international developments in upper secondary education - ncca

Research Report No.2

International Developments

in Upper Secondary Education

Context, provision and issues

Joanna Le Métais

International Developments in Upper Secondary Education

Context, Provision and Issues

Joanna Le MétaisHead of International Project Development,

National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER)

INCA Thematic Study No. 8

National Foundation for Educational Research

© NCCA 2003

ISSN 1649-3362

National Council for Curriculum and Assessment

24, Merrion Square, Dublin 2.

www.ncca.ie

ii

Contents

Acknowledgements iv

Preface v

Introduction 1

SECTION 1 Context and provision 5

1.1 Definition of upper secondary education 7

1.2 Aims 8

1.3 Organisation 15

1.4 Essential learning areas 25

1.5 Assessment and certification 41

SECTION 2 Issues and implications 57

2.1 Purposes and priorities: inclusion and responsiveness 59

2.2 Participation and engagement in education 69

2.3 Modes of delivery: diversification and differentiation 81

2.4 Curriculum: relevance, coherence and manageability 85

2.5 Teaching and learning 91

2.6 Assessment 95

Conclusion 97

References 99

APPENDICES Appendix 1:Structure of upper secondary education 104

Appendix 2:Institutional structure 108

Appendix 3:Essential learning areas/experiences 120


Acknowledgements

I should like to thank the National Council for Curriculum and

Assessment for sponsoring this study and, in particular, Stephen

McCarthy and John Hammond, for organising the associated

seminar and commenting on the report.

Appreciation is also due to the authorities and individuals in

participating countries for providing information and contributing

to the discussions.

Finally, I am grateful to Tom Levesley and Sharon O’Donnell for

commenting on the final report and to Jill Ware for its layout and

presentation.


iv

Preface

This paper has been sponsored by the National Council for

Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) in the Republic of Ireland.

The NCCA is a statutory body that advises the Minister of

Education and Science in matters relating to curriculum and

assessment for early childhood, primary and post-primary education.

The International Review of Curriculum andAssessment Frameworks (INCA) project

As part of its work in monitoring the curriculum in England, the

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) has commissioned

the National Foundation for Educational Research in England and

Wales (NFER) to undertake an international review of curriculum and

assessment frameworks in 18 countries1.The project, which began in

1996, is ongoing and the information it provides is intended to support

QCA in its evaluation of different methods of curriculum organisation.

The aims of the project are:

• to build an accurately researched and ready-to-use resource,

comprising a succinct description of the educational aims, structure

and organisation, and of the curriculum and assessment framework

in each country, collectively referred to as the INCA Archive2

• to help QCA analyse the outcomes of international comparisons

• to provide comparative tables and factual summaries in specific

areas of interest

• to provide detailed information on specific areas to enable

QCA to evaluate the English National Curriculum and

assessment frameworks.


v

1 Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea,the Netherlands, New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the USAand, since 2002,Wales.

2 O’Donnell, S. et al (2002).

Reactions to international comparisons

Reactions to international comparisons vary, but generally take one

of the following five forms:

1. ‘Quick fix’ searches for the key action or government regulation,

which may be transplanted from another country and, when

implemented, will transform the nation’s pupils into high

performers.This approach lacks realism because it ignores the

different social, economic, cultural, religious and family contexts

and influences within which educational systems operate.

2. Understanding other systems, through a study of the characteristics

that are perceived to contribute to the relative success of high-

performing countries, is a more constructive approach. However,

whilst this approach makes it possible to learn about the interplay

of different goals and other variables, it may merely confirm

cultural differences without bringing about improvements.

3. Exploring the causes of one’s own country’s relative position in

international tests approaches the issue from a different angle. For

example,Wang et al. (1990) identified classroom/psychological

variables as among the most important influences on learning.

However, changes in these variables may be difficult to

implement, they may have significant ramifications for the

curriculum and they may involve choices between different

resource priorities.

4. Informed self-review, using international indicators, relative success

or weakness and contributory causes to evaluate progress from a

national perspective, may result in a set of ideas and priorities for

action. External evidence of relative performance, based on pupil

outcome differences, helps to avoid two weaknesses of self-


vi

review: uncritical acceptance of traditional problems and

traditional solutions, and undue influence of local and current

priorities. Because it looks for solutions to problems within one’s

own context, it does not pursue the task of understanding other

systems as a substitute for action at home.

5. Linking progress to purpose is essential.The race to be ‘top of the

league’ may not be in students’, nor in a country’s, best interest.

There is enormous scope for demotivation, given that only one

country can ‘win’. Moreover, educational purpose is an important

determinant of progress. It is therefore necessary to use the

comparative information on possible outcomes, in order to

address questions such as:

What does the nation want its achievements to be?

Does the nation want to do (equally) well in all subjects?

Can performance be improved in all subjects, or only in one

at the expense of others?

What effect would pursuing higher performance in

(for example) science, English and mathematics have on

the overall breadth of the curriculum?

Steps 4 and 6 on this list provide the most effective rationale for the

use of the International Review of Curriculum and Assessment

Frameworks project.


vii

Thematic studies

Thematic studies are conducted into specific themes to provide:

• richer descriptions of practice in the countries concerned

• clarification of context

• an analysis of fundamental issues, related to the English

framework.

They draw on the INCA Archive, but involve an in-depth thematic

study of the literature and/or a seminar, which brings together QCA

officers, the project team and invited participants from most of the

contributing countries. Preparation for the seminars includes

verification and completion of the INCA Archive information by

seminar participants. It is fundamental to the seminars, as it is to the

INCA Archive, that diversity be respected and that all seek to learn

from a deeper understanding of such diversity.Through such

understanding, it should become easier to predict the ramifications

of changes that any country might be considering.

Although all of the thematic studies are initiated from the national

perspective of the commissioning body, the involvement of educators

from other countries in the information gathering and the seminars

broadens the perspective and the usefulness of the reports. Readers

should note that responsibility for education in the UK lies with the

national education departments and ministries, namely the

Department for Education and Skills in England

(http://www.dfes.gov.uk/index.htm), the Department of Education

Northern Ireland (http://www.deni.gov.uk), the Scottish Executive

Education Department

(http://www.scotland.gov.uk/who/dept_education.asp), and the

National Assembly for Wales Education Department

(http://www.learning.wales.gov.uk).


viii

This paper constitutes the eighth of the thematic studies.

The previous studies, available on-line at

http://www.inca.org.uk/thematic.asp, are:

Le Métais, J. (1997). Values and aims in curriculum and assessment.

London: SCAA.

Tabberer, R. (1997). Primary education: expectations and provision.

London: SCAA.

Ruddock, G. (1998). Mathematics in the school curriculum: an

international perspective. London: QCA.

Kerr, D. (1999). Citizenship education: an international comparison.

London: QCA.

Greenaway, E. (2000). Lower secondary education: an international

perspective. London: QCA.

Sharp, C. and Le Métais, J. (2000). The arts, creativity and cultural

education: an international perspective. London: QCA.

Bertram,T. and Pascal, C. (forthcoming 2002). Early years education.

London: QCA.


ix

I N T R O D U C T I O N


1

The end of the 20th Century has seen education rise to the top of

the political agenda in developed and developing countries alike. It is

interesting to note the increase in the rate and scale of reforms

which have been, or are being, introduced to enable nations and

individuals to meet the challenges of the 21st century.As the time

for elections draws near3, so the pressure to solve economic, social

and other problems through education increases. However, whilst

there are many similarities in the perceived needs and even in the

terminology used to identify the solutions, the purpose and

approaches adopted differ according to national context and

heritage. For example, examination reforms in England and the

Netherlands have contrasting objectives, namely to increase

flexibility and the breadth of studies (England), and to limit student

choices and focus their attention on a narrower range of subjects, in

preparation for higher education (the Netherlands).

In this context, there have been many changes in the organisational

structure and in the nature, content, and assessment of learning at

upper secondary level in most of the countries4 participating in the

International Review for Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks

(INCA) project.


2

Introduction

3 For example, France (President and Parliament), Ireland, the Netherlands, and NewZealand.

4 At the time this thematic study was commissioned they were:Australia, Canada,England, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands,New Zealand, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the USA.Representatives from Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales also attended theseminar, but their systems are not described.

This thematic study aims to stimulate reflection and inform debate,

by identifying the main issues facing upper secondary education and

exploring aims and models of provision and experiences in a range

of countries. For this purpose, upper secondary education is taken to

mean the education of young people aged about 15 to about 19

years of age, within the school sector (see Appendix 1).

Section 1, Context and provision, outlines the aims, organisation and

content of upper secondary education, which serve as a basis for the

discussion of issues and implications in Section 2. It draws on the

INCA Archive (O’Donnell, S. et al, 2002) additional documentation,

and the international seminar held in Dublin Castle from 20-22

February, 2002.


3


4

S E C T I O N 1

Context and provision


5


6

INTRODUCTION

This section sets out, in summary form, current policies for the

provision of upper secondary education in the INCA project

countries under the following headings:

• Definition of upper secondary education

• Aims

• Organisation

• Essential learning areas

• Assessment and certification.

The comparison of educational outcomes is complex, since national

statistics are collected in different ways and for different purposes.

Those submitted for international comparisons (e.g. UNESCO,

OECD and EUROSTAT) may therefore differ from national

reports. It has not been possible to find comparable statistics for all of

the countries involved and readers are therefore advised to consult

national statistical sources for those countries that interest them.

1.1 Definition of upper secondary education

Upper secondary education caters for students aged 15/16 to 18/19,

and may be offered in a range of establishments.This study focuses

Context and provision

on the education of young people aged about 15 to about 19 years

of age, within the school sector (see Appendix 1). There is a trend

towards requiring or encouraging universal attendance until age 18.

In most countries, compulsory education ends in the year in which

students reach the age of 15 (most states in Australia, most provinces

in Canada, Ireland, Italy, Japan and Korea5) or 16 (Tasmania in

Australia, England, France, Hungary, New Zealand6, Singapore7,

Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the USA).

In Germany, full-time education is compulsory until the age of

15/16.Thereafter, young people are required to attend school at least

on a part-time basis until they reach the age of 18/19 years.

In the Netherlands, students who leave full-time education at the

age of 16 must continue in at least part-time education until the age

of 18; this does not apply to students who continue in full-time

education until the age of 17.

Public sector upper secondary education is free in all countries

except Italy, Korea, and the Netherlands, where fees are charged to

those above compulsory school age8. However, parents whose

income falls below a specified amount may apply for a reduction or

remission of the fees.


7

5 Participation in upper secondary education (i.e. age 15-18) is virtually universal.

6 Students with an early leaving exemption may leave school at age 15; many ofthese enter youth training courses or courses offered by other tertiary providers.

7 Education is not compulsory, but there is universal attendance until the age of 16.Upper secondary education caters for students aged 16/17 to 18-20.

8 In Italy, education is free for students aged 6 to 15. In Korea, education is free forone year of pre-compulsory and nine years of compulsory education, i.e. age 5 to15. In the Netherlands, education is free during the period of compulsory full-time education, i.e. students aged 4-16.


8

1.2 Aims

As countries increasingly encourage young people to remain in

education beyond the minimum school leaving age, educational aims

and purposes are expressed for education in general (early years

through to upper secondary) or for the whole secondary phase.

Upper secondary students can exercise the greatest level of choice

between subjects according to their particular talents and aspirations.

However, mobility of individuals within and between countries

means that attention must be given to comparability and recognition

of upper secondary and higher education qualifications.

In general terms, aims and objectives may be grouped into five main

areas, as follows:

• Individual/personal: developing individual potential; character

education.

• Economic: employability or meeting employers’ needs; productivity

and enhancing the national economy, particularly in relation to

European or international competitors. In New Zealand,

competitiveness is one of the essential skills, alongside

cooperation, which students are expected to develop.

• Social and cultural: inclusiveness, developing a fair society, social

justice; recognising the cultural and linguistic diversity of society;

recognising bicultural heritage (especially in Canada and New

Zealand9); promoting democracy or citizenship education.

9 Recent changes to the National Education Guidelines require schools tostrengthen links with their communities, be more responsive to Mäori students andfocus on raising Mäori achievement. Initiatives include: measures to attract moreMäori teachers; continued support for the development and use of Mäorilanguage; and development of teaching materials providing a more meaningfullearning context for Mäori students.

• Knowledge, skills, standards: raising standards; stimulating creativity;

stressing the importance of maths and science; preparation for the

Information Society10.

• Extending learning: raising participation in post-compulsory

education; preparing for lifelong learning.

1.2.1 Phase-specific aims

In many of the countries in the study, educational aims apply to all

phases, or are implicit in the required areas of learning (for example,

breadth of study, study skills). However, eleven countries identify

explicit aims for the upper secondary phase.

In England, the government has recently made proposals for 14-19

education to be treated as a single continuous phase, with greater

opportunities for individualised learning.

This aims to respond to the needs, talent and aspirations of each

student by ensuring that

• young people are enabled to choose pathways among a range of

academic, vocational, and workplace learning opportunities

• the pathways available allow young people to move between

them as their talents and interests change

• able students are encouraged to take qualifications earlier than

their peers


9

10 In many countries, schools are (being) linked to the Internet, and there areinitiatives to identify effective teaching practices using ICT, involving partnershipsbetween schools, and between schools and businesses.

• the range of vocational qualifications is strengthened and given

parity with GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education)11

• consideration is given to increasing the time available in the 14-

16 curriculum for vocational study

• clear ladders of progression are provided, supported by

appropriate high quality qualifications. (DfEE, 2001).

In France, the overall aim of general education is not presented in

terms of employability, even if this must be achieved, but rather in

the perspective of personal development. However, one aim is to

promote integration into working life, and to establish the principle

that every young person must be given the opportunity to take up

vocational training before s/he leaves the education system,

regardless of the level of education he or she has completed.

In Ireland, senior cycle education (age 15-18) aims to prepare students

for life in a rapidly changing society, and to integrate developments

in the area of vocational training with general education policy, to

encourage and facilitate students to continue in full-time education

during the post-compulsory period by providing a stimulating range

of programmes suited to their abilities, aptitudes and interests.The

objectives are to develop each student’s potential to the full, and

equip them for work or further education. Leaving Certificate

programmes place a particular emphasis on the preparation of

students for the requirements of further education or training, for

employment and for their role as participative, enterprising citizens.

The aim of general upper secondary education in Italy is to prepare

students for university and other forms of higher education in the


10

11 GCSE examinations are normally taken at age 16.

classics, science, medicine, and in the fine arts.The aim of technical

and vocational branches is to prepare students for work.All schools

have to produce an educational plan taking into account the

economic and socio-cultural demands of the local area. In upper

secondary schools, this plan must also include students’

desires/proposals.The active participation in decision-making is seen

as helping students to prepare for adult and working life.

