizations within the same country. National cultures belong to anthropology; organizational cultures to sociology. Because organizational cultures are rooted in practices, they are to some extent manageable; national cultures, rooted in values, are given facts for organization management.

Occupational level

Entering an occupational field implies acquiring a degree of mental programming.  Occupational cultures have symbols, heroes and rituals in common with organizational cultures, but they also often imply holding certain values and convictions. Occupational cultures in this respect take a position in between national and organizational cultures. The culture of management as an occupation contains both national and organizational elements.

Gender level

Gender differences are not usually described in terms of cultures. It can be revealing to do so. If we recognize that within each society there may be a men's culture that differs from a women's culture, this helps to explain why it is so difficult to change traditional gender roles. Women and men are often technically able to perform the same jobs, but they do not respond to the symbols, do not look like the heroes, do not share the rituals. Even if some do, the other sex may not accept them in their deviant gender role. Feelings and fears about behaviours by the opposite sex can be of the same order of intensity as reactions of people exposed to foreign cultures. The degree of gender differentiation in a country is highly dependent on its national culture.

The Study of Dimensions of National Cultures

Geert Hofstede is a Dutch social psychologist who did a pioneering study of cultures across modern nations. He has operated in an international environment since 1965, and his curiosity as a social psychologist led him to the comparison of nations, first as a travelling international staff member of a multinational (IBM) and later as a visiting professor at an international business school in Switzerland. His 1980 book Culture's Consequences combined his personal experiences with the statistical analysis of two unique data bases. The first and largest comprised answers of matched employee samples from 40 different countries to the same attitude survey questions. The second consisted of answers to some of these same questions by his executive students who came from 15 countries and from a variety of companies and industries. Systematic differences between nations in these two data bases occurred in particular for questions dealing with values. Values, in this case, are "broad preferences for one state of affairs over others", and they are mostly unconscious.

The study of dimensions of national cultures is important since it provides a comprehensive understanding of cultural differences which entails, in its turn, an effective dialogue between different cultures. One example of cultural differences in business is between the Middle Eastern countries and the Western countries, especially the United States.

23

 When negotiating in Western countries, the objective is to work toward a target of mutual understanding and agreement and 'shake-hands' when that agreement is reached - a cultural signal of the end of negotiations and the start of 'working together'.  In Middle Eastern countries much negotiation takes place leading into the 'agreement', signified by shaking hands. However, the deal is not complete in the Middle Eastern culture. In fact, it is a cultural sign that 'serious' negotiations are just beginning.

 Imagine the problems this creates when each party in a negotiation is operating under diametrically opposed 'rules and conventions.' This is just one example why it is critical to understand other cultures you may be doing business with - whether on a vacation in a foreign country, or negotiating a multi-million dollar deal for your company.

  Geert Hofstede's five Cultural Dimensions

 

 The values that distinguished countries (rather than individuals) from each other grouped themselves statistically into four clusters. They dealt with four anthropological problem areas that different national societies handle differently: ways of coping with inequality, ways of coping with uncertainty, the relationship of the individual with her or his primary group, and the emotional implications of having been born as a girl or as a boy. These became the Hofstede dimensions of  national culture: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism versus Collectivism, and Masculinity versus Femininity. Between 1990 and 2002, these dimensions were largely replicated in six other cross-national studies on very different populations from consumers to airline pilots, covering between 14 and 28 countries. In the 2010 third edition of the book Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, scores on the dimensions are listed for 76 countries.

Power Distance

Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that "all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others".

24

Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth:  "there can only be one Truth and we have it". People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions.

IndividualismIndividualism on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after her/himself and her/his immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word collectivism in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world.

MasculinityMasculinity versus its opposite, femininity, refers to the distribution of emotional roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been called masculine and the modest, caring pole feminine. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are more assertive and  more competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values.

A fifth dimension has been added, starting with 90-ies: Long-Term Orientation. Research by Michael Bond and colleagues among students in 23 countries led him in 1991 to adding a fifth dimension called Long- versus Short-Term Orientation. This fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's 'face'. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. In 2010, research by Michael Minkov allowed to extend the number of country scores for this dimension to 93, using recent World Values Survey data from representative samples of

25

national populations. Long- term oriented societies foster pragmatic virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular saving, persistence, and adapting to changing circumstances. Short-term oriented societies foster virtues related to the past and present such as national pride, respect for tradition, preservation of "face",  and fulfilling social obligations.

The sixth dimensions: Indulgence versus Restraint

In the same book a sixth dimension, also based on Minkov's World Values Survey data analysis for 93 countries, has been added, called Indulgence versus Restraint. Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun.  Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

Dimension scores

a. Historical roots of cultural differences

Assumptions about historical roots of cultural differences always remain speculative but in the following examples they are plausible. In other cases they remain hidden in the course of history. These should be sought in the common history of similarly scoring countries. All Latin countries, for example, score relatively high on both power distance and uncertainty avoidance. Latin countries (those today speaking a Romance language i.e. Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian or Romanian) have inherited at least part of their civilization from the Roman empire. The Roman empire in its days was characterized by the existence of a central authority in Rome, and a system of law applicable to citizens anywhere. This established in its citizens' minds the value complex which we still recognize today: centralization fostered large power distance and a stress on laws fostered strong uncertainty avoidance. The Chinese empire also knew centralization, but it lacked a fixed system of laws: it was governed by men rather than by laws. In the present-day countries once under Chinese rule, the mindset fostered by the empire is reflected in large power distance but medium to weak uncertainty avoidance. The Germanic part of Europe, including Great Britain, never succeeded in establishing an enduring common central authority and countries which inherited its civilizations show smaller power distance.

b. Scores around the world

- Power distance scores are high for Latin, Asian and African countries and smaller for Anglo and Germanic countries.

- Uncertainty avoidance scores are higher in Latin countries, in Japan, and in German speaking countries, lower in Anglo, Nordic, and Chinese culture countries.

- Individualism prevails in developed and Western countries, while collectivism prevails in less developed and Eastern countries; Japan takes a middle position on this dimension.

- Masculinity is high in Japan, in some European countries like Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and moderately high in Anglo countries; it is low in Nordic countries and in the Netherlands and moderately low in some Latin and Asian countries like France, Spain and Thailand.

26

- Long-term orientation scores are highest in East Asia, moderate in Eastern and Western Europe, and low in the Anglo world, the Muslim world, Latin America and Africa.

