interethnic conflict

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Chapter 8

Racial and Ethnic Inequality



Race and Ethnicity

Race and ethnicity are ascribed characteristics that define categories ofpeople.

Each of these characteristics have beenused as bases of social stratification – thatis, cultures have thought it right and properthat some people receive more scarce

resources than others simply because theybelong to one category rather than another.



The Social Construction ofRace and Ethnicity

Understanding Racial and EthnicInequality

Race

refers to a category of people treated as distinct basedon physical characteristics to which social importance hasbeen assigned.

Ethnicity

an ethnic group is a category whose members arethought to share a common origin and important elementsof a common culture.

The socia l cons truct ion of race and ethnicity is the process by

which a culture defines what constitutes a race or an ethnicity.




Majority and Minority Groups

A majority group is culturally, economically, and

politically dominant.

A minority group is culturally, economically, and

politically subordinate.

Although minority groups are usually smaller than

majority groups, that is not always the case.



Although the U.S. is not fully pluralistic ,

children from different races and ethnic

groups interact easily in many settings.




Patterns of Interaction

Pluralism is the peaceful coexistence of

separate and equal cultures in the same

society.

Assimilation is the process by which

members of a minority culture lose theirdefining cultural features and adopt those of

the majority culture.




Downward assimilation is the process in which

descendants of immigrants become assimilated not into

mainstream America, but instead into the “underclass”

world of long-term poor, U.S.-born minorities.


ConflictRacial and ethnic conflict can take the form of slavery,

concentration camps, or exile. In the extreme, conflictresults in genocide: mass killing to destroy a population.

For much of the 20th century in the U.S., conflict was

reflected in laws and customs that forbade social, political,

and economic participation by minorities.





Since 2003, the Sudanese

government has promoted racial

stereotyping of Sudanese Africans asinferior in order to control valuable

lands and water supplies. The

slaughter of Sudanese Africans by

Sudanese Arabs like these

Janjaweed militia members has been

encouraged.

Before the conflict over resources in

Sudan, ethnic identity was fluid and

intermarriage was common.



Theoretical Perspectives on Racialand Ethnic Inequality

Structural-Functional Theory

Explains how some groups benefit from racial

and ethnic inequality. Acknowledges dysfunctions of social conflict.

Focus on how societies change gradually and

continue to function smoothly without conflict.Example: The belief that African Americans were less than

human helped southern white plantation owners to justify slavery.

While horrific for slaves, this allowed the white southern

economy, culture, and social institutions to function smoothly.




Conflict Theory

Examines inequalities between majority and

minority groups from conflict over scarceresources

Suggests that some groups have advantages

due to historical circumstance

ex. access to technology; existence of slavery

Documents how disadvantaged groups are

kept from gaining access to social advantages

such as good schools, jobs, housing, etc.




Symbolic Interactionism

Focuses on how everyday interactions

reinforce racial and ethnic inequality. Contributes to our understanding of the

changing meanings of basic concepts like race

and ethnicity over time because of social

interaction.




Home foreclosures among African Americans have soared in

recent years, as bankers encouraged people to take on more

mortgage debt than they could afford and especially targeted

African Americans for some loans.



Maintaining Racial and EthnicInequality

PrejudiceRefers to an irrational, negative attitude toward a

category of people.

Racism: the belief that inherited physical traitsassociated with racial groups determine abilities

and characteristics of a group member and

provide a legitimate basis for unequal treatment.

Color-Blind Racism: the belief that all races are

created equal and that racial equality has been

achieved. Failure to succeed is the fault of the

minority member.




Prejudice

A stereotype is a preconceived, simplistic idea

about the members of a group.

Explaining Prejudice: Research focuses on

three factors:

◦ socialization

◦ scapegoating◦ competition over scarce resources



Factors Contributing to Prejudice

Socialization – learning hate and fear as social

norms directed at racial or ethnic categories.

Scapegoating – when people or groups who

fail in their own goal attainment blame others

for their own failures.