In Korea, upper secondary education aims to build on middle school

education and provide advanced general and specific education to

help students (age 15 to 18) to acquire abilities essential for

progressing along their chosen career path and developing as world

citizens. It aims specifically

• to help students develop a well harmonised character, along with

a sound body and mind, and a mature sense of identity

• to help students develop the abilities and aptitudes of logical,

critical and creative thinking required for academic pursuits

and life

• to enable students to obtain knowledge and skills in diverse

fields, so that they will be able to carve out a career in

accordance with their aptitudes and interests

• to encourage students to work to develop Korean traditions and

culture in a way appropriate for the global setting

• to help students endeavour to build and develop the national

community and to develop an awareness of, and appropriate

attitudes for, global citizenship.


11

The New Zealand Curriculum Framework addresses the aims of

education for students of compulsory and post-compulsory age, to

prepare them for adult and working life and to lay the foundations

for lifelong learning.There is particular concern about the number

of students leaving with no, or limited, qualifications (increasing

from 16 per cent in 1991 to 19 per cent in 2000) and, within this

number, the relative over-representation of Mäori and Pacific Island

students and students of low socio-economic status.12

Recognising that the wealth of Singapore is her people, major

educational objectives include equipping people with a broad set of

skills to respond to opportunities in the new economy.The mission

statement of the Singapore education service ‘Moulding the Future

of the Nation’ sums up and reflects the role of the education service

as a force in shaping the character and economic capacity of the

people, while enhancing their national and cultural consciousness

and ensuring their commitment to their family, their community

and nation.The national education programme aims to ensure that

young people remain rooted in Singapore even if they leave in later

life to work elsewhere. Upper secondary education programmes aim

to teach young people to lead Singapore, following on from primary

education’s aim to teach children to love Singapore, and lower

secondary education to know about Singapore.Accordingly, Singapore

is currently implementing an ability-driven (instead of efficiency-

driven) paradigm, which allows for greater flexibility in secondary

school streams and courses, according to individuals’

talents/aspirations.


12

12 In 20 years time, Mäori/and/or Pacific Island students are projected to compriseover a third of all secondary students. Mäori students and Pacific Island studentscurrently form between 22-25 percent of all school leavers, yet between 36 and 39percent of school leavers with no qualifications.

Spain expresses separate objectives for general and vocational

education. General upper secondary education (leading to the

Bachillerato) complements compulsory lower secondary education,

helps students attain personal and intellectual maturity and prepares

them for university education, vocational studies or for employment.

Specific vocational training is designed to prepare students for

relevant occupational qualifications and to facilitate their transition

to working life, to contribute to continuing training for all citizens

and to meet industry’s demand for skilled employees. Since 2000,

priority in vocational studies is being given to greater relevance in

course content and in-company work placements, and scientific and

technological development, intended to promote effective

integration into the work-place.

In Sweden, the fundamental values underpinning education stress

the individual rather than society.The system strives to maintain a

balance between democratic and basic values on the one hand, and

the development of knowledge and skills (whether in general or

vocational tracks) essential for the economic prosperity of the

individual and society, on the other. Upper secondary education

builds on compulsory education in order to

• deepen and develop the knowledge of students to prepare them

for further learning and working life. Changes in working life,

new technology, internationalisation and the complexity of

environmental issues impose new demands on people’s

knowledge, ways of working, and adaptability

• develop a desire to learn, self-confidence, the skills to manage

change, and the ability (as independent learners) to feel secure in

situations of uncertainty, as a foundation for lifelong learning, in

formal, non-formal or informal environments


13

• help students develop their personalities, and an interest in

culture and the humanities and provide the general education

necessary to play a full and responsible role as citizens in a

democratic society.

A parliamentary committee, Committee 2000, is currently reviewing

the upper secondary system.

In Switzerland, despite cantonal autonomy in matters of education,

there is some federal collaboration in upper secondary education,

formulated in the Federal Rule on Vocational Training and the

Federal Maturity Regulation. Upper secondary education aims to

support students’:

• personal development

• socialisation, in the sense of integrating the younger

generation into the local, national, and to an

increasing extent, into the European and global

society, by means of introducing them to essential

and cultural values

• achievement of an economic (i.e. professional)

qualification.

In the USA, the federal Educate America Act of 1994 set a series of

goals, including that

• …all students will leave … Grade 12 [at age 17/18],

having demonstrated competency over challenging

subject matter including English, mathematics,

science, foreign languages, civics and government,

economics, arts, history, and geography ….


14

• … all students learn to use their minds well, so they

are prepared for responsible citizenship, further

learning and productive employment in the nation’s

modern economy…

• … by 18 years of age students will be prepared for,

and able to afford, college.

1.3 Organisation

Upper secondary education is often provided in a range of different

establishments.These, and the qualifications offered, are described

below and in Appendix 2, in order to provide a comprehensive

context. However, the description of essential learning areas and

assessment, and the discussion of issues and implications in this report

focus principally on education in schools and comparable institutions,

which leads to upper secondary leaving certificates and grants access

to theory-based or other types of post-secondary education13.

1.3.1 Grouping by age

Distinctions may be made between schools that offer only upper

secondary education (for example, some states in Australia, Canada,

France, Italy, Japan14, Korea, Singapore and Sweden.), and those that

combine lower and upper secondary general education within the

same institution (for example, England15, Germany, Hungary, Ireland,


15

13 OECD statistics designate as ISCED 3A programmes those primarily designed toprepare students for theory-based studies at tertiary level (Tertiary Type A studies)and as ISCED 3B those which prepare students for other forms of post-secondaryeducation (Tertiary Type B).

14 A number of experimental all-through secondary schools, for students aged 12-18,were introduced in 1999.

15 Of the 3170 secondary schools, around 1800 also have sixth forms catering foryoung people of post-compulsory age up to age 18+.

the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain16, Switzerland, the USA).

Structural arrangements mean that, to complete compulsory

education, students who have not repeated a year during the lower

secondary phase are required to transfer to upper secondary school

for at least one year in France and Italy (since 1999) or two years in

parts of the USA.

In addition, many countries offer upper secondary education in

non-school establishments, where young people and adults may take

general or vocational education courses on a full-or part-time basis.

1.3.2 Grouping by curriculum

A second distinction may be made between integrated systems, where

schools offer both general and (pre-) vocational education within the

same institution, and segregated systems, whose schools offer mainly

one type of education (for example, academic, technical, artistic,

vocational, in Italy).

In some countries (for example, England, New Zealand17), students

may obtain the same qualifications regardless of whether they attend

a school or another educational institution.

Only two countries offer a transition or orientation year after the

conclusion of lower secondary phase. In France, all students (unless

they have repeated a class in lower secondary education) must

transfer to the orientation year (seconde), which simultaneously marks

the start of upper secondary education and the final year of


16

16 There are some Bachillerato schools catering solely for students aged 16-18, butthese are rare.

17 Access to a wider range of further training opportunities over the last few years,has meant that New Zealand students are increasingly choosing to do theirlearning in institutions other than schools

compulsory schooling.This is intended to help students choose

between the various academic and vocational tracks leading to the

baccalauréat, other forms of education and training, or employment.

In Ireland, the Transition Year is optional. In the current review of

the senior secondary cycle, consideration is being given to the

potential offered by this structure to allow students to reflect on and

consolidate their knowledge, before making further educational or

career choices.

a) Integrated systems

Canada: In most jurisdictions, senior high schools

comprise Grades 10-12 (age 16 to 18)18.

In British Columbia, they include only

Grades 11 and 12 and in Quebec, they end in

Grade 11, which is followed by two or three

years at a general and vocational college.

In Ontario, High Schools cater for 14 to 18

year-olds, of which only the final year is

post-compulsory. Students may take a range

of courses.

England: 16 to 19 year-olds may continue their

education in the sixth forms of secondary

schools and/or in further education

institutions (which cater for students of all

ages over 16). Both offer courses leading to

general or vocational qualifications.

Specialisation is currently being encouraged


17

18 Due to differences between provinces, senior high school may start at age 15 or 16and end at age 17 or 18.

in secondary schools (age 11-16, or 11-18)19

and there are further education institutions

(age 16+) specialising in agriculture and

horticulture, or art, design and the

performing arts.

Ireland: Upper secondary education is offered in

secondary schools, vocational schools,

community schools and comprehensive

schools.This comprises an optional Transition

Year and courses leading to three forms of

leaving certificate: the Leaving Certificate

(Established), Leaving Certificate (Vocational)

and the Leaving Certificate (Applied).

New Zealand: Most secondary schools provide post-

compulsory upper secondary education for

those aged 16 to 18 (Years 12 and 13).There

is a trend for students to transfer to college

for the upper secondary phase, even though

this requires them to pay fees.The National

Qualifications Framework is increasing

opportunities for students to combine studies

in school, college and private institutions.

Some specialisation is being encouraged

through the development of academies, for

example, sports academies, defence force


18

19 There are currently Technology Colleges, Languages Colleges, Sports Colleges andArts Colleges.The government is seeking to increase the number of specialistsecondary schools in England to 1,000 by 2003 and to 1,500 by 2006, in additionto broadening the range of specialisations offered within the programme.

academies, electronics academies.The main

innovations over the last ten years have been

the development of alternative and non-

traditional courses to improve the retention

and meet the needs of students staying on in

Years 12 and 13 and to facilitate their smooth

progression from school to tertiary education

or employment. It is becoming increasingly

possible for students to take some subjects in

a senior secondary school, some in a

polytechnic and/or some in a private training

establishment, as part of a ‘seamless’

programme.

Spain: Most secondary schools provide compulsory

secondary education (age 12-16) and post-

compulsory, upper secondary education.

Courses leading to four types of Bachillerato as

well as courses leading to Intermediate Level

vocational qualifications are offered in the

same establishments, to promote parity of

esteem (between general and vocational

education), and to promote equality and

enhance opportunities (between students

from different backgrounds). Specialist art

colleges offer full-time education for those

moving to higher education in the arts.


19

Sweden: Upper secondary education is integrated

within municipal gymnasieskola, so that all 17

programmes (of which 15 are primarily

vocational) offer access to higher education.

Specialised studies in agriculture, forestry,

horticulture and certain caring professions

take place in schools run by county councils.

USA: Upper secondary education is provided in

High Schools catering for students aged 14 to

18 (varies by state and district). In addition to

normal High Schools, some states have

introduced magnet schools, which offer a

particular educational philosophy or

curricular speciality.There are also, in some

states, Vocational or Technical High Schools,

which concentrate on trade and industrial

courses, and whose facilities are available for

(re-)training adults.

b) Segregated systems

These countries make separate institutional provision for

general and vocational education.

Australia: In some states, students remain in secondary

school; in others they transfer at around age

16 to a senior secondary college20.These

colleges provide mainly general education,

and have sometimes been created to allow for


20

20 In the Australian Capital Territory, all public sector schools end at Year 10 andthere is government-funded provision in Technical and Further Education (TAFE)Colleges.

greater curricular diversity than would be

possible in small, all-through secondary

schools.Vocational education is usually

provided in technical and further education

(TAFE) colleges.

France: Education leading to the Baccalauréat is

offered in general and technological lycées and

vocational lycées. Both cater for students aged

15 to 18 and cover the final year of

compulsory education (seconde), followed by

two years of post-compulsory education.

Germany: Full-time general education leading to the

Abitur is offered in the upper classes of the

Gymnasium (gymnasiale oberstufe). The

Berufliche gymnasium or Fachgymnasium offers

upper secondary preparation in career-

oriented subjects such as business studies,

engineering, agronomy, etc. which grant

access to higher vocational education. Other

vocational education courses, both full-time

and part-time, are offered in a range of

vocational establishments, where students

continue to receive some general education.

Hungary: Upper secondary education is offered in

secondary grammar schools, secondary

vocational schools, or vocational training

schools.


21

Italy: Different types of licei offer upper secondary

education courses in general humanities,

general science and fine arts education.

Separate istituti offer technical and vocational

education. In the context of devolved

responsibilities to school level, there has been

a trend towards merging academic/vocational

provision in order to reduce social

differences.

Japan: Upper secondary education is offered in

academic senior high schools, colleges of

technology, special training colleges, or

miscellaneous colleges. It should be noted

that, in Japan, post-compulsory upper

secondary courses provided in any institution

other than the senior high school, are often

classified as higher education.

Korea: There are two categories of schools. General

high schools cater for 64 per cent of students.

This category includes special purpose high

schools, for students who are talented/gifted

in the arts and music, athletics, foreign

languages and science.Vocational (and

comprehensive) high schools cater for 36 per

cent of students, who normally go into

employment. However, students from

vocational schools are also tending to

continue their studies in higher education.


22

Netherlands21: The post-compulsory classes of secondary

schools offer general education leading to

VWO and HAVO qualifications respectively.

Outside the schools sector, MBO institutions

offer vocational education and training.

VWO leads to university studies, and HAVO

and MBO qualifications grant access to non-

university higher education.

Singapore: Upper secondary education is offered in

four types of institution. Junior Colleges22

(two-year courses) and Centralised Institutes

(three-year courses) cater for the 25-30

per cent of students who take the Singapore

Cambridge GCE A Level and go on to

higher/tertiary education. Outside the

schools sector, Polytechnics offer three-year

courses (for some 40 per cent of students)

leading to a Diploma, and Institutes of

Technical Education cater for the 20 to 25

per cent who go into employment.


23

21 Secondary education is divided into three types, named according to the finalqualification for which each prepares its student. VMBO provides general pre-vocational education for students aged 12 to 16 and grants access to anintermediate vocational education establishment (MBO). HAVO prepares studentsaged 12-17 for the general upper secondary education certificate, which grantsaccess to non-university higher education. VWO (pre-university) prepares studentsaged 12 to 18 for university entrance.This is further subdivided into three streamsaccording to whether the student specialises in classical studies, languages or socialsciences.

22 Junior Colleges are currently under review

Switzerland: The Gymnasium (Maturitätsschule) provides

general education in preparation for Matura

examination and university entrance. Other

general, academic schools prepare students for

non-university professions, for example,

paramedical and social welfare. French-

speaking collèges in certain Swiss cantons offer a

common curriculum leading to the maturité

fédérale. This pan-cantonal curriculum was

introduced in 1995 and is expected to be fully

operational by 2002. Some 70 per cent of

young people attend separate institutions of

vocational education, including those

providing initial teacher training for teachers

of pre-compulsory and primary school pupils,

which is currently classified as upper

secondary education.

1.4 Essential Learning Areas

Approaches to ensure that the ‘essential’ elements are included in

school curricula include:

• Student entitlement. This may be expressed in terms of time

allocation (for example, in Sweden) or subjects to be offered, but

which students can choose not to take (for example, religious

education in Italy).