- Indulgence scores are highest in Latin America, parts of Africa, the Anglo world and Nordic Europe; restraint is mostly found in East Asia, Eastern Europe and the Muslim world.

c. Correlations of scores

The country scores on the six dimensions are statistically correlated with a multitude of other data about the countries. For example, power distance is correlated with the use of violence in domestic politics and with income inequality in a country. Uncertainty avoidance is associated with Roman Catholicism and with the legal obligation in developed countries for citizens to carry identity cards.  Individualism is correlated with national wealth and with mobility between social classes from one generation to the next. Masculinity is correlated negatively with the percent of women in democratically elected governments. Long-term orientation is correlated with school results in international comparisons. Indulgence is correlated with sexual freedom and a call for human rights like free expression of opinions.

d. Relativity of scores

The country scores on these dimensions are relative - societies are compared to other societies. These relative scores have been proven to be quite stable over decades. The forces that cause cultures to shift tend to be global or continent-wide - they affect many countries at the same time, so that if their cultures shift, they shift together, and their relative positions remain the same.

The Hofstede model of dimensions of national culture has been applied in the practice of many domains of human social life, from the interpersonal to the national, in public domains and in business, in education and in health care.  According to the Web of Science, in 2008 more than 800 peer-reviewed articles in scientific journals cited one or more of Geert Hofstede's publications. Of particular interest are the applications in the field of marketing, advertising and consumer behaviour, in which Dutch scholar Marieke de Mooij plays a key role.

Dimensions of organizational cultures

Organizational cultures, the way we use the term, distinguish different organizations within the same country or countries. Geert Hofstede's  research has shown that organizational cultures differ mainly at the levels of symbols, heroes and rituals, together labelled practices; these are more superficial and more easily learned and unlearned than  the values that form the core of national cultures. As a consequence, the Hofstede dimensions of national cultures are not relevant for comparing organizations within the same country. National cultures belong to anthropology; organizational cultures to sociology.

Managing international business means handling both national and organization culture differences at the same time. Organization cultures are somewhat manageable while national cultures are given facts for management; common organization cultures across borders are what holds multinationals together.

27

A separate research project into organizational culture differences - The IRIC project, conducted by Geert Hofstede's institute IRIC across 20 organizational units in Denmark and the Netherlands in the 1980s, identified six independent dimensions of practices: process-oriented versus results-oriented, job-oriented versus employee-oriented, professional versus parochial, open systems versus closed systems, tightly versus loosely controlled, and pragmatic versus normative. The position of an organization on these dimensions is partly determined by the business or industry the organization is in. Scores on the dimensions are also related to a number of other"hard" characteristics of the organizations. These lead to conclusions about how organization cultures can be and cannot be managed.

Bibliography

Hofstede, Geert. Culture's Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications, 2001

 Hofstede, Geert and Hofstede, Gert-Jan. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill U.S.A., 2004.

 http://www.geerthofstede.nl/culture.aspx

www.mariekedemooij.com.

28

IV. COPING WITH CULTURE SHOCK

Culture shock

Getting to grips with a new country can be a challenge. The additional need to understand your new business culture and colleagues means international employees can crumble beneath the strain. Dr Elisabeth Marx explains the phenomenon in her book Breaking Through Culture Shock.

It is estimated that one in seven UK managers fails on international assignments, and this figure is even higher for US managers, with an estimated failure rate of 25 to 40 per cent. Managers differ in the way they respond to culture shock. Some are able to adapt in an almost chameleon-like way to different countries whereas others cling desperately to their habits and national approaches. What makes some international executives highly successful whereas others struggle with basic everyday activities? If we are all so ‘global’ nowadays, what makes some of us more international than others? It is not the number of air miles we clock up on transatlantic flights, nor the technical excellence we bring to our jobs that makes some of us more ‘global’ than others. Some international executives are highly successful while others struggle with basic everyday activities. We now know that it is our ability to manage culture shock in international business that makes a difference between failure and success.

One British executive was interviewed about his international experience working in France and reported the following:

‘My adaptation was appallingly difficult. I thought I knew the French, but I only knew them socially and not in a working environment. I found that all the normal ways of managing people in the UK did not work in France. The things I said were not perceived the way I intended, and, in turn, I did not understand exactly what they were saying. What I found was a lot of bad will.’

This is not an isolated scenario but shows the major challenge in international business: the need of breaking through culture shock that inevitably occurs in international business situations.

Culture shock defined

Basically culture shock occurs when people discover that their way of doing things doesn't work. What once were habits become an overwhelming number of decisions, says Stephen Rhinesmith, a transatlantic executive coach who specialises in global emotional intelligence.

The symptoms of culture shock according to Rhinesmith are: You get frustrated, irritable, fatigued, anxious and depressed.

You can't cope.

29

You withdraw, often oversleep to escape, and turn aggressive against the host culture.

You feel isolated and helpless because everything seems out of control.

Elisabeth Marx, who works for the executive recruiters Norman Broadbent in London and has written a book on culture shock, describes the result this way: "People start saying 'Why are the French and Germans like that?' You start having scapegoat scenarios. 'I hate Nation X!' End of conversation. End of development. And people maintain their point of view," which is that their way of doing things is the better one.

The term ‘culture shock’ was originally created by the anthropologist Oberg to describe the effects that living in a different country or culture can have. Oberg assumed that we go through distinct phases in adapting to a foreign environment. We start in a honeymoon phase where we see everything as positive and enjoy the foreign experience; then we plunge into a period of culture shock where we feel disoriented and helpless and may become irritated or even depressed. Gradually, we work ourselves out of this potential crisis situation and come to a recovery or gradual adaptation. This is the stage where we understand what is different from our own country and have developed a compromise between our own values and the values of the foreign counterparts.

The culture shock triangle

Psychologically, international managers have to deal with three levels of culture shock:

•The emotional side - coping with mood swings

•The thinking side - understanding foreign colleagues

•The social side - developing a social and professional network as well as effective social skills.

This leads to a new model of culture shock, the culture shock triangle.

a. Emotions

International executives often report positive effects of their work on personality characteristics but also mention emotional reactions, such as worrying, feelings of isolation, anxiety and helplessness.

An extreme reaction was reported by a British manager in Shanghai: ‘Culture shock - continuous feeling of being unwell due to two bouts of bad food poisoning, loneliness and, most prominent, the constant staring from the Chinese. This curiosity became very upsetting - everything in my hotel room was looked through, all drawers in my desk searched through. Also, telephone conversations were tapped, I could hear the click and the echo which does not happen now. This led to continuous paranoia. To resolve this, I eventually managed to relax and to take no notice, I pretended it did not happen and most importantly, every three to four weeks I left China to visit other countries such as Japan, Korea and Hawaii.’

30

‘Another culture shock was the physical adaptation to the pollution and the stinging eyes, the sheer noise of cars and people. ‘I also felt helpless - I was deported once for not having a correct visa and had an overnight stay in a state-run guest house with a Government immigration official. So why am I here? Because it is a good career move (hopefully) for the future.’

