internal versus external control of reinforcement.pdf
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9 8 9 A P A A w a r d A d d r es s e s
Internal V ersus E xterna l ontrol o f R einforcem ent
Case H i s t o r y o f a Va r i abl e
Julian B. Rotter
University o f Connecticut
II IIIIIII Iii II II
AB ST RA C T: In this ar ticle the construc t o f general ized
expectancies fo r in ternal versus exter nal control of rein-
forc e me nt i s use d as a m ode l t o pre se n t a br i e f on t he
importance o f broad theory a nd training in theory con-
struction an d evaluation in psychology. Specif ically the
extraordinary heuristic value of this construct is attrib uted
to fo ur characterist ics: the nature o f the definition the
careful im bed ding o f the construct in a theoretical context
the use o f a b road behavior theory in construct ion o f a
measu re of indiv idual dif ferences and the progra mm at ic
nature o f the or iginal research a s wel l as the orm at o f the
early publications. Reeva luation o f the characterist ic cri-
ter ia for p ubl icat ion o f research s tudies a nd for the eval-
ua t ion o f promo t ion or advancemen t fo r psychologists in-
volved in research activities is also discussed.
Internal versus external control of reinforcement, often
referred to as locus of control, is currently one of t h e
most studied variables in psychology and the other social
sciences. Frequent studies have been done in fields as
diverse as political science and public health, and a test
of individual differences in locus of control has been
translated into many different languages. Current research
continues at approximately the same high rate as it did
20 years ago. Perhaps even more surprising has been the
relative success of a test o f individual differences in pre-
dicting behavior for many different populations in a way
that made good sense, rather than providing after-the-
fact explanations that strained credulity.
Briefly, internal versus external control refers to the
degree to which persons expect that a reinforcement or
an outcome o f their behavior is contingent on their own
behavior or personal characteristics versus the degree to
which persons expect that the reinforcement or outcome
is a function of chance, luck, or fate, is under the control
of powerful others, or is simply unpredictable. Such ex-
pectancies may generalize along a gradient based on the
degree of semantic similarity of the situational cues (Rot-
ter, 1966).
Numerous reviews of internal-external control re-
search and applications (Lefcourt, 1976, 1981; Phares,
1976) have been published, and last year Bonnie Strick-
land's (1989) APA presidential address brought much of
this literature up to date. I do not intend another review.
But the enormous and somewhat surprising popularity
of this variable is, in itself, interesting, and I will try in
this article to speculate on the reasons for the widespread
interest in locus of control.
Naturally, I rejected luck as an explanation, but at
first, I thought (Rotter, 1982b) that the social upheaval
of the times might be responsible. The ~g~etnam War,
Watergate, the inner-city riots, and political assassinations
were disturbing in themselves, but were also concerning
many people--including social scientists---because of the
perceived lack o f control over their own lives. Such factors
probably played some role in the interest in locus of con-
trol, as did the interest in the F Scale, a measure of implicit
antidemocratic or potentially fascist attitude (Adorno,
Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson, Sanford, 1950), follow-
ing World War II. However, on further reflection I felt
that there have frequently been such periods of social
upheaval in the past and that the explanation for the many
research studies published was probably due more to sci-
entifically technical reasons.
In the remainder of this article, I will discuss four
propositions that may account for the heuristic value of
interna l-external control, propositions that I believe are
particularly relevant to the field of personality theory and
personality measurement, but also to the study of psy-
chology as a whole.
The Importance of Precise Definition
The first proposition I would suggest is that the heuristic
value of a construct is partially dependent on the precision
of its definition. One might wonder why so many social
scientists in the last 30 years have been involved in study-
ing a concept that could not be regarded as anything new.
Surely in prerecorded history humans were concerned
with ideas of causality, and early recorded history is re-
plete with stories and myths describing events controlled
by capricious gods and fate, as well as the results of one's
own behavior. When social scientists emerged, they also
dealt with interpretations o f causality, beliefs in luck, fate,
notions of alienation (Seeman, 1959), and celestial inter-
vention. An interest in the perception of causality has
been present for a long time. What was needed was a
April 1990 American Psychologist
Copyright 1990 by the Am erican Psychologica l Associa tion, Inc . 0003-066X/90/ 00.75
Vol. 45, No. 4, 489--493
489
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c o n c e p t t h a t w a s c l ea r e n o u g h t o l e a d t o a c c e p t a b l e m e a -
s u r e m e n t .