• Establishing compulsory requirements. A distinction must be

made here between required experiences (for example,

attendance at specified courses, participation in activities) and

conditions for graduation. In terms of experiences, whilst


24

students are expected to compile a programme of study that

covers a minimum number of hours per week, the degree of

choice varies considerably. Most countries require students to

study the national language23 and mathematics24, and many also

insist upon the study of a science subject, a humanities subject

and an arts subject. Physical education constitutes part of the

school week in most countries, although it is not usually part of

the examination programme25.The countries that prescribe fewest

subjects are England (none26) and Ireland (Irish).

There is wide variation in the requirements for the qualification

awarded at the end of upper secondary education and which

normally determines access to higher education.At one end of

the continuum, neither the number of subjects, nor the

disciplines to be studied for accreditation are prescribed (for

example, students in England may achieve accreditation at upper

secondary level in a single subject of their choosing) whilst at the

other, Korea prescribes nine areas, as well as guidance and

military training. Graduation requirements in parts of Canada and

the USA include community service.


25

23 England:There are no GCE Advanced Level qualifications in English language (thesubject studied is English literature). Students develop their English language skillsthrough the study of other disciplines and their ability to express their ideas hastraditionally been assessed through written essays. However, since 2000, specificattention is paid to communication skills as part of the Key Skills programme.

24 Not compulsory in England, Ireland, Singapore or Spain.

25 Except in Spain, where theoretical study is also required.

26 Schools must offer religious education, but students may be exempted at therequest of their parents, or, if they are aged over 18, at their own request.

• Mobilising ‘consumer’ pressure. Subject offerings and student

choices tend to be driven by the (perceived and known)

expectations of universities and of industry. One way of securing

student and institutional commitment to (non-examined) key

skills (see 1.4.4) is for higher/further education institutions and

employers to list these among their requirements.

The compulsory elements at upper secondary level are often

determined by the requirements of the qualification to be obtained.

Students in countries with multiple upper secondary tracks (for

example, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland) are subject to

different regulations depending on the targeted final qualification.

However, virtually all countries identify subject, content and/or skill

areas that are deemed essential preparation for adult and working life

(see Appendix 3). In most cases, these are a combination of the

following elements:

• areas of general study, including non-examination subjects, which

are compulsory for all students

• compulsory elements within a chosen specialisation or track

• elective subjects (general or specialist)

• cross-curricular or key skills

• information and communication technologies

• independent study

• guidance and personal planning

• work or community experience

• religious and moral education.


26

These elements may be combined into a prescribed upper secondary

‘curriculum package’ common to all students, or tailored according

to disciplinary specialisation. However, there is a trend towards

modular learning programmes (for example,Australia, England, New

Zealand, Sweden and the USA), allowing students to select

combinations of subjects at different levels.Thus, while all students

may be required to study the national language(s) and mathematics,

the content may vary according to the students’ ability or

specialisation.

New areas of learning, such as information processing, thinking and

communication skills, and inter- and intra-personal skills (including

citizenship and character education) are being added to meet the

expressed or perceived expectations of higher education and

employment.

The importance of fostering diversity and creativity is being

recognised, not least because of the perception that these skills will

be essential in the future economy.As a result, curricula and teaching

methods are being adapted, for example, in Singapore.

1.4.1 Compulsory areas of general study

In most countries, these generally build on the core curriculum

determined for the compulsory phase and include the national

language(s), mathematics, humanities (history, geography, social

studies and, increasingly, citizenship education), physical

education/sport (including, in some countries, health). In some cases

students are also required to take a science subject (or integrated

science), an arts subject (art, music, dance, drama) and a foreign

language. Not all subjects studied are examined.


27

In England and New Zealand there are no prescribed examination

subjects, but both countries require students to meet literacy and

numeracy requirements (see 1.4.3).

Concern is being expressed in a number of countries, (including

Ireland, Korea, Spain and the USA) that mathematics and science are

losing popularity. In France, special attention is being given to

modern foreign languages and art/creativity, which were previously

relatively neglected.

1.4.2 Compulsory elements within a chosen specialisation or track

In France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands27, Sweden and Switzerland,

upper secondary general education is subdivided into disciplinary

tracks. In addition to the common core, there are compulsory

elements according to the specialisation (or subject grouping)

chosen. Subjects are generally grouped into: classics; languages;

maths, sciences and technology; social sciences and economics; and

fine arts and music.

1.4.3 Elective subjects

This component allows students to deepen their study within a

given area, through more advanced modules in a specific subject, or

by adding related subjects, such as an additional foreign language or

a further science.Alternatively, it offers breadth by encouraging

students to take subjects outside their dominant field. However, this

option is not always taken up. For example, in Ireland, students tend

to choose additional subjects within their chosen field.


28

27 Over the past 10 years, secondary education been restructured.An evaluation hasfound that the aim of broadening education has not been achieved and that thecurriculum is overloaded and fragmented.

England: The National Curriculum arrangements

apply to students aged 14-16.28 The only

compulsory element for 16 to 19 year-olds in

schools (but not in colleges) is religious

education. Students programmes in this age

range are likely to comprise courses leading

towards GCE A levels, GCE AS levels,

Advanced Vocational Certificates of

Education (AVCEs, known as vocational A

levels) or General National Vocational

Qualifications (GNVQs) at all levels. Further

education colleges offer courses leading to

the above qualifications, and to a vast range

of vocational qualifications. There are proposals

for reforming education provision for 14-19 year

olds, including an overarching matriculation

diploma at age 18/19.

France: Education Minister, Jack Lang has introduced

measures to encourage students to start, or

continue, learning classical languages at upper

secondary schools (lycées, age 15+ to 18).29


29

28 At key stage 4 (14-16), the National Curriculum comprises: English; mathematics;science; design and technology; information and communication technology(ICT); a modern foreign language; physical education (PE) and, from September2002, citizenship. Since 1998 there has been greater flexibility within the NationalCurriculum at key stage 4. Current proposals seek to extend this flexibility.Religious education is compulsory, except where parents request a dispensation.

29 Source: http://www.education.gouv.fr/discours/2001/langanccp.htm (French)27/11/01

Japan: A key feature of the centrally defined

curriculum being implemented30 is the

increase in choice accorded to secondary

students (age 12+), with a view to developing

their individuality, creativity and

independence as learners.The new

curriculum places greater emphasis on the

learning of English and information

technology, introduces general studies and

allows teachers more timetable flexibility.

The time allocated to each subject has been

adjusted as the school week is reduced from

six to five days.31

Korea: The Seventh National Curriculum, being

implemented between March 2000 and 2005,

features an increase in the number of

optional courses for students in Years 11 and

12.The subject content will be reduced at all

levels to increase discretionary time for

schools.This is intended to encourage schools

to adapt the curriculum to local needs, and

to encourage students’ self-directed learning,

independent studies and creative activities.

New Zealand: The National Certificate of Educational

Achievement (NCEA) has no prescribed

national courses, so schools may offer shorter


30

30 Implementation in senior High School education (pupils aged 15-18) will start fromApril 2003.

31 http://www.mext.go.jp/english/news/1998/07/980712.htm#top

courses, combine subjects and combine levels.

Besides traditional courses in academic

subjects, they can offer courses that lead to

National Certificates (for example, drama,

automotive engineering) and these credits

also count towards the NCEA.

1.4.4 Cross-curricular or key skills

Academic knowledge is complemented by the development of skills

and the application of knowledge and, even where students enjoy

freedom of choice concerning the subjects to be studied at upper

secondary level, they are increasingly required to demonstrate their

competence in the basic skills.These skills may be developed either

in preparatory (access) courses or transition year, or concurrently

within or alongside the main programme.

Core or key skills are explicitly mentioned in the curricula of nine

countries, variously described as key competencies, essential

learnings (in the plural), foundation studies, core objectives, essential

skills, skills for success, goals for lifelong learning, or areas of applied

knowledge. However, other countries include similar skills within

the subjects or learning areas of the curriculum.The most common

areas include:

• Numeracy/application of mathematics

• Literacy and communication, which generally comprises oral

and written communication, but also visual, through

mathematical symbols and aesthetic expression. Competence in

more than one language is stressed in Singapore (English and

mother tongue) and it forms a requirement in the curriculum for


31

those following academic courses in several countries (Germany,

the Netherlands and Switzerland), without being separately listed

as a key skill.

• Information skills, including ICT: collection, organisation and

evaluation of information for example, acquire information and

meaning through observing, listening, reading and experiencing,

(see 1.4.5)

• Problem solving, critical/logical thinking and decision making

by applying basic principles and processes of the sciences, arts and

humanities, often through extended project work

• Study skills, self-evaluation and improvement, in preparation for

lifelong learning and self-management

• Interpersonal skills, social skills and teamwork. Only New

Zealand explicitly lists competitive skills

• Citizenship and an awareness of civic responsibilities, social and

cultural values (sometimes taught through religious education,

moral education or ethics) and heritage, sustainability, and

understanding the world as a set of related systems

• Work-related knowledge and skills, employment and

entrepreneurial skills

• Creativity, creative thinking/imagination, futures thinking, the

ability and will to change and transferring knowledge and

establishing links between material/ideas from courses and/or

modules


32

• Health and physical development.

Key skills are formally assessed in several countries:

England: There is a voluntary Key Skills Qualification in

communication, the application of number

and the use of ICT. Intra- and inter-personal

skills, and problem solving are not separately

assessed, but a draft framework exists to help

teachers and students to establish principles,

set objectives, and check the skills to be

developed. Quality assurance mechanisms will

be used to identify the skills and activities,

and the process.

New Zealand: Literacy and numeracy are a pre-requisite to

achieve Level 1 on the NCEA

Singapore: Key skills are assessed through the

compulsory general paper at GCE Advanced

Level. In addition to the teaching of the key

skills of literacy and communication, problem

solving and creative thinking through the

compulsory General Paper, Interdisciplinary

Project Work which was introduced in 2001

and which will be a requirement for

university admission from 2005, will reinforce

these skills and foster those for collaborative

and cross curricular learning. Other key skills

like the use of Information Technology are

infused into subjects across the curriculum.


33

USA: Several states assess key skills for High School

graduation. For example, learning, thinking,

communication, technology and

interpersonal skills (Maryland), thinking and

communicating, gaining and applying

knowledge, working and contributing from

the learning, teaching and assessment process

(Massachusetts), and the five areas of applied

knowledge, namely, the application of basics,

ability to think and imagine, communication,

production of quality work, and connections

with the community (Wisconsin).

1.4.5 Information and communications technologies

Education policies are increasingly geared to the use of ICT.This is

partly because of a commonly held view that: ‘schools must prepare

students to live and work in a complex society where there is a vast

flow of information and rapid change’ (Sweden).The strength of this

view is indicated, for example, by the high level of investment in the

Netherlands, despite evidence that suggests that many Dutch

students learn computer skills ‘mainly at home’.32

A recent report on the incorporation of ICT into European

Education Systems33 identifies the most common aims of national

ICT projects for secondary (including upper secondary) schools in

England, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands

and Sweden as:


34

32 Students’ responses to the upper secondary review, in the Netherlands.

33 Covering the 15 European Union member States, the three EFTA/EEA countriesand the 12 pre-accession countries in central and Eastern Europe. See:EURYDICE, 2001.

• supply of equipment

• acquisition and distribution of software

• development of teachers’ skills

• development of students’ skills

• help in the development of (educational) software

• use of the internet.

As a comparison, the dimensions of the IT Masterplan, initiated in

Singapore in 1997, include:

• physical and technological infrastructure, networked computers for

teachers and students to receive high-speed multi-media services

• learning resources to meet curriculum needs

• training for serving and trainee teachers in the purposeful use of

IT for teaching

• a curriculum redesigned to achieve a better balance of factual

knowledge and mastery of concepts so as to encourage pupils to

engage in more active and independent learning

• assessment realigned modes to measure abilities in applying

information, thinking and communicating.

Whilst the objectives may transcend national borders, the specified

learning outcomes vary.The EURYDICE survey (EURYDICE

2001) mentions the ability to use the computer as a tool (a universal

goal in primary education) and the ability to write computer


35

programmes (included in the upper secondary curriculum of over 15

European countries). Students may also be expected to make

appropriate and skilful use of specific applications (text, data,

graphics, design and manufacture, communications) relevant to the

subject area.34

1.4.6 Independent study

Increasingly, documents are making reference to the importance of

independent study as a means of encouraging students to develop

study skills and effective work habits.The development of relevant

skills is fostered implicitly within subject studies, explicitly as key

skills (see 1.4.4) and through special projects.

In France, Ministers have introduced initiatives to encourage a cross-

disciplinary approach to secondary education, as well as increasing

personal working contact between pupils and teachers by means of

travaux personnels encadrés (TPE), whereby a group of pupils works

with one or several teachers on a cross-disciplinary issue.This

approach is compulsory in seconde (age 15-16) and première (age 16-

17), but is still optional in terminale (age 17-18). However, given the

strong subject bias of French teachers, TPE are strongly resisted.

The Seventh National Curriculum in Korea allows students in the

tenth grade to spend 34 instructional hours each year on

discretionary activities.The Ministry of Education strongly

recommends that these should focus on cross-curricular or self-

directed learning activities.


36

34 Note:The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) willseek to assess ICT skills in 2006.

The new upper secondary curricula in the Netherlands include 10

per cent of time for independent guided study.The overall study

load of 1600 hours per year (which includes contact time,

homework and independent study) is being reduced in response to

parental pressure.35 Independent study is beginning to be introduced,

as schools are gaining greater autonomy to extend the allocation.

The desired transition from passive to active, independent learning

requires a change in teaching methods.

In New Zealand, one of the driving principles of the curriculum is

the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes to empower

students to take responsibility for their own learning. Schools

promote social and cultural learning as well as academic

achievement, and seek to provide students with satisfying and

worthwhile experiences that will motivate them to continue

learning throughout life. New technologies and online learning offer

potential for flexible learning, but this requires broadband access and

a pedagogical shift on the part of teachers.

The Interdisciplinary Project Work initiative, introduced into all

Singapore schools from 2000, encourages cross-disciplinary work to

allow students to explore the relationships between subject-specific

knowledge, to integrate knowledge, skills and values learnt from

different subject areas and learning experiences, and apply them in

real life situations and meaningful contexts. In this process, students

will acquire communication and collaboration skills and develop

self-directed enquiry and life-long learning skills.


37

35 Secondary education for students aged 12 to 18 has been restructured over the last10 years.A review of the restructuring has identified an overloaded and fragmentedsystem.The aim, to make education broader, has not been achieved.As a result,some streamlining is taking place.