Most people think of culture-shock as a ‘short and sharp’ disorienting experience in a foreign place. Few realise that the effect of culture shock can be much deeper and more prolonged, if it is not dealt with effectively. Psychologically, moving to a foreign country means stress for the individual. International assignments fall into the category of stress called ‘life events’. Such major life changes put the individual at risk of psychological difficulties, such as depression, anxiety, alcoholism or what laymen typically call ‘nervous breakdown’.

International managers who move abroad experience several such life events: changing country, changing jobs, and changing house - consequently, there is a high risk to psychological well-being and hence a high risk of performance deficits at work and, ultimately, a risk for the company. Moreover, these changes affect the entire family.

b. Thinking

Living in a familiar, well-structured and predictable environment makes understanding easy. The meaning of expressions, gestures and cultural norms is clear. But moving to another, maybe remote, part of the same country changes the autopilot status. We cannot take things for granted; all of sudden, it takes an effort to understand what is going on. Most importantly, we must learn new things and develop and expand our thinking.

New situations or situations that do not make automatic sense can be treated in three different ways:

•You can decide to ignore them or discard them

•You can decide to treat them as familiar situations, thereby making the wrong conclusions

•You can admit that one cannot make sense, work on it and try to expand and modify our ‘typical’ thinking.

The international manager can decide how to treat the ‘foreign’ situation and, can become:

A colonialist - you do not react to the foreign culture. An imperialist - forcing your own value system and way of thinking onto the new

culture - not adapting in interactions and not seeing the necessity to change perceptions and attitude.

An internationalist/inter-culturalist - you are fully aware of the complexity and ambiguity of exchanges in foreign cultures and try to adapt by changing your thinking and attitudes and by trying to find a compromise between cultures. Ideally, we all want to achieve the third option.

31

Some international managers mention ‘the thinking effect’ explicitly when asked about the effect of international experience on their personality:

‘International work makes you more aware and more knowledgeable. The result is being able to see things from many different angles; it is a very broadening experience,’ says one manager. ‘The differences in attitudes were larger than I expected, but I have reached a better understanding of different attitudes towards work, ‘ says another. Challenging your own assumptions and values is not the only challenging that has to be done - challenging your own identity and social behaviour is also part of building an effective international career.

c. Social Identity and Social Skills

This secure sense of self is disturbed by working in an ‘alien’ environment. The familiar context in which your own behaviour makes sense is not there. Behaviour which is rewarded and valued at home may be negatively evaluated in the new culture. Directness and assertiveness may be positive attributes in the United States but would be seen as rude and inadequate in China. The unfamiliar influences can bring a risk to our self-identity: we are not as sure as before as to who we are and feel insecure. We learn that there are different ways of living, working, and establishing relationships and this threatens our well-formed notions on how to do things. We do not understand some of our own behaviour and the emotional ups and downs we are going through as part of our adaptation. Our self-identify is shaken-up and, in a way, we have to re-negotiate or re-define our identity, by integrating our new experiences and reactions into our ‘old self’. As soon as we interact more closely with a foreign culture, we experience a conflict between our own values and those of the host culture.

We experience a collision of values. As we get more and more involved, we normally develop alternative ways of behaving and this also influences our view of ourselves. Similar to what we have seen with understanding others, our sense of self has to be expanded and modified. This is part of the self-development most people go through during international assignments.

The positive effect of international work on self-development is illustrated in the following comment:

‘My most positive surprise was to realise that I was a born survivor and that I could deal with problems. It was very good for my self image and I learned that I had a lot of staying power.’

Culture shock in Europe

32

Despite the so-called union of European nations, huge cultural gaps exist between people working in this continent and culture shock also occurs within Europe, among Europeans-all the time. Unfortunately, experts say, European companies neglect to train employees to deal with this shock because they figure, it's not a problem. But it really is one, one that can hamper a company's development, they say. The answers, they say, include experience, cultural training and self-awareness.

One thing to keep in mind is that European cultures can be divided into two main categories, Rhinesmith says.

The Anglophone, Germanic, Dutch and Scandinavian countries tend to look at other cultures in a more judgmental fashion. They are known as "universalistic". "Particularistic" cultures-including France, Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece-defend their own way of life with a my-group-versus-your-group mentality.

Marx stresses that a big source of friction is a differing sense of time. "It drives someone else mad," she says. German and Anglophone business people are sequential planners, she says. And they see punctuality as a sign of respect. The Latin cultures juggle a variety of tasks simultaneously and tackle them at their own pace without a discernible pattern.

Humour is another sticking point, she says. The English like to use it to break the ice. That backfires in Germany where jokes in meetings are considered shallow, Marx says. More specifically, Germans sometimes are perceived to be inflexible perfectionists who are schedule-driven rather than solution-minded, she says. (But they are also perceived to be people of their word, and thus trustworthy partners.) The French sometimes are perceived to over-elaborate, to engage in lengthy hypothetical discussions. They often appear to have no action plan and arrive at no conclusion, she says. (But they are also perceived to be super-flexible and great improvisers.) Indeed, Cantelo, an engineer who worked for Peugeot in France and now is at Aston Martin in Britain, says that he was taken aback by the unstructured nature of French meetings, often held without an agenda. He was also surprised by the formal tone of communication, both oral and written. "I saw a number of people getting dressed down for not addressing their superiors properly," Cantelo said.

The British sometimes are perceived to speak in their own code, Marx says. Their subtleties can be lost even on fluent English speakers from other countries. Misunderstandings occur when instead of saying "no" directly, they say something like "That is an interesting idea." This bewilders literal-minded Germans, Marx says. (But the British are perceived to be excellent at working out ambiguous and complicated situations.)

There are also huge differences in different cultures’ mentality about Business and Pleasure. Different countries have different approaches towards combining business and pleasure. This requires the individual manager to adapt to the setting of the specific country and, if necessary, to develop the social skills to deal with the new business scenario. Germans, for example, take a structured approach to business: they negotiate in conference rooms and they may have a meal with the negotiation partners once the deal is clinched. They take a highly situation specific approach to business - a clear divide between business and pleasure. Chinese businessmen in Singapore meet a business partner over lunch or dinner and, if it is really important, at home. They try to get to know the person first before any business is

33

discussed. Western managers need some time to adapt to the combined ‘business and pleasure’ approach in Asian or South American countries. The introvert or socially reserved manager, who finds it easy to work in structured business situations, is at a loss at cocktail parties or dinners where the conversation is not focused on business issues but on how good their golf is. Similarly, some Western business practices (North American or Northern European) may be difficult for executives who come from a more diffuse culture, such as Asia. The highly structured way of doing business in the US may be seen as curt, disrespectful, and down-right aggressive.