A g o o d d e f i n i t i o n , e sp e c i a l l y o f a c o g n i t i v e o r su b -
j e c t i v e v a r i a b l e , m u s t b e s t a t e d i n l a n g u a g e t h a t i s c a r e f u l
a n d p r e c i s e a n d l e ad s t o a c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I t
n e e d s t o b e i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h m a n y b e h a v i o r a l e x a m p l e s
o f it s c o n se q u e n c e s i f i t s p r e se n c e o r a b se n c e i s n o t d i r e c t l y
o b se r v a b l e . I t sh o u l d b e s t a t e d i n su c h a w a y t h a t t h e
o p e r a t i o n s f o r i ts m e a s u r e m e n t a r e n o t o n l y c le a r b u t a r e
w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a s lo g i ca l a n d r e a s o n a b le . T e r m s s u c h a s
self-actualization, coping, intrinsic
v e r su s
ex tr ins ic too-
tivation, unconditional love , a n d cogni t ive psycholog y c r e -
a t e i n t e r e s t a n d e n t h u s i a sm , b u t e a c h s c i e n t i s t r e a d s h i s
o r h e r o w n m e a n i n g i n t o t h e c o n c e p t , a n d o p e r a t i o n s fo r
m e a s u r e m e n t e i t h e r d o n o t e x i s t o r v a r y s o m u c h t h a t
t h e r e s u l t in g r e s e a r c h p r o d u c e s a s e r ie s o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y
o r n o n r e p l i c a b l e s t u d ie s . I n 1 9 4 5 , H e r b e r t F e i g l p r o v i d e d
a s e t o f c r i t e r i a ( p . 2 5 8 ) f o r a g o o d o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n
t h a t w o u l d s t i ll p r o v i d e d i v i d e n d s t o p sy c h o l o g y , i f e v e r y
g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t i n p s y c h o l o g y w o u l d l e a r n a n d u n d e r -
s t a n d t h e m .
E v e n w i t h p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s , i t i s u su a l l y n e c e s sa r y
t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e c o n s t r u c t b e i n g d e f i n e d a n d
o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s u s e d i n t h e p a s t o r p r e s e n t w i t h w h i c h
i t c a n b e c o n f u se d , a s w e l l a s m a k i n g c l e a r t h e c o n n e c t i o n s
t o o t h e r c o n s t r u c t s s o t h a t p r e v i o u s l y c o ll e c t e d d a t a c a n
b e i n t e r p r e t e d a n d b u i l t o n .
T h e I m p o r t a n c e o f I m b e d d i n g a C o n s t r u c t
i n a B r o a d e r T h e o r y
T h e s e c o n d p r o p o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e h e u r i s ti c v a l u e o f a
c o n s t r u c t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y e n h a n c e d i f i t i s i m b e d d e d i n a
b r o a d e r t h e o r y o f b e h a v i o r. A l t h o u g h t h e m a j o r i t y o f
s t u d ie s o f l o c u s o f c o n t r o l h a v e d e a l t w i t h a p p l i e d p r o b -
l e m s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o r i g -
i n a t e d b o t h f r o m t h e o r e t ic a l a n d c l in i c a l c o n c e r n s , w i t h
s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y o r g a n i z i n g o u r t h i n k i n g i n b o t h
cases.
M o r e sp e c if i ca l ly , i n s e v e r a l o f o u r s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g
i n c r e m e n t s a n d d e c r e m e n t s o f e x p e c t a n ci e s f o ll o w in g b o t h
n e g a ti v e a n d p o s i t iv e o u t c o m e s , a l a rg e n u m b e r o f o u r
su b j e c t s w e r e n o t r a i s i n g t h e i r e x p e c t a n c i e s a f t e r su c c e s s
o r l o w e r i n g t h e m a f t e r f a i l u r e , a n d w e b e g a n t o s e e a
p a t t e r n o f d i f fe r e n c e i n s i t u a ti o n s i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t
b e l ie v e d t h a t s u c c e s s w as d e p e n d e n t o n o n e ' s o w n s k i ll
v e r su s t h o se s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h i t w a s c l e a r t h a t t h e e x -
p e r i m e n t e r w a s m a n i p u l a t i n g s u c c es s a n d f a i lu r e in d e -
Editor s note.
Th is article was originallypres ented as a Distinguished
Scientific Contributions award address at the meetingof the Am erican
PsychologicalAssociation n A tlanta in August 1988.
Award-based man uscripts appearing n the America n Psychologist
are scholarlyarticlesbased in part on earlieraward addressespresented
at the APA convention. n keeping with the po licy of recognizing hese
distinguished contributo rs o the field, hesesubmissionsare givenspecial
consideration in the editorial selectionprocess.
Author s note.
Correspondenceconcerning his article should be
addressed to Julian B . R otter, Departm ent of Psychology,U-20, Uni-
versity of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1020.
p e n d e n t l y o f th e s u b j e c t 's b e h a v i o r. M y i d e a s a b o u t t h e s e
f i n d i n g s c r y s t a l i z e d i n d i s c u s s i n g a p sy c h o t h e r a p y c l i e n t
w i t h J e r r y P h a r e s w h o I w a s s u p e r v is i n g . A s s u p e r v is o r ,
I w a s tr y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e c l i e n t' s b e-
h a v i o r f r o m a so c i a l l e a r n i n g p o i n t o f v ie w . T h i s c l i e n t ,
w h o m w e h a d p e r s u a d e d t o t r y o u t s o m e n e w b e h a v io r s
t h a t m e t w i t h s u c c e s s , p e r s i s t e n t l y e x p l a i n e d a w a y t h e
s u c c es s e s a s a m a t t e r o f lu c k a n d n o t l i k e ly t o h a p p e n
a g a in . H e a p p e a r e d , i n m o s t s i t u a ti o n s , t o f e el t h a t w h a t
h a p p e n e d t o h i m w a s e n t i r e ly b e y o n d h i s c o n t ro l . T h i s
l e d to o u r h y p o t h e s i s t h a t n o t o n l y d i d l e a rn i n g t a k e p l a c e
d i f f e r e n t l y i n c h a n c e v e r su s sk i ll s it u a t i o n s , b u t i t t o o k
p l a c e d i f f e r e n t ly a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s i n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t
m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a m b i g u o u s o r n o v e l o r t h a t h a d e l e -
m e n t s o f b o t h c h a n c e a n d s k il l.