Personal study is also an element in the proposals for the new

maturité examinations in the French-speaking cantons in Switzerland.

1.4.7 Guidance and personal planning

Individual guidance and educational and career planning are

explicitly mentioned as an important element in most countries.

Increasingly, this is linked to the development of study skills, personal

work habits and the evaluation of personal performance (see also

1.4.4).

In England, although there is a statutory requirement for careers

education to be included in the curriculum for 13 to 16 year-olds

this does not apply thereafter.36 However, schools and colleges are

expected to include personal and social education provision,

including personal and learning support, in all programmes.This is

particularly important in a system where post-compulsory curricula

are not prescribed.

The requirement that students in upper secondary schools in the

Netherlands choose between four main curricular profiles has

increased the requirement for student guidance, but this has not yet

been fully implemented in schools.


38

36 The Connexions Service is a major recent government initiative, designed to offera range of guidance and support for 13- to 19-year-old students, to facilitatetransition from school to adult life. It will absorb and expand the work of existingcareers services.

1.4.8 Work and community experience

In addition to citizenship, social responsibility37 or similar courses,

some countries (for example, Canada, USA) require students to

undertake 30-40 hours of community service to meet High School

graduation requirements. Such practical service is a common

element in courses leading to the International Baccalaureate,

versions of which are beginning to be considered as alternative,

portable, qualifications by some state schools in a number of

countries.

Even if not compulsory, community experience is being encouraged

and accredited elsewhere. For example, in New Zealand, the

pathway for senior secondary students from school to work-based

education is being strengthened38 through opportunities to:

participate in work-based learning, including assessment and

recognition of that learning (normally through unit standards);

integrate work-based learning with the general curriculum; and test

different arrangements for structured work-based learning, involving

different environments, and different groups of students.The

Ministry of Education negotiates national and regional level

brokerage contracts for school enterprise links, to provide a context

for students to see the relevance of their school work to the wider

world within authentic contexts, and to give insights into the

demands of the workplace, particularly in relation to knowledge/skill

levels. However, the constraints of school timetables may hamper the

general academic advancement of those involved in mainstream

work-based education.


39

37 In the Netherlands, social responsibility has recently been introduced as a separate(internally assessed) subject at upper secondary level for one hour weekly over twoyears.

38 The Gateway pilot programme was introduced in 2001.

Similar schemes exist in other countries. For example, community

service and work-related experience are important dimensions of the

proposed reforms for 14-19 education in England.

However, this dimension is not viewed in the same light in all

countries. In France, general education at upper secondary level

(LEGT) is intended to provide a general all-round education, basic

knowledge and culture, as a foundation for more specialised

knowledge and skills.As a result, work-related education and work

experience are not considered important, and employers are not

involved in the development of LEGT curricula.This contrasts with

provision for vocational education in the lycées professionnels.

1.4.9 Religious and moral education

Moral or ethics education forms an implicit element of education in

most countries (see also 1.4.4), but is taught as a separate compulsory

subject in Japan, Korea and Singapore.

Religious education is compulsory in England (although students

may be exempt) and Germany. Schools must offer religious

education in Spain and Italy, but it is optional for students. Religious

education is banned in public-sector schools in France39, New

Zealand and the USA. State-subsidised denominational schools exist

in Australia, Canada, England and the Netherlands.

1.5 Assessment and certification

Even where students attend a single school type, different courses

may be offered according to their ability or interests.These courses

may lead to different levels of qualification, and therefore grant

access to different educational and employment opportunities.


40

39 Except in the areas of Alsace and Lorraine, which were formerly part of Germany.

Within a school type the students may be directed towards different

tracks leading to a similar qualification.

Most countries offer upper secondary diplomas based on satisfactory

achievement in a core of common subjects, a block of subjects

specific to the chosen area of study, and a range of elective subjects.

However, in England40, New Zealand and some Australian states,

students may combine different courses leading to individually

accredited qualifications, within an overall framework. Sweden and

the USA offer credit-based models, in which each course provides a

set number of points that may be accumulated over the course of

the programme towards High School graduation.

The functions of qualifications in relation to higher education

studies differ. In some countries (for example France41, the

Netherlands42 and Germany), they serve as a form of accreditation,

which entitles holders to a place in higher education, whereas

elsewhere (for example,Australia43, England, Ireland), they are an

element in the selection process, and admission depends on the

student’s performance relative to other applicants. Germany is alone

in offering dual (general and vocational) certification at upper


41

40 Because qualifications need to be transferable between the constituent countries ofthe UK, and also within the European Union, the Qualifications and CurriculumAuthority (QCA – in England), the Northern Ireland Council for theCurriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) and the QualificationsCurriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC) are collaborating on anational qualifications framework. See QCA, CCEA and ACCAC (2000a, 2000band 2001).

41 Admission to the grandes écoles is controlled by competitive examinations known asconcours.

42 Admission to ‘numerus fixus’ courses is subject to an average of over 80% andothers by lottery

43 Standards referenced (criterion) assessment is being introduced in New SouthWales,Australia, (replacing cohort/norm referenced) to serve as a predictor offuture performance based on demonstrated past performance.

secondary level, although in other systems, universities are accepting

vocational qualifications for admission to some courses.

Australia: As education is not a federal responsibility,

each state has its own upper secondary school

leaving examinations.The requirements vary

between states in terms of subjects to be

studied and modes of assessment. Some states

award credits towards the upper secondary

school leaving qualification over a period of

two to three years. Not all courses qualify for

Tertiary (or university) Entrance.A recent

development is the de facto dual recognition

of programmes at the end of Year 12 (age

17/18) whereby universities consider

whether specific vocational courses or

elements (for example, business studies)

provide adequate preparation for related

university studies.This approach does not

seek generic parity of esteem or equivalence

between academic and vocational education,

but enables students to take a combination of

general and vocational subjects at a range of

levels according to their interest and abilities.

Canada: Each province has its own upper secondary

school leaving examinations, but there may

be some similarity between them.


42

England: In 2000, post-16 qualifications were revised

to broaden the range of post-compulsory

studies without reducing the depth of A

Levels.44 In all cases certificates are issued even

if students pass only one subject at the

relevant level. General and vocational

qualifications can be combined with key skills

and other credits gained in work placement

or a part-time employment.A qualifications

framework provides a basis for comparison.

Amidst concerns about student workload and

heavy assessment, a review of the

implementation of these reforms has resulted

in some changes. From September 2002,

Advanced Extension Awards (AEAs), will allow

the most able advanced-level students to

demonstrate a greater depth of understanding

and critical thinking in, without changing the

curriculum content of, selected GCE A Level

subjects. Proposals for further reforms are currently

under consideration.

France: There are three categories of Baccalauréat: the

general, (which was reformed in 2000 and

offers three options: literary, science, social

science), technological (which offers seven


43

44 Reforms introduced in August 2000 aimed: to encourage students to study up tofive subjects for one year to GCE Advanced Subsidiary level and continue their studyof three of the subjects during the second year to GCE Advanced Level; to combinevocational and academic study; and to study the key business skills ofcommunication, application of number and information technology for a KeySkills qualification.

options, and is currently subject to review),

and vocational (which was introduced in 1987

and offers over 40 options).There are a

number of common subject areas across the

three Baccalauréats (in French, mathematics,

history, geography etc) but the programmes of

study are not the same across the three tracks.

The Baccalauréat model is popular because the

general/academic and technological streams

offer a passport to higher education and the

vocational option has increased participation

rates.

Other vocational qualifications which may be

taken in the vocational lycée (lycée professionnel)

include the BEP (brevet d’enseignement

professionnel or vocational training diploma)

and, to a lesser extent, the CAP (certificat

d’aptitude professionnelle or vocational aptitude

certificate), normally at the end of the second

lycée year.

Lycée reform (phased in over three years from

September 1999) is intended to reduce the

workload for students to a maximum 35-

hour week including homework and personal

projects. It also extends the common core

curriculum (French, combined history/

geography, mathematics, civics, PE/Sport and

art and music) to all students, regardless of

specialisation (although the content is not the


44

same for all), and provides class time for

students to discuss matters that are important

to them as a class.

Proposals to include a proportion of

continuous assessment in the Baccalauréat

are being strongly resisted by teacher unions.

One reason given is that the Baccalauréat is a

national qualification, entitling those who

pass to a place in higher education and the

examination, should therefore be the same

for all.45

Germany: There is no national system of assessment for

students receiving general education.

However, the Standing Conference of the

Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs

of all the Länder (constituent states) has

established a national agreement, which aims

to ensure uniformity in the level of ability

required to pass the Abitur, (the upper

secondary leaving certificate/higher

education entry qualification).The Standing

Conference has also adopted standard


45

45 France has, for the first time, published university league tables, based on the successrates of students taking the dîplome d’études universitaires générales (DEUG), the initialuniversity qualification designed to be completed in two years of study.The tablesalso take into account how effective universities are at accommodating students’diverse social backgrounds. Most universities obtain pass rates of more than 75 percent.The results suggest that students who have specialised in science subjects forthe baccalaureate (upper secondary qualification) and those from professionalbackgrounds are the most successful.Times Higher Education Supplement (THES)26 October 2001 Egalitarian France measures success

examination requirements for 33 subjects in

the Abitur.The qualification awarded depends

on the school attended.The Gymnasiale

Oberstufe ends with the Abitur examination

and successful students receive Allgemeine

Hochschulreife (general higher education

entrance qualification) after 13 or 12 years46.

Successful students at the Berufliches

Gymnasium or Fachgymnasium receive the

Allgemeine Hochschulreife. Those who have

completed dual qualification courses, also

receive a nationally-recognised vocational

qualification (anerkannte Ausbildungsberufe).

Successful completion of the Berufsfachschule

leads to the qualification of Staatlich geprüfter

Assistent (state-certified assistant) in the

relevant occupation.

A recent (1997) agreement of the Standing

Conference allowed the Länder, among other

things, to introduce fast-track schemes in

order to reduce the overall duration of the

course leading to the Abitur examination

from nine to eight years (students usually

commence the course which leads to the

Abitur at around age 10), or the length of

compulsory education as a whole from


46

46 In some Länder, the general higher education entrance qualification can be awardedafter 12 years of school, either generally or within the scope of pilot projects inschools.To guarantee the mutual recognition of the Abitur obtained after thisshorter course, these Länder have to ensure teaching of a total of at least 265weekly periods in the lower secondary level and the Gymnasiale Oberstufe.

around 13 to around 12 years. However, the

required minimum number of hours of

taught time remains the same.The Land of

Rhineland-Palatinate, for example, has

introduced a scheme that reduces the overall

duration to around eight-and-a-half years,

and therefore allows students to enter higher

education slightly earlier.

Hungary: On completion of upper secondary

education (usually the secondary grammar school

at age 18,Year 12), there is one national,

centrally controlled examination, called the

maturity examination or matriculation

examination (érettségi). The secondary

vocational school can also lead to: the

maturity examination (at age 18), the combined

vocational and maturity examination, the

skilled workers examination, or the

technicians examination. However, from

2004, a new two-level maturity examination is

to be introduced, which can be taken either

at the end of Year 12 (age 18) or on

completion of Year 13 (age 19) of upper

secondary education. Both compulsory and

optional subjects will be tested in the

examination.


47

Ireland: There are three types of qualification: Leaving

Certificate (established), Leaving Certificate

Vocational Programme (LCVP - an intervention

within the Leaving Certificate (established)), and

the Leaving Certificate Applied (LCA), which is

intended to meet the needs of those who

choose not to opt for/are not adequately

catered for by other Leaving Certificate

programmes.The Leaving Certificate

(established) is currently being reviewed.

Italy: The scuole superiori (which include licei and

istituti) prepare students for the upper

secondary state exam (Esame di Stato), the

title of which may indicate the specialisation

(for example, Esame di Stato di Liceo artistico).

After a three-year course in istituti

profesionnali, a vocational diploma is awarded

(diploma di qualifica professionale).

Japan: On completion of senior high school education,

students receive the Certificate of Upper

Secondary Education from the school principal

(head teacher) and the grade awarded is based

largely on teacher assessment.There is no

external moderation. Graduation certificates

indicate the option chosen, i.e. general,

vocational or integrated, but do not show the

grades obtained, and are accepted by

employers.


48

Revisions for upper secondary education aim

to reduce the total number of credits for

compulsory subjects and to give schools and

students more freedom of choice, so that each

student can further develop individuality and

become independent.

Korea: On completion of upper secondary High

School education, successful students receive

the diploma of High School education.The

nationwide government-set College Scholastic

Ability Test (CSAT) is the normal qualification

awarded.47 The CSAT is to be reformed by

2005 to fit the new curriculum. Students of

vocational High Schools take national exams

for the National Certificate in the area of

their study.

Netherlands: The secondary school tracks are named

according to the qualification awarded on

successful completion namely VMBO (four-

year secondary, age 16, normally leading to

further vocational education), HAVO (five-

year secondary, age 17, leading to non-

university higher education), and VWO (six-

year secondary, age 18 pre-university).The

requirements for the HAVO and VWO have


49

47 A new higher education entrance examination system was introduced in 1994, tobroaden the autonomy of colleges and universities and to standardise high schoolexamination-bound education.This system gave a 40 per cent weighting to uppersecondary high school achievement and, in addition, universities could consider theCSAT scores and/or administer their own examination.

recently been reformed, channelling student

choice into one of four disciplines (science

and technology; science and health;

economics and society; and culture and

society).The new HAVO and VWO are

awarded on the basis of a national

examination held in the final year and a

school assessed component. For some subjects

there is no external examination.

In contrast with other countries, upper

secondary education reforms, phased in

between 1999-2001, reduced students’ freedom

of choice of HAVO and VWO examination

subjects. It introduced a curriculum

comprising a compulsory core (50 per cent)

and a choice from four broad subject

combinations, each having compulsory (30

per cent) and optional (20 per cent) units.48

This aims to ensure that students follow a

coordinated study programme and are better

prepared for higher vocational education

(HBO) or university.The reforms also stress

independent study – to be carried out under

the guidance of a teacher - but this is only

just being implemented.


50

48 The total study load of 40 hours for 40 weeks per year, comprising class work,homework and private study, is being reduced as a result of parental pressure.

New Zealand: The National Certificate of Educational

Achievement (NCEA), the main senior

secondary qualification, is being phased in

between 2002-04 and is intended to provide

a more comprehensive record of what

students achieve while they are at school and

provide a better launching pad for students’

ongoing learning and their future careers. It is

standards-based and complements external

assessment with internal assessment in all

conventional school subjects at three levels

(Level 1 NCEA, Level 2 NCEA, and Level 3

NCEA, broadly equivalent to Year 11,Year 12

and Year 13). However, it is not time-bound

and students may choose to study each

subject at the level that best meets their

needs. National standards, in each area of

learning, have four performance grades: no

credit, achieved with credit, achieved with

merit, and achieved with excellence, of which

the last three qualify for the award of NCEA

credits.When 80 national standard credits

have been accumulated, the student is

awarded the NCEA. At least 60 of the credits

must be at, or above, the level of the

qualification awarded (that is, Level 1, Level 2

or Level 3).A National Scholarship (Level 4),

designed to motivate the more able students,

will be available from 2004.