The best solution one can adopt id to go beyond mechanistic ‘do’s and don’ts’. It is more important to develop an attitude and the behaviour that is comfortable and effective for the individual manager in the new business culture. The culture shock triangle - described above -provides concrete steps in dealing with international business, from balancing your emotions to developing effective social behavior.

Dealing with culture shock

In a multicultural work environment, previous experience counts for a lot, Rhinesmith says. It helps people to quickly adapt, developing a method of functioning that is effective, he says. So does the right mindset, which includes an openness to new things and an appreciation of cultural differences, the experts say. Also important are not just language training but also cross-cultural coaching during which employees hone their interpersonal skills by role-playing with people from other cultures. And self-awareness is key, Marx says. Every time you wade into an international encounter you should remember that the norms are going to be different. And you should take that into account, she says. Attitude is a very important factor to success or failure therefore one should consider the three types of reaction one may experience during the ‘negotiation phase’ with the new culture:

Rejecters: one can find the adaptation to the new country particularly difficult. One tends to isolate themselves from the host country that they perceive as hostile, and believe that returning home is the only way for them to be in harmony with their environment again.

Adopters: Some expatriates embrace their host culture and country, whilst losing their original identity. They usually choose to stay in the host country forever.

Cosmopolitans: They see their host country and culture positively, and manage to adapt whilst keeping their original identity. They create their own blend and usually have no problem returning to their home country or relocating elsewhere.

Countering Culture Shock

Certain steps can be taken to help avoid the worst aspects of culture shock. Among them you should consider the following:

Learn the language - Being able to communicate with the locals will minimise the stress of your move.

34

Prepare for cultural differences - The more you know about the culture of your host country, the more prepared you will be for a different way of life, and the easier it will be for you to cope with new ideas and experiences. Misunderstandings due to cultural differences are a reality but can be reduced through sensitivity and careful communication.

Be open-minded - Be open to accepting cultural differences and alternative ways of doing things. The unfamiliar may be frightening at first but in time you will find yourself taking these once-unfamiliar situations for granted.

Be patient - Be patient with yourself and allow yourself to make mistakes and learn from them as you go along.

Take time off - It’s natural to long for things to be the way they were in your own country. Taking a break from all that is unfamiliar helps. When adapting seems difficult, take part in a familiar activity (read a book, watch a movie or listen to music in your home language). You will find that this will energise you and help you tackle any challenges that you are facing.

Following these suggestions should help you acclimatise to your new host country and discover a whole new world of cultural meanings and knowledge.

10 Steps for Breaking Through Culture Shock

In her book Breaking Through Culture Shock, Elisabeth Marx describes the common stresses experienced by managers or other professionals when they transfer from their own familiar working environments to that of another country, or culture. Sometimes this can be a life-changing move across the sea. For example, if you have only ever worked for small family companies and you get a job with an international corporation with a staff of thousands, you will naturally experience a feeling akin to culture shock as you learn how your new colleagues think and work- or even how they expect others to spend their leisure time.

Marx describes the three levels of adaptation necessary for a manager to be effective when moving between workplace cultures:

1. “Coping with the stress of the transition (achieving contentment).2. Changing [their own] perception and  interpretation of events and behaviour

(developing a way of thinking that is culturally effective.)

3. Developing better social skills and an international identity.” (p13)

Marx writes that interpreting foreign gestures, words, and behaviours can either be dealt with in negative ways – by ignoring them completely and isolating oneself, for example, or by remaining ignorant about their meanings and thereby limiting one’s own understanding and enjoyment of this new culture; or by becoming an ‘internationalist’ or ‘interculturalist’- becoming “fully aware of the complexity and ambiguity of exchanges in foreign cultures.”(p15). Here are her 10 tips for minimising culture shock:

35

1. “Don’t let culture shock take you by surprise.” Take time to learn about it before you go and read up as much as you can on local culture as well as the symptoms of culture shock itself.

2. Expect culture shock to happen in countries or even towns close to you as well as on the other side of the world (remember our point earlier about workplace culture). Moving from city to country or vice versa will cause a certain amount of culture shock; as will moving between two countries which share a language or border.

3. As soon as you arrive, make sure you identify support networks of others in a similar position to you- social groups in your company, language classes and so on- as well as local people.

4. Don’t give in to the stress, for example by drinking or eating too much or becoming socially isolated; this will only increase symptoms of culture shock long term. Allow yourself time to adapt, and recognise this kind of reaction for what it is- a symptom of the culture shock.

5. Ask others in your position for tips. With the rise of social networks such as LinkedIn and Facebook it will be easy to make contact with those who have been there and done that. Use online connections to help while you settle in, but don’t fall into the trap of living a virtual life and never stepping outside- this will not help your cultural adjustment in the long run.

6. Give yourself time to adapt- don’t overload yourself with work in the beginning. You will need time and space for the simplest things- for example, working out how to get your laundry done or settling your kids into school. Make sure you don’t pile the stress on all at once by working long hours.

7. Don’t hesitate to seek professional help if you continue to feel isolated and need support from a counsellor. Your organisation may well offer this.

8. You might well experience culture shock when returning home, in reverse. Be aware of this and recognise that it is normal.

9. Try and remain positive about your experiences. Once you have overcome culture shock, you will be much better adapted to your new environment and you will have achieved something worthwhile and valuable.

10. and lastly… “Retain a sense of humour!”-(pp18-19)

External Resources/references:1. Article: Martin (2006) ‘That’s the way we do things around here: an overview of

organisational culture’, Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship, v.7 no.1 (Spring 2006).

2. Article: Engert et al (2010) Assessing cultural compatibility: A McKinsey perspective on getting practical about culture in M&A (McKinsey and Company: June 2010).

3. Book: E. Marx, Breaking Through Culture Shock (Nicholas Brealey Publishing: London, 1999). 

4. "Expert expatriate : Your guide to successful relocation abroad, moving, living, thriving" by Melissa Brayer and Patricia Linderman

36

 http://mowgli.org.uk/4081/10-steps-for-breaking-through-culture-shock.html

http://www.expatica.com/de/health_fitness/well_being/culture-shock-and-how-to-deal-with-it-322_9123.html// http://www.agsmovers.com/culture-shock

http://www.r-e-a.com/docs/CultureshockunwrappedWEB.pdf

37

VERBAL/NONVERBAL INTERCULTURAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Non Verbal Intercultural Communication

The adage “actions speak louder than words” underscores, in essence, the importance of non-verbal communication. In our global society, where intercultural situations occur often, non-verbal interaction is especially significant. People all over the world use non-verbal communication. Its meaning varies across cultures, however, and what is acceptable in one culture may be taboo in another. All of these variations make misinterpretation a barrier in non-verbal communication. A social and cultural environment, rather than our genetic heritage, determines the non-verbal communication system that we use.