A l t h o u g h t h e i m p l i c a t io n s f o r h u m a n l e a rn i n g t h e o r y
w e r e o f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th i s c o n -
s t r u c t, i t w a s a m e a s u r e o f re la t ive ly s t ab le , c ross- s i tua -
t i o n a l, i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c es t h a t c a p t u r e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f
m a n y a n d a c c o u n t e d f o r a t l e as t 9 0 o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s
t h a t f o l l o w e d .
T w o t h i n g s a b o u t t h i s p u z z l e d m e . O n e o f t h e s e w as
t h a t a l t h o u g h m a n y s o c ia l s c ie n t is t s w e r e e ag e r to u s e t h e
t e s t o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e y c l e a r l y d i d n o t u n d e r -
s t a n d t h e t h e o r y i n w h i c h i t w a s i m b e d d e d . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,
t h e y r e g a r d e d t h e se i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a s f i x e d t r a i ts ,
o r t y p e s . T h e n o t i o n o f a g e n e r a li z e d e x p e c t a n c y , o f
c o u r s e , i n v o l v e s t h e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y p r i n c i p l e o f g en e r -
a l i z a t io n a n d a g r a d i e n t o f g e n e r a l i z at i o n . S u c h a g r a d i e n t
i m p l i e s b o t h g e n e r a l i t y a n d sp e c i fi c it y , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s ,
n u m e r o u s a r t ic l e s w e r e w r i t t e n a n d p u b l i sh e d c h a l le n g i n g
t h e n o t i o n o f g e n e r a li t y b e c a u s e s o m e s p e c if i ci ty c o u l d
b e d e m o n s t r a t e d ( R o t t e r, 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e t h e o r y d o e s n o t
sp e c i f y i n d e p e n d e n t t ra i t s , f a c u l ti e s , o r t y p e s , b u t n u -
m e r o u s p s y c h o l o gi s ts h a v e t a k e n a 2 3 - i t e m t e s t, s u b j e c t e d
i t t o a n o r t h o g o n a l f a c t o r an a l ys i s, a n d c o n c l u d e d m i s -
t a k e n l y t h a t th e c o n c e p t h a d n o g e n e r a l i t y b e c a u s e s o m e
s p e c if i ci ty c o u l d b e d e m o n s t r a t e d . G e n e r a l i t y - s p e c i f i c i t y
i s a m a t t e r o f d e g r e e , n o t k i n d .
T h e s e c o n d t h i n g t h a t p u z z l e d m e w a s t h e r e a c t i o n
t o t h e s t ud i es o f p e r f o r m a n c e . M a n y o f t h e o r i g i n al s t u d ie s
o f i n t e rn a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l w e r e d o n e c o m p a r i n g g r o u p s
o n t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e o n s k i l l a n d c h a n c e t a s k s . S o m e -
t i m e s t h e t a s k s w e r e d if f e r e n t a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e s a m e
a m b i g u o u s t a s k w a s d e s c r i b e d d i f f e re n t l y t o g r o u p s o f
s u b je c ts . T h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e s e s t u d ie s w a s t h a t c h a n g e s
i n e x p e c t a n c i e s a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b o t h a c q u i s i t i o n a n d
p e r f o r m a n c e w e r e v e r y d i f fe r e n t f o r c h a n c e v e r s u s s k il l
t a sk s , n o t m e r e l y i n d e g r e e b u t i n k i n d . F o r e x a m p l e , i n
a n u m b e r o f r e p li c a t e d s tu d i es , w e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e
w e l l - k n o w n f i n d i n g t h a t 5 0 r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s m o r e re -
s i s ta n t t o e x t i n c t i o n t h a n 1 00 r e i n f o r c e m e n t w a s t r u e
o n ly
i n c h a n c e o r e x p e r i m e n t e r - c o n t r o l l e d ta s k s. I n s k il l
t a s k s i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t b e li e v es t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s
c o n t i n g e n t o n h i s o r h e r o w n sk i l l , t h e o p p o s i t e i s t r u e
( B l a c k m a n , 1 9 6 2 ; H o l d e n & R o t t e r , 1 9 6 2 ; J a m e s & R o t t e r ,
1 9 5 8; R o t te r , L i v e ra n t , & C r o w n e , 1 9 6 1) . O n e h u n d r e d
p e r c e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t is m o r e r e s i s t an t t o e x t i n c ti o n t h a n
5 0 r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
4 9 0 A p r i l 1 9 9 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g is t
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T h e s iz e o f t h e i n c r e m e n t s a n d d e c r e m e n t s f o ll o w in g
su c c e s s a n d f a i l u r e a l so d i f f e rs i n c h a n c e a n d sk i ll t ask s ,
a s d o e s t h e g e n e r a l i z a t io n o f e x p e c t a n c i e s f o r m o n e t a s k
t o a n o t h e r ( B e n n i o n , 1 9 6 1 ; B l a c k m a n , 1 9 6 2 ; P h a s e s ,
1 9 5 7 ; R o t t e r e t a l . , 1 9 6 1 ) . W h a t w a s s u r p r i s i n g t o m e
w a s t h a t t h e s e f i nd i n g s, r e p l i c a t e d w i t h a v a r i e t y o f t a sk s ,
w e r e n o t g r e e t e d b y a c h o r u s o f h u z z a h s b y l e a r n i n g th e -
o r i s ts a n d d i d n o t s t a r t u p a f l u r r y o f r e s e a r c h a s d i d t h e
p u b l i c a t i o n o f a m e a s u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l d i ff e re n c e s.