51

Employers/admissions tutors will have to

examine the qualification to identify the

nature and content of the individual’s

achievement, which may include one or

more of: academic courses and/or strands,

vocational courses and/or strands or

industry/workplace learning.

Singapore: At the end of upper secondary education

students may take the Singapore Cambridge

General Certificate of Education Advanced Level

(UCLES GCE A Level) examinations.The

most able students (typically the top 10 per

cent of the Junior College cohort) may take

Special (S-level) papers in addition to GCE A

Level examinations.The Ministry

of Education has imposed a normal limit of

two S-level papers per student, but

exceptions may be made.Assessment modes

will also be aligned with the teaching of

thinking skills. New modes of assessment

include case studies, source-based studies and

school-based assessment of practical skills for

science subjects.

Changes at pre-university and university level

aim to prepare young people better for the

challenges of the future.Accordingly, from

2003 the university admissions system is

moving away from sole reliance on one

examination to a more holistic evaluation of


52

the individual.The weighting for A level

applicants will be as follows: GCE A levels

(75%), Scholastic Assessment Test 1 (25%) and

up to 5% bonus points for co-curricular

activities (CCA), making a potential total of

105%. From 2005, project work will also be

taken into consideration for university

admission.

Spain: Students prepare for the Bachillerato (in one of

the arts; technology; sciences of nature and

health; or social sciences and humanities)

leading to university, work, or advanced

specific vocational training.Alternatively,

specific vocational training qualifications

(modular courses according to the relevant

field) offer access to advanced vocational

training or employment.The LOGSE

reforms, implemented progressively

throughout the 1990s, raised the status of

vocational education by introducing it into

general, as well as specialist, secondary

education.

Sweden: Upper secondary schools offer 17 nationally

determined programmes, of which 15 are

primarily vocationally oriented, two

primarily academic and a new national

programme for technology. National tests

exist to exemplify teacher assessment at upper

secondary level, to ensure that teacher


53

judgments are fair and to assist teachers in

making these judgments. It is not necessary

for all upper secondary students to take the

national tests.A Parliamentary Commission

review of the organisation of courses and

study routes in upper secondary education

(including the offer of fewer, but broader,

programmes) and of the need for an upper

secondary examination (which does not

currently exist) is expected by 30 April 2002.

It is possible that the proposed examination

law may relate to ‘major project work’, which

requires students to take a cross-curricular

approach to address the issues that arise, and

to demonstrate that they have transcended

individual subject areas.

Switzerland: There is no national system of assessment in

Switzerland and therefore no central

assessment agency. However, nationally

recognised standards apply to the

examinations for the Maturität certificate and

for the DMS diploma. In addition, many

upper secondary schools offer the national

Swiss Matura examination. Organised by the

Swiss Confederation, this is held twice a year

and any student, regardless of his/her school

career, is eligible to take part. Successful

completion usually entitles the holder to

enter university level education.The


54

Diplommittelschule (DMS – middle school

diploma) is awarded on completion of

vocational education.The French-speaking

cantons are developing an inter-cantonal

Baccalauréat.

USA: Individual states set criteria for High School

graduation.These comprise a combination of

course grades (determined at school level),

standard assessment task (SAT) scores and

community service. Current debates centre

around the problems of comparing grades

awarded by different institutions on the one

hand, and the perceived injustice of requiring

students in disadvantaged areas to meet state-

or district-wide criteria on the other.


55


56

S E C T I O N 2

Issues and implications


57

INTRODUCTION

During the past twenty years, there has been a general trend towards

the devolution of responsibility to school level, and the introduction

of a consumerist approach to education.This has been accompanied

by regulation through curriculum and assessment frameworks and

prescribed classroom practice, for example, to speed up the

achievement of qualifications targets or organisational restructuring.

In some cases, governments have set targets for student participation

and achievement.Whilst such regulation might serve the functions of

securing minimum entitlement and safeguarding national cohesion,

it does not necessarily lead to higher standards of performance49 and

might also be seen as undermining institutional autonomy.50

As outlined above, upper secondary education is subject to

widespread review and reform, even in France and England, where

the lower secondary phase is considered to be the weakest link.


58

Issues and implications

49 The findings of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)survey of 15 year-old students’ achievements in language/literacy, mathematics andscience, (OECD, 2000) suggest that there is no significant correlation betweencentralised curricula and high student performance in reading, mathematical andscientific literacy. Indeed, a perception that centralised curricula might preventschools from meeting the needs of individual students has led to reducedprescription, for example, in England (Curriculum 2000), the Netherlands (revisedBasisvorming), Singapore and Spain (LOGSE).

50 For example, the centrally-organised upper secondary courses and examinations inthe Netherlands are perceived to undermine school autonomy, as laid down in theConstitution and reaffirmed by government policy.

The issues and their implications will be considered under six

headings:

• Purposes and priorities: responsiveness and inclusion

• Participation and engagement in education

• Models of delivery: diversification and differentiation

• Content: relevance, coherence and manageability

• Teaching and learning

• Assessment and certification.

2.1 Purposes and priorities: inclusion and responsiveness

Education and training systems are increasingly required to be more

responsive to perceived economic and social change.Among the

objectives for socio-economic development are: social inclusion;

meeting skills shortages in the labour market; keeping pace with

scientific and technological developments; political and civic

participation and lifelong learning.

Whilst each of these five priorities is important, they frequently

interrelate. For example, links are drawn between lack of skills,

unemployment and social and political disaffection and, in some

cases, crime.

The specific aims relating to the five priorities are considered below.


59

2.1.1 Social inclusion and equity

There are high levels of political commitment to social inclusion and

equality of opportunity, as the following extracts from policy

documents show.

Australia: Education that reflects commitment to social

justice; equal opportunities and the

development of individual potential.

England: To give everyone the chance, through

education, training and work, to realise

his/her full potential and thus build an

inclusive and fair society and a competitive

economy.

France: The overall aim of education is presented in

terms of personal development. However,

employability and integration into working

life are safeguarded by ‘… the principle that

every young person must be given the

opportunity to take up vocational training

before he or she leaves the education system

regardless of the level of education he or she

has completed.’

New Zealand: Fostering fairness, tolerance, self-reliance and

informed participation in New Zealand

society.


60

Singapore: The mission statement of the Singapore

education service ‘Moulding the Future of

the Nation’ sums up and reflects the role of

the education service as a force in shaping

the character and economic capacity of the

people, while enhancing their national and

cultural consciousness.

Sweden: The task of the school is to impart

knowledge and, in close co-operation with

the home, help students develop into

responsible persons and members of society.

Education and upbringing involve passing on

a cultural heritage: values, traditions, language

and knowledge, from one generation to the

next. Students must also develop the ability

to critically examine facts and relationships

and appreciate the consequences of the

various alternatives facing them.

However, while many students may be motivated to achieve the

benefits which educational qualifications are expected to bestow,

there is concern about different levels of participation and

achievement and, as a consequence, unequal life chances.There are

high correlations between specific school types, socio-economic

status and student outcomes (see 2.3.1. implications, below).

It could be argued that a ‘common schooling experience’ makes an

important contribution to social cohesion. Even if we acknowledge

that within a common system and a common curriculum, there

were multiple experiences, the promotion of ‘à la carte’ courses and


61

modes of delivery is likely to further fragment the shared

experience. Moreover, unless sufficient funding is made available to

ensure that all students can take advantage of alternative options,

including off-site and electronic learning, the education system may

reinforce social disadvantage.

2.1.2 Skills shortages in the labour market

OECD countries register an increase of 5-7% in growth per

additional year of education. Many individuals see education as a

means to achieving more desirable and better-paid employment. It is

therefore not surprising to find an overriding aim, in virtually all

countries, to raise standards of education (as a proxy for social

capital). However, the benefits for society and individuals are unlikely

to be realised if there is a mismatch between education and

employment needs.

The ‘relevance’ of education to employment is therefore a common,

and frequently explicit, objective. It is only in France that the focus

of general and technological lycées (LEGT) remains firmly on

providing a general all-round education, with basic knowledge and

culture, onto which technical skills can be ‘bolted’ quite quickly. For

this reason, work-related education and work experience are not

given the same degree of attention as in other countries.

The following policies and strategies are intended to help young

people develop the necessary skills for (self-) employment, either

immediately on completion of this phase, or after further education.


62

Australia: Since the early 1990s, there has been an

increased concern regarding the links

between employment and education.

Government policies at all levels have been

concerned to meet changing employment

needs and requirements for a productive

workforce.

Canada: There has been a steady shift by policy

makers towards decisions that reflect a

perceived linkage between employability,

national productivity and international

competitiveness.

England: To support economic growth and improve

the nation’s competitiveness and quality of

life, by raising standards of educational

achievement and skill, and by promoting an

efficient and flexible labour market.

Germany: Orientation towards the future job market

and preparing school students for

competition within Europe. Current political

debate in Germany tends to focus more on

measures to reduce unemployment and

improve the budget situation than on school

reform.


63

Hungary: Education aims are driven by the country’s

intention to join the European Union and

the importance of well qualified manpower

in international competition, the

advancement of democracy and the

introduction of a modern market economy.

The remaining aim of education is to

develop, train and educate the workforce of

the future.

Ireland: To contribute to social and economic

development.

Japan: Changes in education are intended to prepare

students for the society they are to enter as

adults. Business leaders have pushed for

educational reform, and have blamed the

recent economic crisis in Japan on the

outdated style of education. It is felt that

education currently does not prepare students

for work in a world that is increasingly

competitive, globalised and computerised.

Japan now wants more creative, individualistic

and imaginative employees, because the

homogeneous, conformist individual, who

could easily be moulded for the prosperous

corporate post-war period, is not suitable for

today’s competitive world.


64

Korea: The power and wealth of a nation and the

living standards of its people are determined

by the level and scope of the nation’s

intellectual property, such as its levels of skills,

information, knowledge and culture.

Intellectual property essentially depends on

learning ability and creativity and the

development of these depends on education.

The quality of education should be raised to

a world level.

New Zealand: Contributing to a highly skilled and

adaptable and motivated workforce.

Singapore: The people and Government recognise that

the wealth of Singapore is her people and

therefore major educational objectives

include equipping people with a broad set of

skills to respond to opportunities in the new

economy.


65

2.1.3 Keeping pace with scientific and technological development

Science and mathematics in secondary level schools are declining in

popularity in England, Ireland51, Korea52 and the USA53.This trend

has reduced the pool of specialist science and mathematics teachers.

As a result, in some of these countries, there are many non-specialists

teaching these subjects, who may not have the expertise or

confidence necessary to prepare and motivate students to pursue

higher-level studies in mathematics and science. One of the reasons

for the increase in on-line science courses in certain states of the

USA is the schools’ inability to recruit suitably qualified teachers.

The introduction of information and communications technologies

(ICT) currently constitutes the most significant investment in

schools.At secondary level, there is a tendency for ICT skills to be

taught in dedicated ICT lessons, in addition to its use to support

learning across the curriculum. If ICT qualifications become a

requirement54, or a university expectation (for example, to enable

students to follow courses and provide coursework online), this trend

is likely to increase.


66

51 Especially physics and chemistry.

52 Science and technology, and their ability to create a new culture, are seen as themost critical factors for the immediate future.

53 Responsibility for the curriculum in the USA is devolved to state and districtlevel. However, two major initiatives in science education, ‘Benchmarks for ScienceLiteracy’ and the ‘National Science Education Standards’ have been generated at anational level ,with a view to influencing state policy.

54 For example, a level 2 pass in ICT is a requirement for the proposed Matriculationdiploma in England.

2.1.4 Political and civic participation

There is a steady decrease in the numbers of people voting, even in

countries where it is mandatory.Those who feel that their views are

poorly, or not, represented may question the ‘democracy’ of the

legislature, the legitimacy of its actions and its power to bring about

desired changes.As a result, they may not feel bound by the laws,

and undermine social order and security.Alternatively, they may

resort to different forms of protest or direct action, for example, in

support of animal rights or in protest against economic globalisation.

At another level, the promotion of individualism, which has

underpinned capitalism, has simultaneously undermined the culture

of voluntary public service that has characterised the middle classes

for much of the twentieth century. Some governments are already

calling for people to devote part of their retirement to voluntary

community services, to complement the support provided by the

public and commercial sectors. Countries where the community

takes precedence over the individual (for example, Singapore) are

taking careful steps to harness the ‘individualism’ which they

perceive to be necessary for economic prosperity in the 21st

Century to the well-being of the community and the nation.

Attempts to promote students’ understanding of, and commitment to

responsible participation in, civil and political society are evident in

the (re-)introduction of civics and citizenship education in, for

example,Australia, France, England, the Netherlands and New

Zealand. Specific objectives from policy papers in other countries are

outlined in the following extracts:


67

Germany: Since reunification, urgent priorities have

been identified for educating young people

to take political responsibility in a democratic

system and supporting the new Länder.

Ireland: To enable students to develop to their full

potential as persons and to participate fully as

citizens in society.

Korea: Democracy and citizenship education in

Korea are addressed in subjects such as

morals/ethics and/or civics/social science,

both of which are compulsory in the first

year of High School (10th grade). One explicit

objective for High School is to develop an

awareness of, and appropriate attitudes for,

global citizenship.

Singapore: To nurture children into good citizens,

conscious of their responsibilities and

ensuring their commitment to their family,

their community and country.

2.1.5 Lifelong learning

Many countries make explicit reference to the contribution of upper

secondary education to lifelong learning. Measures taken to promote

and recognise study skills, motivation and self-directed learning

include

• the promotion of independent learning (including through the

effective use of information and communication technologies)

and the evaluation of one’s own performance and learning needs


68

• more flexible and modularised courses, possibly combining

general and vocational education

• bringing together a wide range of education providers, (including

the school, other educational institutions, the workplace, the

community and distance education providers) who may cater for

adult learners as well as young people. Digital education services

are being developed to meet the needs of learners based in

educational institutions and those who are studying independently.

• the development of a qualifications framework which will

accredit knowledge and skills acquired within or outside the

formal education system

• the funding of upper secondary education for all (in most

countries), or for those who cannot afford the fees.

Spain has identified women as a particularly vulnerable group in terms

of lifelong learning, together with ethnic minorities and gypsies.