Competition for scarce resources – attitudesof prejudice related to the belief that gains for

other racial and ethnic groups mean losses for

one’s own group.




Maintaining Racial and Ethnic

Inequality

Maintaining Prejudice: The Self-Fulfilling

Prophecy

The belief that a situation exists causes the

situation to become real. This is an importantmechanism for maintaining prejudice.

Example: If Christians believe that Jews think they

are superior to others, then they avoid socializingwith Jews. When Christians subsequently observe

Jews hanging out only with other Jews, they take

this as confirmation of their belief.



Discrimination

The unequal treatment of individuals on the

basis of the category they belong to.Prejudice is an attitude

Discrimination is behavior


Inequality

Example: If your boss thinks that African Americans

are less intelligent than whites (prejudice), he will likely

pay his African American workers less (discrimination).



Segregation


Inequality

The physical separation of minorities from the

rest of the population.

In the U.S., discriminatory housing has beenillegal since 1960s. Segregation still remains

common for two reasons:

1. economic differences across groups2. unfair treatment of certain groups



Prejudice and stereotypes are not limited to ethnic

group relationships. If you have ever assumed that

older people are more interested in playing cards than

in having sex, you have engaged in stereotyping .

If stereotypes like this one lead you to conclude that

older people are less capable and worthy than are

younger people, you would be exhibiting prejudice .

If those prejudices led you to decide against hiring anolder person, you would be engaged in discr iminat ion.

Sociology and you…




Inequality

Institutional Racism

Refers to situations in which everyday

practices and social arrangements are

assumed to be fair, even though they

systematically reproduce racial or ethnic

inequality.

Institutional racism produces unequal resultsfor majority (dominant) and minority groups.

School segregation and tracking reinforce

racial inequality in the United States.




Inequality

Institutional Racism Discrimination andprejudice against Gypsies

or Roma remain common

in parts of Europe. Forced

evictions, terrible housing

conditions, and

substandard schoolingresult. Almost all Roma

children are placed in

schools for the mentally

handicapped. Officials

argue that placements are

based on standardized

tests. This policy makes it

impossible for Roma

children to succeed.




Inequality

Multiplying Disadvantages

Prejudice, discrimination, segregation, and

institutionalized racism construct inequality,

which is reinforced and multiplied by socialclass inequality.

Racial and ethnic groups display similar

internal patterns of stratification.

While non-Hispanic white median income is

1.5 times higher than other groups, the

median net worth (wealth) of non-Hispanic

whites is 18 times higher.



White Americans

Ethnicity is no longer a primary standard for

stratification among whites due to mixed heritage.

The place of “unhyphenated whites” in the

multicultural mix of the United States is less a melting

pot and more an assimilation to a dominant language

and culture. Ethnic identities have declined.

More of a focus on “white” racial identity as invisible

– whites rarely think of themselves as having a

“race.”

White privilege refers to the benefits whites receive

simply because they are white.

Racial & Ethnic Inequality in U.S.



African-Americans

Arrived involuntarily as slaves. Most African Americans

today are descended from slaves.

After slavery ended, legal (i.e. poll taxes) and violent

illegal (i.e. lynchings) barriers systematically excluded

African Americans.

Comprise 12.6% of the U.S. population.

Current concerns: neighborhood segregation • infant

mortality • short lifespan for males • continued

economic disadvantage • educational attainment lag

Economic disadvantages due to two factors:

1) African American workers earn less than whites.

2) African American families are less likely to have

two earners.




Hispanics


Hispanic Americans (Latinos) are an ethnic group

rather than a racial category.

Majority (~66%) are of Mexican heritage. Latinos have

also arrived in America from Cuba, Puerto Rico, andother Central and South American nations.

Experiences of different Hispanic groups vary.(i.e. Wealthy exiled Cubans were welcomed as refugees, whereas

other Hispanic groups face prejudice and discrimination)

Hispanics constitute 16.3% of the U.S. population,

making them the largest minority group in the country.