1. Definitiono In simple terms, "intercultural non-verbal communication" refers to all

conscious or unconscious stimuli other than the spoken word between communicating parties. These non-verbal processes sometimes account for as much as 70 percent of communication. Because of cultural differences, the potential for misunderstanding and disagreement regarding non-verbal communication is great. Therefore, successful interaction in intercultural settings requires just as much understanding of non-verbal messages as the verbal ones.

Types

o Non-verbal communication is made up of four main categories: kinesics, proxemics, paralanguage and chronemics.

Kinesics, or body language, refers to the body movements in communication, such as facial expressions, eye contact, hand gestures and touch.

Proxemics refers to the study of the use of space in non-verbal communication, meaning anything from architecture and furniture to the distance between people who interact in a given situation.

Paralanguage makes up all the sounds people produce with their voices that are not words, including laughter, tone and pace of voice, and “empty” words and phrases such as “um” and “you know.”

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in non-verbal communication, including people's understanding of present, past and future.

Kinesics

o Common rituals such as nodding in agreement and greeting friends vary considerably from culture to culture. A handshake is the appropriate way to greet someone in some countries such as the United States; a warm embrace is used in Latin America, "namaste" is spoken in India and a bow of the head is done in Japan.

38

While a Japanese person points his forefinger to his face when referring to himself, a Chinese person points to his nose and a North American usually points to his chest.

In some cultures, people focus their gaze on the eyes or face of the conversational partner; in others, they must use only peripheral gaze or no gaze at all.

It is very common to greet by hugging a friend or a family member, to touch the person you are speaking to in some cultures. In others, though, people seldom touch at all when speaking.

Proxemics

o Usually, people keep a "social distance" between themselves and the person to whom they speak. This distance amount differs from culture to culture. If someone stands or sits very close when she speaks with another person, she may see the other's attempt to widen the space between them as evidence of coldness, condescension or a lack of interest. Those who prefer having more social distance, or personal space, may view attempts to get closer as pushy, disrespectful or aggressive.

Paralanguage

o Paralanguage represents the vocal cues that accompany spoken language. Through pitch, speed, volume, pause and silence, people confer emotional and intellectual meanings to their messages.

Chinese people value silence more than the use of words; they believe it brings inner peace and wisdom. On the other hand, North Americans tend to think silence has no communication. While a Chinese person would consent to a question through silence, an American would interpret silence as uncertainty.

Chronemics

o Time is one of the most central differences that separate cultures in the way of doing things. For Western countries, time is quantitative, measured in units that reflect progress. It is logical, sequential and focused in the now, moving toward the future and away from the past. In Eastern countries, however, time feels like it has unlimited continuity. India is the best place to depict the Eastern idea of time. Time moves endlessly through various cycles, becoming and disappearing. Time is infinite, stretching far beyond the human lifetime. According to an essay by Michelle LeBaron on BeyondIntractability.org, "There is a certain timeless quality to time, an aesthetic almost too intricate and vast for the human mind to comprehend."

Role

o Non-verbal communication is one of the key aspects of communication, and it is especially important in a high-context culture. Its multiple functions include

39

repeating, accentuating, complementing and contradicting a verbal message. This type of communication also regulates interactions, such as non-verbal cues conveying when a person should speak or not speak. Finally, non-verbal communication can even substitute a verbal message through gestures and facial expressions, especially when people do not speak the same language.

Each of these characteristics influences intercultural communication and can be responsible for conflict or the escalation of conflict when it leads to bad communication or misinterpretation.

References

BeyondIntractability.org: Knowledge Base Essay--Cross-Cultural Communication; Michelle LeBaron

"Sino-US English Teaching;" Non-Verbal Language in Cross-Cultural Communication; Wang De-hua and Li Hui; October 2007http://www.ehow.com/about_6686803_non-verbal-intercultural-communication.html Maria Ciubotaru

Non-Verbal Barriers to Communication

Facial expressions can be used as a nonverbal communication barrier.

Lee Hopkins, a leading Australian business motivator, defines nonverbal communication as anything aside from oral words that send a message. The communication process requires a sender and receiver and uses various mediums to deliver the messages. For example, the same message can express itself in different ways via a billboard, a handshake or a facial expression. Nonverbal communication is just as important as verbal communication because people respond to what they see more than what they hear. Identify the barriers to your nonverbal communication to sharpen you communication skills.

Paralanguage

Paralanguage is the way inflections are used when sending a message verbally. Paralanguage creates a nonverbal communication barrier when it is misunderstood or not applied appropriately. It could be a person’s tone of voice, pitch or volume that defines the words to mean one thing or another. For example, someone can say, “get out of here,” and depending on how it was said could either mean the person is upset or could be using the phrase as an expression of awe. If someone is talking, but they are mumbling their words or speaking very softly, you may think they don’t care about what they’re saying or they may be shy and intimidated.

Silence

The lack of expression sends a message itself, which can create a communication barrier between the sender and receiver. Silence can be used as a threatening tool to ignore and disregard another person’s need for communication, or it can be used to improve

40

communication. Silence, used in the appropriate way, can help you and the other person think through the messages being sent and how to appropriately respond. A person’s body language coupled with silence will help to define the message being sent.

Body Language

Body language can create a communication barrier. A person with their head down, folded arms or turning their back to you are all examples of body language that creates a wall from communicating. Body language is used to send messages that you don’t care, don’t want to talk or that you’re angry. It is the use of your physical body to send a message. This can include positions, symbols made with your hands or a stance.

Facial Expression

A person’s facial expression can act as a barrier, especially when there is insecurity or fear involved in the conversation. Facial expressions can be misinterpreted and misunderstood. For example, if you’re telling someone something highly sensitive and they don’t make any facial expression, you may perceive that they are not listening, resulting in a barrier where you close off your heart and end the conversation, according to Ohio University.

References

Lee Hopkins: Nonverbal Communication Ohio State University: Overcoming Barriers to Communication

Mind Tools: Improve Your Communication Skill Nicole Papa: Non-Verbal Barriers to Communication | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/list_6721900_non_verbal-barriers-communication.html#ixzz1fixYHTFg

Importance of Non Verbal Communication in Business

Business is about information -- bosses tell employees what they should do, presenters tell their audiences about products and sales representatives tell clients about products. For information to have its desired effect, it must be received in the right way. The speaker's non-verbal communication skills determine how the listener receives what he or she has to say.