P a r t o f t h e r e a so n f o r t h i s , I b e li e v e , w a s t h a t l e a r n i n g
t h e o r y , o n c e t h e h e a r t o f p s y c ho l o gy , w a s b e i n g a b a n d o n e d
a s m o r e a n d m o r e e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y ch o l o g is t s w e r e tu r n -
i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y , c o g n i t iv e p sy ch o l o g y , t h e s t u d y
o f m e m o r y , a n d a r t i fi c i a l i n t e l li g e n c e .
I b e l ie v e t h is w a s p a r t l y t h e r e s u l t o f p r e s s u re , f r o m
s t u d e n t s a n d o t h e r s , t o m a k e t h e i r w o r k r e l e v a n t t o h u -
m a n s , b u t t h e e m p h a s i s i n t h e l e a r n i n g th e o r i e s o f t h e
t i m e w a s o n m o d e l s o f le a r n in g b a s e d o n a n i m a l s w h o
h a d n o l an g u a g e to d e v e l o p c o n ce p t s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y
g e n e r a li z e d o v e r m a n y f e w e r d i m e n s i o n s a n d , p r e s u m a b l y ,
d i d n o t e n g a g e i n c o m p l e x t h o u g h t p r o c e s se s . T h e p e n -
d u l u m h a s s w u n g a w a y f r o m l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s , b u t i t w i ll
sw i n g b a c k w h e n p sy c h o l o g i s ts a r e w i l l in g t o f a c e t h e m o r e
c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r s ta n d i n g a c q u is i ti o n a n d p e r-
f o r m a n c e i n h u m a n s . I t m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e p r e s en t t r e n d
t o w a r d s o m e t h i n g v a g u e l y c a l le d c o g n i t iv e t h e o r y b a s e d
o n c o m p u t e r m o d e l s r a th e r th a n c o m p l e x h u m a n s , w h o
i n f r e q u e n t l y b e h a v e r a t i o n a l l y , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y su f f e r t h e
s a m e f a t e a s d i d t h e l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s b a s e d o n a n i m a l
m o d e l s .
W h a t t h e s e l a s t t w o c o n c e r n s m e a n t o m e i s t h a t
m a n y p s y c h ol o gi s ts a re i n a d e q u a t e l y t r a i n e d i n t h e o r y n
n o t t h e m e m o r i z i n g o f s o m e p r i n c i p le s o r h y p o t h e s e s th a t
g o b y t h e n a m e o f t h e o r y , b u t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c h a r -
a c t e ri s t ic s o f g o o d t h e o r y a n d b a d t h e o r y , p r in c i p l e s o f
t h e o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e u s e o f t h e o r y t o t a c k l e a p p l ie d
p r o b l e m s .
M easu rem en t Pr in c ip les S h ou ld e Der ived
From Psych olog i ca l Th eory
T h e t h i r d p r o p o s i t i o n i s t h a t t h e p r e d i c t iv e v a l u e o f a te s t
i s l ik e l y t o b e i n c r e a s e d i f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f m e a s u r e m e n t
a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s a m e t h e o r y a s t h e c o n s t r u c t s t o b e
m e a s u r e d . T h e r e s p o n s e t o t e s t it e m s o r s ti m u l i i s i n d e e d
b e h a v i o r a n d , a s su c h , f o l l o w s p sy c h o l o g i c a l l a w s a s w e l l
a s a n y o t h e r b e h a v i o r . S t a ti s ti c al m e t h o d s a r e u s e f u l to o l s
b u t d o n o t s u b s t i t u t e f o r a t h e o r y o f b e h a v io r . F o r e x -
a m p l e , m a n y p e r s o n a l i t y te s t s a re c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g s ta -
t is t ic a l t e c h n i q u e s d e v e l o p e d t o m e a s u r e i n d e p e n d e n t
f a c u lt i es o f t h e m i n d , a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s
w o u l d d e n y b e i n g f a c u l t y p s y c h o l o g i s t s . C o r r e l a t i o n
a m o n g r e l a ti v e s ta b l e p e r so n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s i s t h e r u l e
n o t t h e e x c e p t i o n , a n d i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e u s e o f o r -
t h o g o n a l f a c t o r a n a ly s i s t o b u i l d p e r so n a l i t y te s t s is u su a l l y
m i s c o n c e i v e d .
T h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l ( I - E ) S c a l e ( R o t t e r , 1 9 6 6 ) w a s
c o n s t r u c t e d n o t o n l y b y k e e p i n g i n m i n d a t h e o r e ti c a l
v a r i ab l e a n d i ts h y p o t h e s i z e d c h a r a c t e r is t i c s b u t a ls o s o m e
i d e as o f t h e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o r s a n d s i t u a ti o n s w e w e r e
i n t e r e s t e d i n s t u d y i n g a n d t h e s u b j e c t s o r p o p u l a t i o n s w e
i n t e n d e d t o u se . I n so c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y ( R o t t e r , 1 9 5 4 ,
1 9 8 2 a ), a b a s i c a s su m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e u n i t o f i n v e s t ig a t i o n
f o r th e s t u d y o f p e r s o n a l it y i s th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e i n -
d i v i d u al a n d h i s o r h e r m e a n i n g f u l e n v i r o n m e n t . B e h a v i o r
i n d i f f e r e n t s i tu a t i o n s w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e m a y
b e a g r a d i e n t o f g e n e r a l i z a ti o n f r o m o n e s i t u a t i o n t o a n -
o t h e r .