2.2 Participation and engagement in education

Most countries are seeking to increase participation rates in upper

secondary and higher education, especially amongst the less

educationally advantaged sectors of the community. However, this

does not appear to be an issue in Singapore and Korea, where virtually

all students remain in education to the age of 18. In fact, in Korea,

there is concern about reducing the numbers of ‘perpetual students’.

The main initiatives are in the domains of target setting, motivating

students and incentives. Diversification of delivery models, and the

curriculum, teaching approaches and assessment are addressed in 2.3

to 2.6 below.


69

2.2.1 Government regulations or targets

Ten countries have set explicit targets to increase participation in, or

achievement at, upper secondary level. Singapore and Sweden have

expressed targets in relation to higher education, which requires

upper secondary qualifications for entry.

Australia: National targets set for 2001 were that 95 per

cent of 19 year-olds will have completed Year

12 of schooling, or an initial post-school

qualification, or be participating in formally

recognised education and training.

England: The Government’s aim is that all young

people should continue in learning to age 19.

It has set targets for 2002 that 50 per cent of

16 year-olds should achieve five General

Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE)

passes at Grades A* to C (or their equivalent)

and that 95 per cent should achieve at least

one GCSE. By age 19, 85 per cent of young

people should achieve five GCSEs at grade

A*-C (or their equivalent) and by age 21, 60

per cent of young people should achieve two

general or vocational A Levels (or their

equivalent).

The proportion of 16 year-olds in England

participating in education and government-

supported training fell from 80.4 per cent in

1995/6, to 76.1 per cent in 1998/9

(Howson, 2002)


70

France: In 1989, the government ‘access rate’ target

for 2000 was that 80 per cent of each cohort

should continue their education to the age of

18, following general, technological or

vocational courses leading to the Baccalauréat.

The remainder should have reached the

(CAP) vocational aptitude certificate or the

vocational diploma (BEP) level. However, it is

now acknowledged that, despite high levels of

investment, 80 per cent may not be

attainable.

The access rate stood at 34 per cent in the

1980s, 55 per cent in the 1990s and 70 per

cent between 1997 and 2001.The

introduction of the vocational Baccalauréat

may account for part of this increase in

participation.Whilst not all students take the

examination and, of those who do, 20 per

cent fail, 56 per cent of students obtain the

Baccalauréat.

Germany: Education is compulsory, at least on a part-

time basis, until the age of 18.

Ireland: The aim is to encourage at least 90 per cent

of students aged 15-18 to complete the senior

cycle, at least on a part-time basis.


71

Italy: The school leaving age has recently been

raised from 14 to 15. Education or training

will eventually be compulsory for 12 years,

from age 6 to 18, so that it will only be

possible to enter the labour market with an

upper secondary school leaving certificate, or

an apprenticeship contract, or a vocational

qualification. [Note: the pursuit of these targets

was deferred in 2001 by the incoming

government.]

Korea: 99.5 per cent of junior High School graduates

progress to High Schools. Almost all high

school students complete their three years of

study and rates of absenteeism are extremely

low55 The rate of graduation from upper

secondary education increased steadily from

90.9 per cent in 1970 to 94.5 per cent in

1996. Since then, there has been a slight

decrease, to 93.2 per cent in 1998.56

Thereafter, 83.9 per cent of general high-

school graduates and 41.9 per cent of

vocational High School graduates progress to

higher education institutions.There is

concern about appropriate education and

government policy aims to increase the


72

55 The Further Education Funding Council (FEFC) (1998). Aspects of further educationin the Republic of Korea. International report from the inspectorate 1997-98. Coventry:FEFC.

56 Source: Republic of Korea. Ministry of Education (MOE) (1999a) and Republicof Korea. Ministry of Education (MOE) & Korean Educational DevelopmentInstitute (KEDI) (1998). Handbook of Educational Statistics. Seoul: MOE

proportion of middle school graduates

moving on to vocational High School. In

1980, 31 per cent of High School students

were in vocational schools; by 1997 this

proportion had risen to 41 per cent.

Netherlands: There are no targets because students are

required either to remain in full-time

education until age 17, or to undertake two

years’ part-time education after the age of 16.

At present, 60 per cent of the age cohort

takes the VMBO (at age 16), comprising one

general path and three pre-vocational paths.

The majority of these students go on to

regional training centres (ROC), for at least 2

years of part-time education post-16. 26 per

cent of the cohort takes the HAVO (at age

17) and 14 per cent takes the VWO (at age

18).The majority of these students go on to

university or higher vocational education.

New Zealand: There is a historic pattern of students’ leaving

school early with low level qualifications.The

percentage of students leaving school without

gaining any qualifications increased from 16

per cent in 1991 to 19 per cent in 2000. Just

under one-third of these have an exemption

to leave school at age 15 and many enter

youth training courses or courses offered by

other tertiary providers. Government targets

aim, in particular, to address the disparity in


73

participation and achievement rates between

Mäori and non-Mäori students by:

• increasing the ratio of Mäori to

non-Mäori 16 to 18 year-olds in

education from 81:100 to 90:100 by

2011 and reaching parity by 2021

• increasing the achievement rate of

Mäori students achieving secondary

qualification, by 12 per cent by 2012

and matching the non-Mäori rate

by 2020.

Specific performance targets and goals are

also being considered in Ministry of

Education work on the development of an

education and training framework for 16 to

19 year-olds.

Singapore: About 90 per cent of each cohort is enrolled

in post-secondary educational institutions,

and 21 per cent go on to university.

Government educational planning targets are

set in line with manpower planning and

long-term economic and social development

strategies. By stressing an ability driven

paradigm and mass customisation, the

education system aims to create opportunities

for all students to pursue and maximise their

potential and encourage them to remain in

the system.The targets for the age cohort are:


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Junior Colleges or Centralised Institutes

(29 per cent), polytechnic (40 per cent)

and industrial and technical education

(25 per cent).

Spain: Legislation passed in 199057 raised the school

leaving age from 14 to 16 (1990s) and there

has been an upwards tend in the number of

17 year-olds in full-time education, increasing

from 59.2 per cent in 1988/89 to 77.7 per

cent in 2000/2001. Compulsory education

can extend to a maximum age of 18. Specific

Social Guarantee (Garantía Social)

programmes are designed for those students

who do not manage to obtain a certificate.

Sweden: The Government has increased resources for

schools over the period 2001 to 2006 to

support the Ministry’s goals of raising

standards and increasing the numbers of adult

learners. It will also support the long-term

target that half of any age cohort should

begin university level education by the time

they are 25 years old.The present rate is 40

per cent.


75

57 Organic Act 1/1990 on the General Organisation of the Education System (LOGSE)

USA: Those who do not achieve the High School

graduation certificate (at around age 18) are

deemed to have ‘dropped out’ of education.

The Government target for 2000 was that

the high-school graduation rate should

increase to at least 90 per cent. Recent

OECD figures suggest that the figure is

around 72 per cent.58 However, since many

complete their education through alternative

programmes, such as the General Educational

Development Programme, the proportion of

young adults having completed high school is

considerably higher.

Implications

Target setting focuses attention on performance and invites remedial

action.Whilst the foregoing figures indicate a general increase in

participation rates, this is not universal. Despite numerous initiatives

to diversify the content, format and flexible delivery of learning,

both England and New Zealand report a downward trend in student

participation and achievements at around age 16, and in France,

participation appears to have settled at around 80 per cent.

However, target setting can have unexpected, and unintended,

consequences.These may include teaching to the test, at a potential

risk of limiting both breadth and depth of learning. In addition,

increasing student numbers at short notice, to meet government

targets, may cause problems for institutions. In this connection, the

UK government’s objective to attract participation rates, especially


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58 Cornwell,T. (1998a). 'Long slide down the rankings', Times Educ. Suppl., 4December, 18.

amongst disadvantaged students, has resulted in an informal division

into ‘selecting universities’ (those which are oversubscribed and

where students have to compete for places) and ‘recruiting

universities’, which are likely to admit less well qualified applicants.

The knowledge and skills of some incoming students may therefore

be insufficient for them to complete their degree.There are, of

course, numerous other factors affecting the performance of

university students, but these fall outside the scope of this study.

2.2.2 Motivating students

Upper secondary education is unique in its diversity. Compulsory

education is regulated by the need to secure basic, and common

educational entitlement for all; vocational training and higher

education serve more readily identifiable groups.The upper

secondary student stands on a threshold, open to an array of

opportunities.The choices made will have long reaching effects for

the individual, and collectively, for society.

However, despite government aspirations, students are unlikely to

participate in formal education unless they derive personal benefit in

terms of enjoyment or social and economic advancement.Traditional

courses may fail to attract several groups of students:

• those who, despite achieving the necessary grades, do not aspire

to higher education, and therefore see no point in pursuing

upper secondary preparatory courses

• those who, despite high levels of ability, fail to achieve the

necessary grades


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• young people from low income families or from certain ethnic

groups59, who tend (for a range of reasons) not to stay on post the

compulsory phase.

Unless the additional learning is accessible, relevant and recognised,

these groups of students are likely to leave school as soon as possible.

Whilst recognising that the accreditation of learning gained through

personal interests and hobbies might provide a way of attracting

young people (back) into formal education (see Stepladders below),

accountability and funding mechanisms mean that upper secondary

programmes tend to include relatively few such courses.

Diversification in structure, organisation, curriculum, teaching and

learning, and assessment and certification are discussed below.

2.2.3 Certification models

In several countries, lower secondary studies lead to external

qualifications, which formerly marked the end of compulsory

education.These tended to reinforce the perception that full-time

education had been completed.60 By deferring certification to the

end of upper secondary education, authorities might encourage

students to remain in education beyond the minimum school leaving

age. However, this is a high-risk strategy, which requires students to

commit an additional two or three years to education, without the


78

59 For example,Aboriginal and Pacific Island students in Australia,African-Caribbeanstudents in England, Mäori students in New Zealand, Hispanic students in the USA.

60 With the increase in students remaining in formal education beyond this phase(whether voluntarily or because the school leaving age has been raised), it could beargued that the lower secondary qualifications are redundant, expensive andcontribute to the sense of ‘assessment overload’ experienced by students andteachers. However, whilst for some they represent an insurmountable hurdle, forothers they may confirm abilities and instil confidence.Their abolition may alsoremove a qualifications ‘safety net’.

certainty of academic and/or economic advancement.The risk

increases where certification is used primarily to select students for

higher education, rather than as ‘accreditation’, whereby those who

hold the relevant qualification are guaranteed access.

Given the heterogeneous student population, changes in curriculum,

assessment and certification are required to ensure that increased

participation leads to a corresponding increase in the number of

qualified young people.Two main approaches have been adopted to

enhance and record the achievements of a more diverse student

group.

The first opens access to (variants of) an established qualification, (for

example the Baccalauréat in France, and the Leaving Certificate in

Ireland) by means of alternative courses.Whilst this strategy builds

on the widespread recognition and prestige of the qualification, it is

likely to limit the degree of flexibility that can be allowed, if this

status is to be protected. In practice, whilst it increases the number of

successful students, this appears to be accompanied in France by a

perception that ‘standards must have fallen’.

The other strategy extends the range of courses to develop the

knowledge, skills and attitudes required for employment and lifelong

learning (see 2.1.5). This diversity generally results in a panoply of

qualifications, some of which are not widely recognised. Several

countries are developing overarching frameworks, which ‘locate’

qualifications within a hierarchy of achievement and progression.


79


80

2.2.4 Other initiatives

There are a number of other strategies that may motivate students to

continue their education.

• Funding. Educational finance is not covered in this report.

However, it should be noted that the charging of fees and the

costs incurred, including any foregone income from employment,

have been identified in some countries as a deterrent to

participation in post-compulsory education. Consideration is

being given in New Zealand to the payment of grants to

disadvantaged students, to encourage them to continue their

education into upper secondary phase. In England, there is a pilot

scheme of education maintenance allowances (EMAs) for

educationally disadvantaged 16-18 year olds. EMA payments are

subject to regular attendance and good behaviour, but are not

tied to ability. Early indications suggest that the EMAs increase

motivation and reduce the need for students to take part time

employment (Maguire, S., Maguire, M. and Heaver, C., 2002).

• ‘Stepladders’ Alternative learning routes and the accreditation of

prior learning and experience (for example, acquired in the

work-place or through leisure activities) may motivate individuals

to build on their practical experience by taking some vocational

or general education courses.

• Partnerships and permeability between schools and

complementary organisations, may attract disaffected students and,

in some cases, help rekindle positive attitudes towards education.

Examples include the Youth Reach programme in Ireland,

involving schools and community organisations in workshop

partnerships, and holiday and homework clubs run by community

agencies/bodies for example, social services, youth services etc.

2.3 Modes of delivery: diversification and differentiation

2.3.1 Educational structures

Within a market model of education, diversification of provision is

seen as inherently good.Accordingly, most countries are seeking to

meet the needs of a wider student body by means of alternative

institutional structures and modes of delivery, sometimes involving

the voluntary and private sectors alongside state provision.

a) Grouping by age

Where secondary schools cater for students of both lower and upper

secondary age, students can continue their studies in a familiar

environment, with known staff, and can provide an example for

younger students to emulate.Taking advantage of the intertia factor,

this might result in some students simply staying on because it

relieves them of the need to exercise a choice.This is particularly

likely in the academic schools in selective secondary systems, where

the expectations of students, teachers and parents are mutually

reinforcing.

The argument that the requirement to transfer to another

institution, with its associated social as well as academic

readjustments, acts as a disincentive to continue education is not

wholly supported by the evidence. Increasing numbers of students

enrol in colleges, which they perceive as more adult. Moreover, it

offers students the opportunity to make a fresh start.The appeal of

this option is apparent in New Zealand, where a decrease in school

staying-on rates in 2000 was accompanied by a corresponding

increase in tertiary enrolments. It appears that some students are

prepared to pay fees to benefit from a less regulated environment.


81

However, this generally requires students to be more self-disciplined

in their learning, not least because such institutions are often larger

and individuals less well-known to staff.

In several countries, students must transfer to an upper secondary

establishment in order to complete their compulsory education. It is

possible that, having made the transition, students will be motivated

to complete the upper secondary cycle.

b) Grouping by curriculum

The trend towards ‘softening’ of the structural divide between

general and vocational education may encourage those students who

are unwilling or unable to undertake a wholly academic course, to

continue their formal education.This may also reduce the

stratification by socio-economic status, which is found in binary

systems. For example, despite the fact that the first year of upper

secondary education in France is a transition year and that parents

have the final choice, those attending general/technological lycées

tend to be predominantly middle class.

Greater integration may also reduce the generalisations, which are

often made about academic and vocational education respectively,

based on pre-conceptions of student ability and socio-economic

status.That these assumptions are sometimes self-fulfilling may be

seen from the examples given below.