Trust

Trust is essential to running a successful business. Clients and businesses must trust each other to uphold contracts. Employees must trust each other to complete their designated tasks, and teamwork fails without trust. Non-verbal cues play a large part in establishing trust between people. For example, good eye contact by a speaker encourages trust from his or her listeners. Lee Hopkins, a business communications trainer, suggests that speakers break eye contact into spans of about four or five seconds.

Confidence

41

Appearing confident is important to establishing an effective image in the workplace. Listeners look for signs of confidence in speakers to determine how strongly they believe in what they are saying, and nervousness can seem like a lack of sincerity. Maintaining a straight posture, a pleasant expression and a calm manner communicates confidence to listeners. Avoid fidgeting, looking at the ground or pacing while you deliver presentations to an audience. Instead, maintain eye contact and take steps only when they enhance the presentation.

Authority

Most businesses operate using a system of hierarchy. A boss manages the employees under him or her. For management to be effective, the employees must respect the boss and feel a responsibility to carry out his or her directives. Employee respect comes from the projection of a sense of authority. Managers can convey this by maintaining a confident posture. They should be firm, but not aggressive, when telling employees what to do; a show of uncertainty gives employees a reason to doubt the direction.

Connections

Business opportunities are often found through friends or acquaintances. Building personal relationships is vital to finding these opportunities, which is why businesspeople place importance on the act of networking. Non-verbal communication is important in forming networks. A firm handshake creates a bond between people when they meet for the first time, and that connection is strengthened by eye contact when they speak. Calm, affable speech indicates an openness to forming a friendship. These cues, more than the content of what is said, lay the foundation for the formation of a business connection.

References

Lee Hopkins: Nonverbal Communication in Business People Communicating: Nonverbal Communication in Business

Danielle DeLee: Importance of Non Verbal Communication in Business | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/info_7860809_importance-non-verbal-communication-business.html#ixzz1fixy8HYz

  Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication expresses meaning or feeling without words. Universal emotions, such as happiness, fear, sadness, are expressed in a similar nonverbal way throughout the world. There are, however, nonverbal differences across cultures that may be a source of confusion for foreigners. Let's look at the way people express sadness. In many cultures, such as the Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while people from other cultures (e.g., China and Japan) are more subdued. In Asian cultures, the general belief is that is is unacceptable to show emotion openly (whether sadness, happiness, or pain).

Let's take another example of how cultures differ in their nonverbal expression of emotion.

42

Feelings of friendship exist everywhere in the world, but their expression varies. It is acceptable in some countries for men to embrace and for women to hold hands; in other countries, these displays of affection are discouraged or prohibited.

As with nonverbal communication, what is considered usual or polite behavior in one culture may be seen as unusual or impolite in another. One culture may determine that snapping fingers to call a waiter is appropriate, whereas another may consider this gesture rude. We are often not aware of how gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and the use of conversational distance affect communication. To interpret another culture's style of communication, it is necessary to study the "silent language" of that culture.

  Gestures and Body Positioning

Gestures are specific body movements that carry meaning. Hand motions alone can convey many meanings: "Come here," Go away," It's okay," and "That's expensive!" are just a few examples. The gestures for these phrases often differ across cultures. For example, beckoning people to come with the palm up is common in the United States. This same gesture in the Philippines, Korea, and parts of Latin America as well as other countries is considered rude. In some countries, only an animal would be beckoned with the palm up.

As children, we imitate and learn to use these nonverbal movements to accompany or replace words. When traveling to another country, foreign visitors soon learn that not all gestures are universal. For example, the "O.K." gesture in the American culture is a symbol for money in Japan. This same gesture is obscene in some Latin American countries. (This is why the editors of a Brazilian newspaper enjoyed publishing a picture of a former American president giving the "O.K." symbol with both hands!)

Many American business executives enjoy relaxing with their feet up on their desks. But to show a person from Saudi Arabia or Thailand the sole of one's foot is extremely insulting, because the foot is considered the dirtiest part of the body. Can you imagine the reaction in Thailand when a foreign shoe company distributed an advertisement showing a pair of shoes next to a sacred sculpture of Budda?

  Facial Expressiveness

Facial expressions carry meaning that is determined by situations and relationships. For instance, in American culture the smile is typically an expression of pleasure. Yet it also has other functions. A woman's smile  at a police officer does not carry the same meaning as the smile she gives to a young child. A smile may show affection, convey politeness, or disguise true feelings. For example many people in Russia consider smiling at strangers in public to be unusual and even suspicious behavior. Yet many Americans smile freely at strangers in public places (although this is less common in big cities). Some Russians believe that Americans smile in the wrong places; some Americans believe that Russians don't smile enough. In Southeast Asian cultures, a smile is frequently used to cover emotional pain or embarrassment. Vietnamese people may tell the sad story of how they had to leave their

43

country but end the story with a smile.

Our faces reveal emotions and attitudes, but we should not attempt to "read" people from another culture as we would "read" someone from our own culture. The degree of facial expressiveness one exhibits varies among individuals and cultures. The fact that members of one culture do not express their emotions as openly as do members of another does not mean that they do not experience emotions. Rather, there are cultural restraints on the amount of nonverbal expressiveness permitted. For example, in public and formal situations many Japanese do not show their emotions as freely as Americans do. More privately and with friends, Japanese and Americans seem to show their emotions similarly. Many teachers in the United States have a difficult time knowing whether their Japanese students understand and enjoy their lessons. The American teacher is looking for more facial responsiveness than what the Japanese student is comfortable with in the classroom situation.

It is difficult to generalize about Americans and facial expressiveness because of individual and ethnic differences in the United States. People from certain ethnic backgrounds in the United States tend to more facially expressive than others. The key, is to try not to judge people whose ways of showing emotions are different. If we judge according to our own cultural norms, we may make the mistake of "reading' the other person incorrectly.

  Eye Contact

Eye contact is important because insufficient or excessive eye contact can create communication barriers. In relationships, it serves to show intimacy, attention, and influence. As with facial expressions, there are no specific rules governing eye behavior in the United States, except that is is considered rude to stare, especially at strangers. In parts of the United States, however, such as on the West Coast and in the South, it is quite common to glance at strangers when passing them. For example, it is usual for two strangers walking toward each other to make eye contact, smile, and perhaps even say "Hi," before immediately looking away. This type of contact doesn't mean much; it is simply a way of acknowledging another person's presence. In general, Americans make less eye contact in bus stations, for example, than in more comfortable settings such as a university student center.