I n s t u d y i n g l o c u s o f c o n t r o l , b e c a u se w e w e r e d e a l i n g
w i t h a b r o a d c o n s t r u c t i n t e n d e d t o s t u d y b e h a v i o r in a
v a r i e t y o f s it u a ti o n s , w e w a n t e d t o s a m p l e m a n y d i f f er e n t
s i tu a t io n s w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e t o t a l s c o r e m o r e d e p e n d e n t
o n o n e k i n d o f s it u a t i o n ( s u c h a s s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t )
t h a n o n a n o t h e r ( s u c h a s p o l it i ca l in v o l v e m e n t ) . W e d i d
n o t t r y f o r a h ig l~ a l p h a ( t h a t is , th e a c c e p t e d m e a s u r e o f
i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y ) b e c a u s e w e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e c o r -
r e l a t i o n s a m o n g d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r a l r e f e r e n t s f o r t h e
c o n c e p t w e r e p o s i ti v e b u t l o w . O n e c a n g e t v e r y h i g h a l -
p h a s b y a s k i n g t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n o v e r a n d o v e r a g a in ,
b u t t h e p r e d i c t i v e li m i t a t io n s o f s u c h a t e s t a re o b v i o u s .
N o t a l l , i n d e e d , n o t a n y , so - c a l l e d s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e t o t a l l y c r o s s - s i t u a t i o n a l a n d a t e s t w i t h a n a l p h a i n
t h e h i g h . 9 0 s i s s u s p e c t i n t h a t i t m a y w e l l b e m e a s u r i n g
r e s p o n s e s t y le m o r e t h a n p r o v i d i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m
p l e o f t h e b e h a v i o r s a n d s i t u a ti o n s o n e w i s h es t o p r e d i c t
o r i t m a y m e r e l y c o n si s t o f r e d u n d a n t i te m s .
A l o n g t h e se s a m e l i n e s , i t s e e m s f o o l i sh t o f o l l o w
t h e o f t e n u s e d p r o c e d u r e o f d o i n g a n i t e m s e l e ct io n o n
t h e b a s i s o f s o m e s i ng l e c r it e r i o n o b t a i n e d i n o n e s p e c i fi c
s i t u a t io n o n o n e h i g h l y h o m o g e n e o u s s a m p l e o f s u b j ec t s ,
w h e n o n e w a n t s t h e t e s t t o p r e d i c t b e h a v i o r i n s e v e ra l
d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t su b je c t s . I n c o n s t r u c t i n g
t h e I - E S c a l e w e m a d e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s a t u s i n g L i k e r t
f o r m a t s , b u t t h e s e e a r l y m e a s u r e s w e r e f o u n d t o b e t o o
h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e M a r l o w e - C r o w n e S o c i a l D e -
s i r a b i l it y S c a l e ( C r o w n e M a r l o w e , 1 9 6 4 ) . C o n s i s t e n t
w i t h s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y t h e n , t h i s i n s t r u m e n t t r e a t s
s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y n o t a s e r r o r t o b e t o t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d
b u t a s a m o t i v e a f f e c t in g c h o i c e b e h a v i o r i n t e s t -t a k i n g
a s w e l l a s o t h e r b e h a v i o r s . W e , t h e r e f o r e , m o v e d t o a
f o r c e d - c h o i c e f o r m a t t o b r i n g t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n d o w n t o a
r e a s o n a b l e l e v el . I m u s t n o t e h e r e t h a t a z e r o c o r r e l a t i o n
w i t h a m e a s u r e o f a n e e d f o r s o c ia l a p p r o v a l i s o n l y d e -
s i ra b l e i f o n e ' s t h e o r y o r e x p e r i e n c e d i c ta t e s t h a t t h e n e e d
f o r so c ia l a p p r o v a l i s i n f a c t u n c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e
o n e i s s t u d y i n g - - a n u n l i k e l y p r o b a b i l i t y w i t h p e r s o n a li t y
c h a r a c te r i s ti c s , w h i c h a l w a ys t e n d t o b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h
m a n y o t h e r v a r ia b l es .