Implications

Educational structures can influence participation rates.This is

particularly striking where school populations differ along socio-

economic lines: low participation and underachievement are

particularly noticeable among certain ethnic groups, and socio-


82

economically deprived students.The PISA findings (OECD, 2001)

suggest that two students with the same family characteristics going

to different schools - one with a higher and one with a lower socio-

economic profile - could expect to be further apart in reading

literacy than two students from different backgrounds going to the

same school.61 Whilst these findings relate to lower secondary

students (age 15), it likely that similar effects will hold good at upper

secondary level.

One explanation is that schools with a higher socio-economic intake

also seem to have a better disciplinary climate, as reported by

students, particularly in Italy, Japan, Spain, the United Kingdom and

the USA. However, in France, although there are clear social

distinctions between the general/technological lycées (LEGT) and

the vocational lycées (LP), there are reported to be no significant

differences in behaviour.

The effect of teacher expectation, referred to above, is demonstrated

by an example from Sydney,Australia. Performance of (male) students

in Year 10 English and mathematics is broadly comparable, but a

marked difference appears in Year 11, according to the courses

taken.Assumptions of students’ abilities have led to their allocation

to different classes, regardless of their actual ability. For example,

North Sydney schools (with predominantly middle class students)

enrol the top ten per cent of (male) students in Courses 1 and 2;West

Sydney schools (with predominantly working class students) enrol

the top ten per cent of their (male) students for Courses 4 and 5.

Able students in the latter group, unable to demonstrate their


83

61 http://www.pisa.oecd.org/knowledge/summary/h.htm., based on Figure 8.4 in thefull report.

ability at the higher levels, are reported as under-achieving.62

Although this phenomenon has complex causes, it underlines the

potential link between the socio-economic segregation of students

in different schools and the polarisation of students by performance.

2.3.2 Linked and integrated learning pathways

Germany has a long-established programme for integrating the

general and vocational education of 80 per cent of students aged 15

to 18.The ‘dual system’ combines school and workplace education.

Other countries are now increasing learning options for students by

offering vocational and general education within the same

institutions or as part of a programme of linked courses, including

work-based learning.63

Implications

School timetables may not be sufficiently flexible to accommodate

‘seamless’ passage between formal school-based and non-formal

(including off-site), learning. New contracts may be required to

secure staff attendance outside ‘normal’ hours. In this respect, schools

may draw on the experience of adult and vocational education

institutions.

Small schools may not be able to offer the full range of academic

and vocational curriculum, which could leave students in

rural/remote areas at a disadvantage.


84

62 B. McGaw, February 2002.

63 By contrast, upper secondary education in Italy has strict demarcations betweenacademic and vocational schools, but also between the sciences and the arts andhumanities.

In the case of off-site learning, the responsibilities of the school, the

off-site provider and the student need to be established, for example

with regard to health and safety, the design, provision and evaluation

of learning, and communication and reporting.Travelling costs and

time also need to be considered.

Where educational funding is linked to student numbers, institutions

have an incentive to direct students to their own courses, rather than

those of alternative providers. If, however, the funding mechanism

can be altered so that the institution ‘retains’ the students on roll for

funding purposes, they may be less protective of the location of

learning, and more willing to allow the student to go to the most

appropriate place.

In terms of system monitoring, how are the contributions of the

different partners determined and evaluated?

2.4 Curriculum: relevance, coherence and manageability

Secondary education is intentionally broad-based, stressing core

subjects like the languages, mathematics, science, and the humanities

to provide a holistic foundation for students’ subsequent education.

In most countries, the focus shifts from a prescribed curriculum

during the compulsory years, to greater freedom of choice in upper

secondary education.There is now an increasing emphasis on new

‘key’ skills and knowledge, to prepare young people for the changing

needs of adult and working life (see 1.4.4).


85

2.4.1 Relevance

The perceived relevance of education is a prime factor for securing

student participation and community support for the education

service.

a) Relevance for the student

There has been a trend towards modular or credit-based learning,

leading to a portfolio of evidence of students’ knowledge, skills and

understandings, developed over a number of years and in a range of

(formal, non-formal, informal) settings. In this way, there can be

multiple routes to the highest levels of education.64 Although there

are usually minimum requirements for literacy and numeracy,

modular schemes enhance student choice and allow for flexible

modes of delivery. They help to sustain motivation by means of early

and ongoing reinforcement and prompt intervention where

weaknesses are identified. Moreover, instead of requiring irreversible

(possibly inappropriate) decisions at the age of 15/16, they allow

students to match their choices to their increasing maturity,

academic and personal development, and changing aspirations. In

this way, students may discover new subjects and/or be persuaded to

continue ‘difficult’ subjects, as part of a more varied educational

programme.This is particularly important in England, where early

specialisation has characterised post-16 studies and where starting

subjects which may not have been available in lower secondary

education from scratch (such as psychology, law, economics)

represented a high-risk challenge.Above all, modularisation offers


86

64 For example, in Singapore, the non-schools sector polytechnics cater for studentswith technical or commercial inclinations and the necessary O level grades, whilethose with O level or N level certificates can join technical-vocational coursesoffered by the institutes of technical education. Students who achieve the requisitegrades may proceed from polytechnic to university. Similarly, in the Netherlands,students may progress from higher vocational education to university.

scope for students to adjust the speed and intensity of their workload

to match personal circumstances.

b) Relevance for higher education

It is sometimes difficult to strike a balance between breadth and

depth of study. Most systems are based around a broad general

education, followed by relatively long (4-6 years) degree-level

studies.65 A few others (generally reflecting the English model)

introduce a high degree of specialisation from the age of 1666, which

can be completed during a short (3-year) degree course.

It is a common complaint by universities that incoming students are

not adequately prepared for the demands of degree studies.This

judgement is often based on the amount of work required to get

students through their final examinations and may arise from

• a mismatch between prior learning and course demands

• lack of clarity about expectations and requirements

• changes in the nature of higher education.

Changes to traditional examinations and associated curricula may

affect the coherence between upper secondary and higher education.

The trend towards greater flexibility and students choice (except in

the Netherlands) and the promotion of more independent learning,


87

65 There has been a trend in European Union member states to shorten the length offirst degree studies, from six or seven years to around four years.At the same time, alimited number of courses at English universities take four years, instead of the moreusual three.

66 GCE Advanced Levels are single subject examinations, with no minimum number ofsubjects required for certification.Traditionally, students have studied two to foursubjects, often in a related field. Compared with other OECD countries, the UKrate of entry to higher education (42 per cent) is high, and the median age ofgraduation (age 22) is young. Changes in the degree of specialisation at school levelmay affect these figures.

means that students do not necessarily have a common knowledge

and skills base.Thus, while students may have the requisite number

of ‘credits’, these may not match the requirements of the specific

course, and there is little time in higher education programmes to

remedy any gaps in knowledge.The modularisation of university

courses may help re-establish continuity between the phases.There is

also some evidence of universities’ beginning to look at the nature of

applicants’ learning experiences, rather than simply at the name of

the qualification.

Schools argue that universities’ expectations are sometimes not clear.

Where universities or faculties are specific about their requirements,

for example, foreign languages and mathematics, this affects the status

and take-up of those subjects. Conversely, where faculties specify that

they will ‘count’ only one certificate in, say mathematics, the take-up

of dual pure/applied courses or further mathematics declines among

intending applicants to the faculty, but possibly also amongst those

who are keeping their options open.

Finally, difficulties may arise from changed circumstances in

universities: larger and/or more heterogeneous teaching groups;

shorter courses; higher expectations on the part of students, their

parents and employers; and the exponential growth of knowledge in

many disciplines, requiring choices between breadth and depth of

study.The emphasis on outcomes (and, in some cases, its direct link

with funding) may make institutions more concerned about the

quality of their student intake than they used to be.


88

c) Relevance for employment

Employers’ expectations and requirements include higher levels of

skill, and the ability and flexibility to change in line with

technological developments and market demands.The realities of the

labour market also mean that the traditional academic approach to

education does not guarantee success in the modern economy.

As with higher education, the needs of the labour market are not

well delineated. Generalisations tend to be made, as though

‘employees’ were a homogenous category (not all employees require

all skills). For example, it is often claimed that foreign language

competence is highly prized by employers. However, two examples

contradict this assumption.The first is the fact that recruitment

advertisements in London newspapers offer bilingual secretaries

salaries which are the same, or only a little higher than those offered

for mono-lingual secretaries. Secondly, a survey asked Swedish

employers which skills they did not want students to be taught at

school.The response was: foreign languages other than English.

More significantly, it is difficult to predict the nature of the

‘workplace’ of the future. Career paths may comprise periods of

(self-) employment, unemployment and education and (re)training,

in a variety of settings, including the home. Hence, generic

competence, transferable skills and an ability and willingness to learn

and change are valued.

Implications

Authorities in Germany and Korea, for example, have identified a

tendency for students (or their parents) to choose a high-status

academic route, in preference to a lower status applied/vocational

course, regardless of whether it is in keeping with their abilities or

future career needs.A similar conflict may arise when the desire to


89

excel, and pressure on time, oblige students to choose between

theoretical learning (for example, traditional academic subjects) and

key skills, derived from practical and life experiences (through co-

curricular activities, work-based and informal learning).

Inappropriate choices may jeopardise the students’ success in either

further studies or employment.

What are the needs of industry? Who defines these and how are they

kept up to date? Is curriculum change essential to meet generic

employment needs? If too much emphasis is placed on

employability, possibly at the expense of general education and

development, is there is a danger that the outcome will be

generations of students with outdated skills?

Implicit in the move towards individualised provision is the

assumption that, collectively, the choices made by students will meet

the needs, and enhance the well being, of society as a whole.

However, increased choice may result in an imbalance between

individual needs and those of society.

2.4.2 Coherence

If students are free to choose the content of their learning, there is a

danger of fragmentation of learning. For students who undertake

most of their learning within a single school or college, personal

tutors or advisers are available to monitor their overall experience,

within and beyond the institution. However, as the form of delivery

changes, and students undertake elements of their learning in a range

of institutions and contexts, this may become increasingly difficult.


90

2.4.3 Manageability

Although it is accepted that students cannot keep abreast of the

increasing amount and complexity of information, as well as develop

a new range of skills, curricula are often drawn up by subject

specialists and there is a marked reluctance to limit the scope of

‘essential learning’. New areas of learning and learning methods (for

example activity based, explorative, collaborative, constructivist

learning methods) are introduced into the timetable, without

removing existing subjects or reducing their content.These two

trends lead to curriculum and student overload. However, France,

Japan, the Netherlands and Singapore have made adjustments to the

curriculum to reduce overload.

2.5 Teaching and learning

2.5.1 Individualised and independent learning

The increased flexibility offered by modularised curricula and

certification assumes a higher degree of personal responsibility for

learning, especially where students are not based in an institution or

attached to a learning mentor.This is recognised:

• in the increased emphasis being placed on the development of

intra- and interpersonal skills (including self evaluation) and

strategies for study, review and improvement

• in provision for independent and cross-disciplinary learning in

upper secondary programmes, to help students develop the skills

and confidence to organise their own (lifelong) learning, to use a

range of sources and methods, and to make links and transfer

learning across subject boundaries

• in the restructuring and expansion of guidance services.


91

However, the pressure on students, teachers and institutions to meet

performance targets may discourage independent exploration and

the development of creativity, which are time-consuming learning

activities without a predictable outcome. In the same way, those

aspects of the curriculum that are not externally assessed may receive

little attention.

Implications

Teachers need a wider range of pedagogical strategies to enable

students of different abilities to move towards becoming independent

active learners. It is sometimes difficult to convince teachers (and

students) to do things differently, and to adopt new roles in

collaborative, interactive and cross-curricular activities.

Implicit in individualised learning is the expectation that teachers

will tailor learning materials and teaching/mentoring styles to meet

the needs of a wide range of individual learners (rather than the

needs of a learning ‘group’ or class).

Where students choose their own courses, and increasingly direct

their own learning, who is responsible if they fail to secure the

desired qualification or ‘acceptable’ employment? (There have already

been cases where students successfully sued local authorities for

failing to provide education suitable to their needs.)


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2.5.2 Computer-based and on-line learning

Whilst distance learning has traditionally been associated with post-

school or higher education (for example, Open University institutes

in several countries, Polytechnics in Singapore67), school programmes

have also been provided for students in remote locations (for

example, in Australia).

Technological advances have led to the development of digital

learning materials that incorporate feedback-cum-coaching

mechanisms. Students are thus able, in principle, to learn

independently and take assessments progressively to gauge their own

levels of competency.As access to ICT facilities increases (at home,

in educational institutions, and in other locations such as libraries

and community centres), there is increased scope for flexible,

computer-based and on-line learning. However, new modes of

learning require changes in materials and teaching methods, as well

as flexible support.

The USA boasts numerous examples of on-line learning, for which

extravagant claims are made.Whilst it is not possible to explore on-

line learning in detail in this paper, it is clearly an important

development and Glick (2002) addresses some of the implications

involved in the realisation of its potential.68


93

67 Distance education, especially when delivered through the Internet, allows studentsto ‘attend’ lectures and tutorials, to complete ‘practical’ work and quizzes, to interactwith lecturers and other students, and to submit their assignments electronically.

68 For example, in Minnesota, 30 per cent of school districts use on-line learning(OLL) courses, but only 10 per cent of schools have developed OLL policies andguidelines. Similarly, although state legislation established funding mechanisms and anapplication/approval process, it fails to address: quality assurance, state-widecoordination, professional development, innovation/development funding, access forstudents in independent schools or educated at home. Moreover, the stipulation (inthe legislation) that schools are not required to supply computers or Internet accessfor students, leads one to ask whether the less well-off students are excluded fromon-line learning options. (Glick, 2002).

Implications

There is, as yet, little sustained evidence of the ways in which the

use of ICT enhance student learning.This is partly because

computers have only relatively recently been available in schools in

sufficient numbers and partly because the speed of developments in

equipment and software outstrips the rate at which evaluations can

be carried out.

‘Virtual’ schooling and on-line learning are still very new, many of

the issues remain to be addressed, and some may not even have been

identified.Amongst the most obvious are:

• The purchase, maintenance, updating of equipment constitutes a

major cost item for institutions. Insofar as ICT training is linked

to preparation for work, they will need to invest in new

equipment and applications on a regular basis. Students seeking

to work from home will need compatible systems.Those from

the disadvantaged groups, who are currently under-represented in

post-compulsory education, are least likely to meet this

requirement, and will be further disadvantaged.

• Teachers need training in the new skills and pedagogical

approaches necessary to promote effective computer-based and

on-line learning.They may need to be available outside ‘normal’

hours to respond to electronic messages. Making their contact

details available to students involves a loss of privacy.