Patterns of eye contact are different across cultures. Some Americans feel uncomfortable with the "gaze" that is sometimes associated with Arab or Indian communication patterns. For Americans, this style of eye contact is too intense. Yet too little eye contact may also be viewed negatively, because it may convey a lack of interest, inattention, or even mistrust. The relationship between the lack of eye contact and mistrust  in the American culture is stated directly in the expression "Never trust a person who doesn't look you in the eyes." In contrast, in many other parts of the world (especially in Asian countries), a person's lack of eye contact toward an authority figure signifies respect and deference.

  Conversation Distance

Unconsciously, we all keep a comfortable distance around us when we interact with other

44

people. This distance has had several names over the years, including "personal space," "interpersonal distance," "comfort zone," and "body bubble." This space between us and another person forms invisible walls that define how comfortable we feel at various distances from other people.

The amount of space changes depending on the nature of the relationship. For example, we are usually more comfortable standing closer to family members than to strangers. Personality also determines the size of the area with which we are comfortable when talking to people. Introverts often prefer to interact with others at a greater distance than do extroverts. Culture styles are important too. A Japanese employer and employee usually stand farther apart while talking than their American counterparts. Latin Americans and Arabs tend to stand closer than Americans do when talking.

For Americans, the usual distance in social conversation ranges from about an arm's length to four feet. Less space in the American culture may be associated with either greater intimacy or aggressive behavior. The common practice of saying "Excuse me," for the slightest accidental touching of another person reveals how uncomfortable Americans are if people get too close. Thus, a person whose "space" has been intruded upon by another may feel threatened and react defensively. In cultures where close physical contact is acceptable and even desirable, Americans may be perceived as cold and distant.

Culture does not always determine the message of nonverbal communication. The individual's personality, the context, and the relationship also influence its meaning. However, like verbal language, nonverbal language is linked to person's cultural background. People are generally comfortable with others who have "body language" similar to their own. One research study demonstrated that when British graduate students imitated some Arab patterns of nonverbal behavior (making increased eye contact, smiling, and directly facing their Arab partners), the Arabs felt that these students were more likeable and trustworthy than most of the other British students.

When one person's nonverbal language matches that of another, there is increased comfort. In nonverbal communication across cultures there are similarities and differences. Whether we choose to emphasize the former or the latter, the "silent language" is much louder than it first appears.

45

V. INTERCULTURAL BUSINESS DISCOURSIVE PRACTICES

Talking is easy; communication, which means an exchange or communion with another, requires greater skill. An exchange that is a communion demands that we listen and speak skillfully, not just talk mindlessly. And interacting with fearful, angry, or frustrated people can be even more difficult, because we're less skillful when caught up in such emotions. Yet don't despair or resign yourself to a lifetime of miscommunication at work or home! Good communicators can be honed as well as born. Here are a few tips to get you started.

Don't take another person's reaction or anger personally, even if they lash out at you in what seems a personal manner. Another person's mood or response is more likely about fear or frustration than it is about you as an individual. Take a deep breath and count to 10, and see it as a way of letting the other person vent before he is able to communicate what's really on his mind.

You don't have to have all the answers. It's OK to say, "I don't know." If you want to find out, say so, then follow up to share your findings. Or you may decide to work on the problem together to find the answer.

Respond (facts and feelings); don't react (feelings) -- e.g., "Tell me more about your concern" or "I understand your frustration" instead of "Hey, 'm just doing my job" or "It's not my job" (which is sure to cause more irritation). Share responsibility for any communication in which you're a participant, and realize that sometimes, maybe often, your own personal reactions may be causing your frustrations about communicating with others.

Understand that people want to feel heard more than they care about whether you agree with them. It's strange how many people complain about others not hearing them, yet they don't listen to others either! You can show that you're listening by giving someone your complete attention and saying things like:

1. "Tell me more about your concern."

2. "What is it about XXX that concerns you?"

3. "I'm interested in what you've just said. Can you share a little bit about what lead you to that belief?"

4. "What would have to happen for you to be more comfortable with XXX?"

Remember that what someone says and what we hear can be amazingly different! Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. Repeat back or summarize to ensure that you understand. Restate what you think you heard and ask, "Have I understood you correctly?" If you find yourself responding emotionally to what someone said, say so, and ask for more information: "I may not be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you just said is XXX; is that what you meant?"

Acknowledge inconvenience or frustration and offer a timeline, particularly if you need someone else's cooperation or your activities will affect them. For example, if

46

you'll be updating someone's desktop computer system and need access to her office, you might say, "I know it's frustrating to have someone in your space at a time that might not be convenient for you, and I appreciate your cooperation. It'll help us to keep your system working well. We expect to be in your office at about 3 p.m., and out by 5 p.m."

Don't offer advice unless asked. This can be tough, particularly if we have experience that we think might benefit another person. Use respectful expressions such as "One potential option is..." or "One thing that helped me in a similar situation was X. I'd be happy to share more about my experience if you think it'd be helpful to you" instead of "You should do X."

Look for common ground instead of focusing solely on differences. What might you both be interested in (e.g., making the experience as nondisruptive as possible)? One way to begin discovering commonality is to share your underlying intention -- for example, "My intention in sharing this is to help you succeed on this project."

Remember that change is stressful for most people, particularly if your activities affect them in a way that they aren't scheduling or controlling. Our routines can be comforting in the midst of what appears to be a chaotic world. So if you're in someone's space or need him to do something on your timeline, provide as much information as you can about what you'll need from the person and when. If you can, tell him how what you're doing will benefit him.

Work to keep a positive mental focus. One of the choices we always have is how we see or experience any given circumstance. Many people who are considered skillful and successful, including professional athletes and cultural leaders, work to maintain a positive mind-set. Ask yourself, "What's great about this?" or "What can I learn from this?" to help maintain a positive state. Don't forget to adopt a variety of stress reduction practices that work best for you.

Understand that most people, including you, have a unique, often self-serving, agenda. This isn't necessarily bad, because it helps us achieve and protect ourselves. Just don't assume that someone will know or share your agenda, so talking about what's most important to you and asking what's most important to others, can help build a solid foundation for conversation.

Improve your listening skill. Most people think they listen well, but the truth is that most of people don't listen at all -- they just speak and then think about what they're going to say next. Good listening often means asking good questions and clearing your mind of distractions, including what you're going to say next, whom you're meeting with next, or what's going on outside. When someone makes prickly comments or complaints, there's often a concern or fear lurking. Like a detective, ask questions that get to the bottom of someone's real concern or agenda. Only then can you have a truly rich, beneficial conversation.

Communication Effectiveness 

Communication and organizational development tools are the fodder of many intellectual discussions. However, without action, they collect "mental dust" and benefit no one.