T o i m p r o v e o u r i t e m s e l e c t i o n , w e d i d i n d e e d u s e
n o t o n e b u t t w o v e r y d i ff e r e n t c r i t e r ia a n d t w o p o p u l a -
t i o n s . O n e w a s c r i t e r i o n p e r f o r m a n c e o r c h a n g e i n e x -
p e c t a n c i e s o n a m b i g u o u s t a s k s u s i n g c o ll e ge s tu d e n t s
( R o t t e r e t a l. , 1 9 6 1 ) , a n d t h e o t h e r i n v o l v e d i n f o r m a t i o n -
s e e k i n g b e h a v i o r o n t h e p a r t o f p a t i en t s , m o s t l y n o n c o l -
l e g e - e d u c a t e d a d u l ts , i n a t u b e r c u l a r w a r d ( S e e m a n
E v a n s , 1 9 6 1 ) . I f a n i t e m p r e d i c t e d e i t h e r c r i t e r i o n s i g-
n i f ic a n t ly a n d c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e o t h e r i t e m s i n t h e s c a l e
s i g n if i ca n t ly h i g h e r t h a n i t d id w i t h t h e M a r l o w e - C r o w n e
m e a su r e , i t w a s r e t a i n e d . I n a l l, f iv e y e a r s o f r e se a r c h a n d
A p r i l 1 9 9 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g is t 4 9 1
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f iv e f o r m s o f th e t e s t w e r e u s e d b e f o r e w e a t t e m p te d t o
publ i sh th e sca le ( Jam es , 1957; Pha res , 1955; Rot te r , See-
man, & Live ran t , 1962) . I be l ieve the impl ica t ions a re
t h a t m u c h h a r d , t h o u g h t f u l , w o r k h a s t o g o i n t o d e v i s in g
a u s e f u l me a s u r e o f a p e r s o n a l i t y v a r ia b l e . O n e h a s t o
h a v e a t h e o r y o f b e h a v io r a n d , c o n s e q u e n t ly , o f te s t - ta k in g
b e h a v io r, a s w e l l as s o m e n o t i o n s o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p -
e r t ie s o f t h e v a r i a b l e b e in g s t u d i e d i n o r d e r t o d e v i s e a
c o n s t r u c t v a l i d me a s u r e .
I s u p p o s e I c o u ld p u t t h e s e i d e a s i n t h e f o r m o f a
q u e s t io n , H o w m a n y p s y c ho l o g is t s d o e s it ta k e t o c o n -
s t r u c t a n e w t e st ? O n e o f m y c o l le a gu e s , D o r o t h y H o c h -
r e i c h ( p e r s o n a l c o mmu n ic a t i o n , A p r i l 1 9 8 9 ) , s u g g e s t e d
t h e a n sw e r o f a t l ea s t f o u r . . , o n e t o t h i n k u p an d
d e f in e t h e v a r i a b l e , o n e t o c o l l e c t t h e d a t a , o n e t o d o t h e
s t a ti s t ic s a n d a f o u r th t o k e e p t h e o th e r t h r e e f r o m p u b -
l i s h in g p r e ma tu r e ly .
T h e i s sem in a t io n o f K n o w led ge
T h e f o u r t h p r o p o s i ti o n i s t h a t t h e r e s e a r ch m o n o g r a p h
i s a n i d e a l f o r m o f p u b l ic a t i o n f o r th e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f
k n o w le d g e . A t t h i s t ime , Current Contents a j o u r n a l t h a t
records c i ta t ions , r epor ts tha t s ince 1966 when I f i r s t
p u b l i s h e d t h e m o n o g r a p h o n i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l ,
t h e r e h a v e b e e n a t l e a st 4 ,7 0 0 c i t a t i o n s t o t h a t mo n o g r a p h
in t h e p s y c h o lo g i c a l a n d s o c i al s c i e n c e l i t e r a tu r e , a n u m -
b e r f a r i n e x c e s s o f a n y o th e r a r t i c l e i n t h e p s y c h o lo g i c a l
a n d s o c ia l s c ie n c e s f o r t h e s a me p e r io d o f t ime . I t w a s
a l so o n e o f t h e l a s t m o n o g r a p h s t o b e p u b l i s h e d b y t h e
A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n ( A P A ). (I a m n o t
s u r e w h e th e r t h i s w a s a c h a n c e o r c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h ip . )
H o w e v e r , A P A p u b l i c a t i o n s a p p e a r t o f a v o r s h o r t a r ti c l e s
p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u se o f t h e p r e s s ur e o f n u m e r o u s s u b -
m i t t e d m a n u s c r i p ts .
I t i s m y b e l i e f t h a t t h e r a p id s p r e a d o f i n t e r e s t i n
l o c u s o f c o n t r o l w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a r k e d l y t r u n c a t e d
w i th o u t t h i s k in d o f p u b l i c a t i o n . I n f a c t, t h e f i r st f u l l d e -
s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 62 a s a c h a p t e r
i n a t w o - v o l u m e b o o k e n t i t l e d
Decisions Value s and
Groups
e d i t e d b y N . F . W a s h b u r n e a n d w r i t t e n b y my s e l f ,
Me lv in S e e ma n , a n d S h e p h a r d L iv e r a n t . I n t h i s f o r ma t ,
i t d id n o t s e e m to r e a c h m a n y s o c i a l sc i e nt i st s , a n d l a t e r
a p p e a r in g a r t ic l e s ra r e ly c i te d i t . T h e m o n o g r a p h ( R o t t e r ,
1966) r epo r ted the h is tory o f r e la ted cons t ruc ts , a ca re fu l ,
e l a b o r a t e d e f i n i t i o n , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t ' s t h e o -
re t ica l r e la t ion to o the r v a r iab les in soc ia l lea rn ing theory ,
a s u m m a r y o f s t u d i e s o f c h a n c e a n d s k il l t a s k p e r f o r-
m a n c e , m e t h o d s o f t es t c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e t e st o f i n d i -
v id u a l d i f f e r e n ce s , a v a r i e ty o f n o r m s f o r d i f fe r e n t p o p -
u l a t i o n s , a n d a s u m m a r y o f r e s u l ts o f o v e r 2 0 v a l i d i t y
s tu d i e s i n v o lv in g v e r y d i f f e re n t k in d s o f c ri t e r i a a n d s t u d -
i es o f a n t ec e d e n t s a n d l o n g - te r m p r e d i c t io n s . M u c h o f
th e d a t a p r e s e n t e d h a d n o t b e e n p r e v io u s ly p u b l i s h e d .