Current Concerns: most poorly educated group •

greatest likelihood of living in poverty



Hispanic Americans in the U.S. Hispanic Americans are most

common in the states that border Mexico. Florida has received many

immigrants over the years from Central and South America. As well, many

Hispanics have settled in large cities in New Jersey, New York, and Illinois.



Racial & Ethnic Inequality in U.S.Asian Americans

About 3.6% of U.S. population.

Segmented immigration: descendants of 19th-century

immigrants (Japan & China); post-WWII immigrants

(Philippines, Korea, India); recent refugees fromSoutheast Asia.

Historical experiences of Asian immigrants went from

hostility, violence, and internment to being a desirable

group with high mobility and educational attainment. Current concerns: entrance to Ivy League schools

difficult • income and promotional disparity




Native Americans

Less than 1% of U.S. population.

Nearly half live in Oklahoma, Arizona, California, and

New Mexico.

Historical experiences of subjugation, forced relocation,

removal of children to “boarding schools,” Trail of Tears

More than 200 tribal groups with different cultures and

languages.

Current concerns: most disadvantaged group • lowest

rates of education • highest rates of alcoholism and

premature death • impoverished and isolated

reservations • prejudice and discrimination persists




Arab Americans

Much less than 1% of U.S. population.

Immigrants or children of immigrants from North Africa

and Middle East (Morocco, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq

and Lebanon)

Diverse traditions, but share common linguistics and

cultural and historical traditions.

66% Christian; 33% Muslim

High education attainment and median income levels.

Current concerns: anti- Arab views since 9/11 • hate

crimes against them more common • discrimination



Like many other Americans, most Arab Americans take pride in both

American culture and their own distinctive cultural traditions.




David Horowitz

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaTtj9

Mc000




Multiracial Americans

Comprise about 2.9% of American population.

Absolute number of multiracial Americans has

increased more than 20 times over last half century;

significant numbers of mixed race individuals now self-identify as multiracial rather than choosing only one

parent’s race.

Current concerns: social and systemic resistance to

multiracial identification • pressure to identify a singleracial slot



The Future of Racial and EthnicInequality in the U.S.

Minority group social status has improved overall in

U.S., yet inequality remains. Current debate: Can inequality better be reduced by

focusing on race or on class?

Double jeopardy is having low status on two different

dimensions of stratification (i.e. race and social class). Effect of double jeopardy – disadvantages snowball.

Some strategies promote full employment and better

jobs for all Americans (class focus); others focus on race

and ethnicity.

Combating Inequality:Race versus Class

Th F t f R i l d Eth i




Strategies for Ending InequalityMost sociologists focus on strategies aimed at reducing

racial and ethnic discrimination.

Antidiscrimination laws: outlaw discrimination on the

basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national origin.

Affirmative action laws: require employers, schools,

and others to increase the representation of groups that

historically have experienced discrimination.

Affirmative action has proven much more contentious

than antidiscrimination laws.

Th F t f R i l d Eth i




A New Racial/Ethnic Divide? Affirmative action categorization of racial/ethnic groups

(nonwhite) as “people of color” implicitly reinforces

longstanding white/nonwhite divide.

Some evidence suggests that country is dividing into

three groups: whites, African Americans, and Hispanics.

Most evidence reveals a new divide: “black/nonblack.”

Intermarriage between whites and Hispanics, Asians,and Native Americans is more common.

Children born to white/African American parents are

identified as only one race/ethnicity: African American

This does not happen to children of other mixed parents.



Where This Leaves Us…

Racism and interethnic conflict are worldwide

problems.

These conflicts can be lessened or eliminated.

Ideas about race and ethnicity are social

constructions that change as societies change.

Prejudice and discrimination can be reduced

by: 1) combatting institutional and subtle racism

2) addressing social class inequalities

Economic hard times make social change very

difficult, yet crucial.