47

Here are some great tips on how to use three outstanding communication- and organizational-development technologies --Appreciative Inquiry, Dialogue, and Open Space Technology --with ways you can apply these "systems strategies" in smaller ways throughout your organization:

IN A MEETING

Circle up: Ensure that no one person is the "head of the table" or in control of the discussion (and therefore what gets discussed, and how). A circle of chairs welcomes others to participate fully and contribute ideas that enrich the group.

Employ the law of mobility: If you find that you are not learning or contributing in the meeting, use your two feet and walk to a more productive place. This saves your time and reduces the likelihood of worthless meetings. Also, discussion-in-motion can have the advantage of breaking through log-jams that occur when people are --and sometimes silenced by -- traditional meeting venues.

Suspend judgment: Don't arrive at conclusions until you have honestly absorbed multiple perspectives and ideas. When you automatically conclude that you're right and others are wrong, you eliminate any possibilities for dialogue and participation (and your perception may not even be correct!). Just because you think something, doesn't make it universally true. Why shut the door on a potentially great idea for your group?

Leverage what works: Rather than sticking to a formulaic meeting style -- agenda, flip chart, one meeting leader and a task list -- conduct your meeting in a manner that works best for the group. Apply this thinking to the ideas shared during the meeting, too.

DURING A CHANGE INITIATIVE

Tap into personal responsibility and passion: The success of Open Space Technology rests on --and requires --commitment from all players. Through meaningful and respectful communication, tap into each participant' s motivation and interests in order to allow those participants to take the gifts discovered during the meeting out into the organization in positive and lasting ways.

Stay curious: Don't make accusations, advocate for or tear down elements of a change initiative (or other topic of discussion). Pause long enough maintain your curiosity about what is happening, why it's happening and how you fit into it all. This allows you to gather more information, which can expand understanding, reduce stress and eliminate the "instant assumptions" and resulting judgments that we humans normally (and all too often) make. When you feel the urge to slam the door on the discussion with an "I'm right" statement, ask a question.

Use stories: An organization's "inner dialogue" or stories help shape the culture. Communicate real-life stories that exemplify your organization s ideal culture, benefits, areas of potential and strength, and where the company is headed.

AS PART OF AN INTERVIEW (or even a meeting with someone you don't know well)

48

Focus: Whether the interviewer or interviewee, concentrate on real business issues that you're passionate about. You'll be more able to identify " good fit" employees and employers, or vendors, associates and clients.

Understand your intentions: Ask about the intentions of others. Respectful and honest questions about a person' s intentions -- including one' s own -- can help reveal how well one' s thinking compares with organizational culture. Also, by allowing yourself to become familiar with someone else's (or your own) intentions, you deepen your understanding of why someone else thinks the way they do.

See the flip side of unfavorable traits: Someone who seems jittery in an interview might actually be nervous because she wants the job very much. Someone who seems overly strident or judgmental may simply have at his core the intention of making a positive difference. An interviewer who asks tough questions without cracking a smile might have such admiration for the company, that he wants to ensure that only the best of the best become employees, and this is the only approach he knows to select the top candidates. Ask probing questions to delve more deeply and collect more information, rather than making assumptions based only on "surface traits." Beyond that, allow someone else his or her humanity --even if it doesn't measure up to your personal standards of perfection!

Intercultural Negotiation

As the world becomes increasingly connected, people both at home and in travels abroad, must consider the important issue of intercultural negotiation. 

The Intercultural DimensionAll cultures have their own preferred styles and strategies for dealing with and managing conflict.  Yet it is quite difficult to be culture-specific when discussion how to deal effectively with cross-cultural conflicts.  Nevertheless, there are some general skills involved in cross-cultural negotiation and conflict management that can be highlighted.A basic requirement for effective conflict management and negotiation is to know as much as possible about the other culture(s).  Although experiential knowledge is preferable, research of the culture, norms, values, history, society etc. can be very helpful. The most significant feature of good cross-cultural relations, as most cross-cultural sources will indicate, involves avoiding stereotypes.  Although certain generalizations may be fairly assessed in regard to how certain cultures deal with conflict, individual differences should always be considered as paramount.  In fact, some cultural specialists suggest that all conflicts are intercultural to an extent, since each individual person has their own personal history and experience, their own set of beliefs, values and assumptions, and ultimately, their own set of “survival skills.”

The Successful Intercultural Negotiator

Successful intercultural negotiators are always cognizant of the fact that people do, indeed, feel, think and behave differently, while at the same time, they are equally logical and rational.  Stated differently, competent intercultural negotiators recognize the differences between people while simultaneously appreciating the intrinsic rationality behind such divergent feelings thoughts and behaviors.  That is to say, individuals, groups, communities, organizations and even nation states possess diverse values, beliefs and assumptions that make sense from their own perspective.  Thus, effective intercultural negotiators are sensitive

49

to the fact that each person perceives, discovers, and constructs reality — the internal and external world – in varied yet meaningful ways.  They understand that difference is not threatening; indeed, it is positive, so long as the differences are managed properly.

Five Intercultural Negotiation Skills:

1. EMPATHY – To be able to see the world as other people see it.  To understand the behavior of others from their perspectives.

2. ABILITY TO DEMONSTRATE ADVANTAGES of what one proposes so that counterparts in the negotiation will be willing to change their positions.

3. ABILITY TO MANAGE STRESS AND COPE WITH AMBIGUITY as well as unpredictable demands.

4. ABILITY TO EXPRESS ONE’S OWN IDEAS in ways that the people with whom one negotiates will be able to objectively and fully understand the objectives and intentions at stake.

5. SENSITIVITY to the cultural background of others along with an ability to adjust one’s objectives and intentions in accordance with existing constraints and limitations.

The four pillars of successful international negotiations

Intercultural Intelligence can dramatically improve your negotiation success. Negotiations can easily get complex when you work in a multicultural environment.  Globally, there are now more than 50,000 NGOs, 60,000 Multi-National Corporations, most governments are dealing in intercultural environments and there are now more than 200 million expats across the globe. In order to become a successful negotiator, you have to consider:

1. Regular good best practice negotiation - This refers to a person’s ability to study their counterpart, to gather the right market intelligence, set up a meeting in a neutral place or one that suits your counterpart.  And of course to choose your own interpreter should you need one.

 2. The people skills: In order to negotiate successfully you need to be adept at understanding yourself and other people, identifying and playing to strengths and weaknesses of all those involved.  

3. Emotional Intelligence: Daniel Goleman is right in saying that our level of self-awareness and others awareness is essential when trying to understand what is happening below the surface.

4. Inter-Cultural Intelligence: This is where the majority of unsuccessful international negotiations fall short.  Can you successfully differentiate the people sat around the table and do you know what is important to them?  What are their motivators and demotivators and what are yours?

 

50

51