T h e m o n o g r a p h i n c l u d e d s t a t e m e n t s o f l i m i t a t io n s f o r
t h e me a s u r e o f i n d iv id u a l d i f fe r e n ce s n o t o n ly f o r d i f f e re n t
s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n s b u t a l s o f o r t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d
b e h a v io r a l p r e d i c t i o n s . I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a d o z e n o r
mo r e s e p a r a t e a r t i cl e s s ca t t e re d t h r o u g h d i f f er e n t o u r n a l s
o v e r a p e r i o d o f a t l e a s t e ig h t y e a r s w o u ld h a v e r e a c h e d
a s m a n y p e o p le o r c r e a t e d n e a r l y a s m u c h i n te r es t .
I f p s y c h o l o g y i s t o a d v a n c e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h u m a n
b e h av i o r, i t n e e d s t o e m p h a s i z e p r o g r a m m a t i c r e s e a r c h
( w h e t h e r t h e o r e ti c a l o r a p p l ie d ) i n w h i c h t h e o r y a n d e m -
p i r i c a l f i n d in g s a r e c o m b in e d . I t n e e d s a l s o t o b u i l d o n
p a s t r e s e a rc h . T h e t e n d e n c y t o d i s mi s s t h e p a s t , e n c o u r -
a g e d b y t h e p r e s s u r e t o k e e p p u b l i c a t i o n s b r ie f , d o e s n o t
s p e e d u p t h e a c c u m u la t i o n o f s t a b le k n o w le d g e . O n e f o r m
o f t h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r n i c io u s , t h a t i s , t h e t e n d e n c y t o
u s e n e w t e r m s f o r o l d c o n c ep t s a n d t h e r e b y i g n o r e a ll t h e
r e s e a r c h t h e o r y p r e v io u s ly a c c u mu la t e d . K i r s c h ( 1 9 8 5 ,
1 9 8 6 ) h a s i l l u s t r a t e d t h e v a lu e o f s u c h a n a ly s e s i n h i s
d iscuss ion of an teced ents to the concep t of se l f- e f ficacy , '
a s h a v e Z u r o f f a n d R o t t e r ( 1 9 8 5) i n t h e i r h i s t o r y o f t h e
e x p e c t a n c y c o n s t r u c t .
I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e s t u m b l i n g b l o c k t o a c h ie v i n g
s u c h a n a tmo s p h e r e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i s t h e p r a c t ic e o f ma n y
e mp lo y e r s , i n c lu d in g o u r b e s t u n iv e r si t ie s , o f me r e ly
c o u n t in g p u b l i c a t io n s i n s t e a d o f e v a lu a ti n g t h e m f o r th e i r
c rea tive , heur is t ic , o r sc ien t i f ic me r i t . P rom ot ion s , tenure ,
a n d m e r i t r a is e s a re d e t e r m i n e d b y s u c h c o u n t s o f p u b -
l ic a ti o n s. L o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e a rc h i n h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t
a n d p s y c h o p a th o lo g y h a s s u ff e r e d f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n
because su ch re sea rch usu a l ly r equi re s seve ral yea r s be fore
th e r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l ab l e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n .
I h a v e s ee n s e v e ra l i n s ta n c e s i n w h ic h a n a u th o r h a s
tw o p u b l i c a t i o n s w h e n n o n e w o u ld h a v e b e e n p r e f er a b l e .
T h e f i r s t a r t i c l e r e p o r t e d s o me f i n d in g , a n d t h e s e c o n d
r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e f i n d in g d i s a p p e a r e d w h e n a n e w c o n t r o l
o r d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n w a s u s e d . M o s t a r t i c l e s I se e i n
th e j o u r n a l s a r e u n im p r e s s iv e b e c a u s e t h e y l a c k su f f ic i e n t
cont ro ls , the th eor y or s ign i f icance of the f ind ings is e i the r
n o t c l e a r o r n o t p r e s e n t , o r t h e r e i s n o t i e - i n w i th t h e
l a rg e n u m b e r s o f st u d i e s t h a t h a v e p r e c e d e d i t. I n d e e d , i f
t h e n u m b e r o f p u b l i c a t i o n s i n s c i e n t if i c j o u r n a l s w e r e a
me a s u r e o f h o w a d v a n c e d a s c i en t i fi c f i e ld w a s , t h e n p s y -
c h o lo g y m ig h t b e a t t h e f o r e f r o n t o f a ll t h e s c i en c e s . U n -
f o r tu n a t e ly , t h a t d o e s n o t s e e m to b e t h e c a se .
C h a n g in g p u b l i c a t i o n p o l i c ie s i s e a si e r t h a n c h a n g in g
the c r i te r ia for r ecogni t ion o f mer i t . S omew here , I be l ieve ,
a s t a r t n e e d s t o b e m a d e . A l t h o u g h t h e i m p o r t a n c e , l o ng -
t e r m s ig n i fi c a n c e, o r h e u r i s t i c v a lu e o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t
m a y b e h a r d t o e v a lu a t e a t t h e t ime o f it s p u b l i c a t i o n , i t
i s n o t a s h a r d t o e v a l u a t e th e t h o r o u g h n e s s , t h e c o n c e r n
f o r s c ie n t i fi c o b je c t i v it y , a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f
r e p l i c a ti o n . I t ma y b e t ime t o s t o p c lu t t e r i n g t h e j o u r n a l s
w i th h i t - a n d - r u n s t u d i e s t h a t a r e p r o p e r ly d e s ig n e d b u t
a d d l i tt l e t o im p r o v in g t h e o r y o r h a v e n o s e r io u s p r a c ti c a l
appl ica t ions .
I a m a w a r e t h a t t h e s e i d ea s a r e n o t n e w . Ma n y p s y -
c h o lo g i st s ha v e w r i t te n a b o u t o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e m ,
b u t w e a l l fe e l t h a t c h a n g e i s i n t h e h a n d s o f p o w e r f u l
o th e r s a n d t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r n o th in g w e c a n d o a b o u t i t .
B u t , p e r h a p s t h e r e i s , a n d t h e e f f o r t s o f ma n y c a n s t i l l
b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e .
I w o u ld h o p e t h a t a s t r a t e g y o f g r a d u a l c h a n g e c o u ld
b e w o r k e d o u t b y t h e e f f or ts o f s u c h g r o u p s a s t h e A P A
a n d A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i c a l S o c i e ty ( A P S ) B o a r d o f D i -
4 9 2 A p r i l 1 99 0 A m e r i c a n P s y c h o lo g i s t
-
8/9/2019 internal versus external control of reinforcement.pdf
5/5
r e c t o r s , t h e A P A S c i e n c e D i r e c t o r a t e , t h e A P A P u b l i c a -
t i o n s B o a r d , t h e C o u n c i l o f C h a i r p e r s o n s o f P s y ch o l o g y
D e p a r t m e n t s , a n d t h e g r o u p s o f d i r e c t o r s o f p s y c h o l o g y
t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s .
ummary
I t i s p r o b a b l y c l e a r b y n o w t h a t I h a v e u s e d g e n e r a l i z e d
e x p e c t a n c i e s o f i n t e r n a l v e r s u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e i n -
f o r c e m e n t a s a m o d e l f o r a b r i e f o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f
b r o a d t h e o r i e s i n p s y c h o l o g y . S u c h t h e o r i e s m a y h a v e s u f-
f e r ed a d ec l i n e w i t h t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f m o l e c u l a r l e ar n -
i n g t h e o r ie s . T r a i n i n g i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f th e -
o r i e s a n d i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o r e t ic a l c o n s t r u c t s a n d
t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s h a s a l s o d e c l i n e d . A s a r e s u l t , I b e l ie v e
g e n u i n e p r o g r e s s i n p s y c h o l o g y s u ff e rs . M u c h o f t h e l i t-
e r a t u r e f i l li n g o u r j o u r n a l s w i l l s o o n b e f o r g o t t e n a n d w i l l
g i v e w a y t o n e w f a d s a n d e n t h u s i a s m s t h a t w i l l b e l i t t le
b e t t e r t h a n t h e o n e s t h e y r e p l a c e .
P e r h a p s n o o n e h a s s a i d th i s b e t t e r th a n E . R . G u t h -
r i e i n h i s 1 9 4 6 p r e s i d e n t i a l a d d r e s s t o t h e A m e r i c a n P s y -
c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n :
F a c t s m a y a c c u m u l a t e w i t h o u t t h e o r y ; b u t t h e y w i l l p r o v e t o b e
u n s t a b l e a n d o f l i t t le p r o f i t i n t h e e n d . T h e o r i e s m a y f l o u r i sh i f
th e i r b a s i s l i e s n o t i n s c i e n t i f i c f a c t b u t i n o p in io n s a n d in t e r -
p r e t a t i o n s a c c e p t a b l e o n l y t o t h e m e m b e r s o f a l i m i t e d f a c ti o n ;
b u t t h e y w i l l b e b a d th e o r i e s . S c h o o l s flo u r i s h o n ly w h e n th e o r i e s
a r e n o t c a r r i e d b a c k t o p u b l i c f a c ts . U n l e s s p s y ch o l o g i st s m a i n -
t a in a n in t e re s t i n g e n e ra l t h e o ry th e f i e ld s o f p s y c h o lo g y w i l l
i n c r e a s i n g ly b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t c o l l e c ti o n s o f u n d i g es t e d i n -
f o r m a t i o n . ( p p . 1 9 - 2 0 )
I c a n o n l y a d d t o G u t h r i e ' s p r o p h e t i c w a r n i n g t h a t
i f t h e t h e o r i e s a r e g o i n g to a d d t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
h u m a n s , t h e y m u s t b e r o o t e d i n o b s e r v a b le s b u t a l s o m u s t
t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a n a n i m a l w h o i s
h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t o n a ri c h l a n g u a g e , w h o o f t e n b e h a v e s
i r r a ti o n a l ly , a n d w h o s e c o m p l e x t h o u g h t p r o ce s se s , m o -
t i v a t i o n s , a n d e m o t i o n a l s t a t es s e r i o u s l y a ff e c t b e h a v i o r .
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