• Who produces, controls, safeguards the quality of, and pays for

teaching and learning materials? What is the cost implication

of producing ever more sophisticated materials to keep pace with

student expectations? Conversely, who owns the copyright (and

therefore benefits from the sale of) materials developed in the

school?


94

• How are the contributions of the different providers allocated

and evaluated for the purposes of monitoring institutional

performance?

2.6 Assessment

A global trend towards greater accountability (often associated with

greater devolved autonomy for schools) means that assessment has

become an increasing feature of education and countries which have

not previously had external examinations (for example, Sweden), are

reconsidering whether they should be introduced.

The desire to recognise the achievement (rather than failure) of a

wider student group has led to changes in upper secondary

assessments.These have affected the form (continuous assessment, or

periodic assessment of modular courses), the structure (specification

of compulsory subjects, grouping of disciplines), and the type of

qualifications awarded (general and vocational subjects).

These developments are not without difficulties.

• There is a perception that continual assessment _ where the

student is allowed more time and may be assisted by the teacher

or others _ is ‘less rigorous’ than timed, terminal examinations,

and that the results therefore represent a lower standard

• Academic/theoretical studies enjoy a higher status as compared

with applied/vocational courses, which results in a reluctance on

the part of some students to undertake vocational studies


95

• It is difficult to secure public understanding and acceptance of

(any) new qualifications69, in particular those made up of a

complex combination of learning achievements

• Consistency of grading between schools takes on a greater

importance where qualifications confer specific entitlements on

individuals, (for example, access to higher education) or

institutions (for example, access to additional funding or freedom

from regulation).

(For details of certification see 2.2.3.)


96

69 For example: New Zealand recognises that ‘Getting wider acceptance of [more flexiblepathways to achieving qualifications] requires attention to how teaching and school practiceschange, and to processes that raise the expectations of schools and communities.’ Ministry ofEducation, response to questionnaire, December 2001.


97

C O N C L U S I O N

It is clear, both from documentary sources and from the discussions

at the seminar, that perceptions of the challenges faced by education

systems are similar across the world.The exchange of information

has enabled us to develop shared concepts and terminology.

However, the ways in which these challenges are faced must be

different, on the one hand, because each national context and

heritage is different, and on the other, because future success

depends, not on doing the same things better, but on rising up above

the crowd.

As suggested in this report, all educational initiatives have ‘side-

effects’, and authorities have to weigh up the potential benefits

against any disadvantages.At the same time, they have to try to

satisfy the (conflicting) demands of different stakeholders and

different political priorities.This may explain why review and reform

are constant elements in educational policy and provision.


98

Conclusion


99

References


References

Department for Education and Employment (DfEE), 2001.

Schools:building on success. London: Department for Education and

Employment.

EURYDICE. (2001). Basic indicators on the incorporation of ICT into

European education systems:facts and figures. 2002/01 Annual Report.

Brussels: EURYDICE European Unit.

Glick, D. (2002) ‘Realising the potential of on-line learning.’ Paper

presented at Association of Supervision and Curriculum

Development, San Antonio, March 2002: (Minnesota.

[email protected] http://cfl.state.mn.us/onlinelearning)

Howson, J. (2002). ‘Why are they quitting at 16?’ Times Educational

Supplement, 18 January, p. 30.

Maguire, S. Maguire, M. and Heaver, C. (2002) Implementation of the

Education Maintenance Allowance Pilots: the second year. DfES

Research Report 333. London: Department for Education and

Skills.

O’Donnell, S., Le Métais, J., Micklethwaite, C., and Sargent, S.

(2002). INCA:The International Review of Curriculum and

Assessment Frameworks Archive. London: Qualifications and

Curriculum Authority (QCA). [Online] at:

http://www.inca.org.uk

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA); Northern Ireland

Council for the Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment

(CCEA); Qualifications Curriculum and Assessment Authority

for Wales (ACCAC) (2000A). Guidance on the key skills units:

communication, application of number and information technology levels

1-3. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.


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for Wales (ACCAC) (2000B) Guidance on the key skills units:

communication, application of number and information technology

level 4. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.




for Wales (ACCAC) (2001) Addendum: guidance on the key skills

units: communication, application of number and information technology.

London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.


102

A P P E N D I C E S


103


104

App

endi

x 1:

Stru

ctur

e of

upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

cation

AG

E5-

66-

77-

88-

99-

1010

-11

11-1

212

-13

13-1

414

-15

15-1

616

-17

17-1

818

-19

Aus

tral

ia

Can

ada

Eng

land

70

Fran

ce

Ger

man

y71

70T

he p

ropo

sals

for

14-1

9 ed

ucat

ion

refo

rm a

re s

till u

nder

con

sider

atio

n.T

his

repo

rt d

eals

mai

nly

with

edu

catio

n pr

ovid

ed i

n sc

hool

s,ra

ther

tha

n fu

rthe

r ed

ucat

ion

inst

itutio

ns.

71In

som

e st

ates

,edu

catio

n le

adin

g up

to

the

Abi

tur

is di

vide

d in

to 1

0+2

and

in o

ther

9+

3.

Upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

catio

n

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

(reg

iona

l var

iatio

ns)

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

at le

ast

part

tim

e


105

Stru

ctur

e of

upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

cation

(co

ntin

ued)

AG

E5-

66-

77-

88-

99-

1010

-11

11-1

212

-13

13-1

414

-15

15-1

616

-17

17-1

818

-19

Hun

gary

Irel

and

Ital

y

Japa

n

Kor

ea72

72Lo

wer

sec

onda

ry e

duca

tion,

age

12-1

5,is

fee-

payi

ng i

n so

me

area

s.U

pper

sec

onda

ry e

duca

tion

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

(reg

iona

l var

iatio

ns)

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

at le

ast

part

tim

e

Stru

ctur

e of

upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

cation

(co

ntin

ued)


106

Upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

catio

n

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

(reg

iona

l var

iatio

ns)

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

at le

ast

part

tim

e

AG

E5-

66-

77-

88-

99-

1010

-11

11-1

212

-13

13-1

414

-15

15-1

616

-17

17-1

818

-19

Net

herl

ands

73

VM

BO

HA

VO

VW

O

N.Z

eala

nd

Sing

apor

e74

Spai

n

72Lo

wer

sec

onda

ry e

duca

tion,

age

12-1

5,is

fee-

payi

ng i

n so

me

area

s.

Stru

ctur

e of

upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

cation

(co

ntin

ued)


107

AG

E5-

66-

77-

88-

99-

1010

-11

11-1

212

-13

13-1

414

-15

15-1

616

-17

17-1

818

-19

Swed

en

Switz

erla

nd

USA

Ele

men

tary

Hig

h

Prim

ary

Inte

rmed

iate

Juni

or H

igh

Seni

or H

igh

Ele

men

tary

Juni

or H

igh

Seni

or H

igh

Upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

catio

n

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

(reg

iona

l var

iatio

ns)

Com

pulso

ry e

duca

tion

at le

ast

part

tim

e


108

75In

199

8 19

% i

n T

asm

ania

too

k vo

catio

nal e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

cre

dits

cou

rses

.76

In

clud

ing

spec

ialis

t sc

hool

s fo

r la

ngua

ge,m

usic

,art

s77

Incl

udin

g sp

ecia

list

scho

ols

e.g.

for

scie

nce

and

tech

nolo

gy,l

angu

age,

arts

/mus

ic,s

port

s

App

endi

x 2:

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

Shad

ed in

stitu

tions

are

not

add

ress

ed in

the

study

as

they

are

not

par

t of t

he s

econ

dary

sch

ool s

ecto

r in

the

coun

tries

con

cern

ed

MA

IN f

ocus

Aus

tral

ia a

ge 1

5/16

- 1

8+ -

fre

e

Col

lege

,sen

ior

seco

ndar

y co

llege

Seco

ndar

y co

llege

,Hig

h Sc

hool

76

TAFE

(tec

hnica

l and

furth

er e

duca

tion)

Can

ada

age

15/1

6 -

17/1

8 -

free

Seni

or H

igh

Scho

ol

Eng

land

16-

18 –

fre

e

Seco

ndar

y sc

hool

77

Sixt

h fo

rm c

olle

ge

Furth

er e

duca

tion

insti

tutio

ns (

inclu

ding

spec

ialis

t col

lege

s fo

r e.

g.ar

t,ag

ricul

ture

)

Mod

e

FT FT

FT/P

T

Mod

e

FT

Mod

e

FT FT

FT P

T

Age

16-1

8

12-1

8

16+

Age

15/1

6to

17/1

8

Age

11/1

2-1

6/18

16-1

816

+

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Juni

or H

igh

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Dep

ends

on

cour

se c

hose

n

Gen x x

Gen x

Gen x x x

Tech x x

Tech x

Tech x

Voc

Voc

Voc x

Qua

lific

atio

n

In 1

999

abou

t 20

00 s

choo

ls of

fere

d vo

catio

nal e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

cre

dits

(V

ET

) an

d ov

er 1

10,0

00 s

tude

nts

taki

ng V

ET

s75

VE

T c

redi

ts fo

r Aus

tralia

n Q

ualif

icatio

ns F

ram

ewor

k (A

QF)

Qua

lific

atio

n

Gra

duat

ion

cert

ifica

te

Qua

lific

atio

n

GC

E A

Lev

el,G

CE

AS

leve

l,A

VC

E (

=vo

catio

nal A

leve

l)G

CSE

,GN

VQ

(=

voca

tiona

l GC

SE),

GC

E A

Lev

el,G

CE

AS

leve

l,A

VC

E (

=vo

catio

nal A

leve

l)G

CSE

,GN

VQ

(=

voca

tiona

l GC

SE),

A ra

nge

of g

ener

al a

nd v

ocat

iona

l qua

lifica

tions

from

bas

ic to

high

er e

duca

tion


109

78In

clud

ing,

in s

ome

scho

ols,

bilin

gual

,Eur

opea

n an

d In

tern

atio

nal S

ectio

ns.

79St

uden

ts w

ho h

ave

obta

ined

app

ropr

iate

mar

ks i

n th

e m

ittle

rer

Schu

labs

chlu

ßor

Rea

lschu

labs

chlu

ß(o

n co

mpl

etio

n of

the

Rea

lschu

le,o

r Yea

r 10

at

othe

r lo

wer

seco

ndar

y sc

hool

s an

d,gi

ven

appr

opri

ate

reco

rds

and

mar

ks,a

t th

e B

eruf

ssch

ule)

.Tho

se w

ho h

ave

obta

ined

app

rove

d qu

alifi

catio

ns f

rom

Ber

ufsf

achs

chul

en (

full-

time

voca

tiona

l sch

ools)

or

Fach

schu

len

(tec

hnic

al/v

ocat

iona

l sch

ools)

.

MA

IN f

ocus

Fran

ce a

ge 1

5–18

(of

whi

ch t

hefirs

t ye

ar is

com

pulsor

y) –

fre

e

Lycé

e d’

ense

igne

men

t gén

éral

et

tech

nolo

giqu

e,L

EG

T78

Lycé

e pr

ofes

sionn

el,L

P

Ger

man

y 15

/16-

to

18/1

9(c

ompu

lsor

y at

lea

st p

art-

tim

e) -

free

Gym

nasia

le O

bers

tufe

Mod

e

FT FT

Mod

e

FT

Age

15-1

8

15-1

8

Age

15/1

6- 1

8/19

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Col

lège

or

entr

ance

exa

m

Com

plet

e co

llège

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Pass

in

Yr

9/10

Gym

nasiu

m o

rG

esam

tschu

leor

equi

vale

nt79

Gen x (x)

Gen x

Tech x

Tech

Voc x Voc

Qua

lific

atio

n

Bac

cala

uréa

t,(g

ener

al o

r te

chno

logi

cal);

brev

et d

e te

chni

cien

(BT

tec

hnic

al c

ertif

icat

e);c

ertif

icat d

e fin

d’é

tude

s se

cond

aire

s(s

econ

dary

sch

ool l

eavi

ng c

ertif

icat

e)

Bac

cala

uréa

t pro

fess

ionn

el (

voca

tiona

l);br

evet

d’é

tude

spr

ofes

sionn

elle

s (B

EP

voca

tiona

l stu

dies

cer

tific

ate)

;cer

tifica

td’

aptit

ude

prof

essio

nnel

le (

CA

Pvo

catio

nal a

ptitu

dece

rtifi

cate

)

Qua

lific

atio

n

Abi

tur

(Allg

emei

ne H

ochs

chul

reife

)an

d un

iver

sity

acce

ss

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned


110

80E

cono

mic

s/bu

sines

s,te

chno

logy

,eng

inee

ring

,nut

ritio

n,ho

me

econ

omic

s an

d ag

rono

my,

com

mun

ity w

ork,

text

iles

and

desig

n te

chno

logy

.81

Tra

de a

nd i

ndus

try,

com

mer

ce,h

ome

econ

omic

s or

far

min

g.82

Eng

inee

ring

,eco

nom

ics,

farm

ing,

wel

fare

and

des

ign.

MA

IN f

ocus

Ber

uflic

heG

ymna

sien/

Fach

gym

nasie

n80

Ber

ufsfa

chsc

hule

e.g.

lang

uage

s,bu

sines

s,he

alth

,soc

ial

wor

k

Ber

ufss

chul

e (p

lus

wor

k-pl

aced

trai

ning

)81

Fach

ober

schu

le82

Dua

l sys

tem

of

in-c

ompa

ny t

rain

ing

com

bine

d w

ith e

duca

tion

in s

choo

l

Mod

eFT FT PT FT

Age

16-1

9

15-1

8+

15-1

8

16-1

8

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

sR

ealsc

hule

Hau

ptsc

hule

or

Rea

lschu

lele

avin

gce

rtifi

cate

or

am

ittle

rer

Schu

labs

chlu

ß

Hau

ptsc

hul-

absc

hluß

Rea

lschu

le

n/a

Gen (x)

(x)

(x)

Tech

Voc x x x x x

Qua

lific

atio

nE

ither

the

Allg

emei

ne H

ochs

chul

reife

or

the

Fach

gebu

nden

eH

ochs

chul

reife

and

uni

vers

ity a

cces

s

Staa

tlich

gep

rüfte

r te

chni

sche

r Ass

isten

t (st

ate-

cert

ified

tech

nica

l ass

istan

t) o

r St

aatli

ch g

eprü

fter

kauf

män

nisc

her

Ass

isten

t (st

ate-

cert

ified

bus

ines

s as

sista

nt)

Acce

ss to

Fac

hhoc

hsch

ule.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned


111

83In

clud

ing

spec

ialis

t la

ngua

ge s

choo

ls of

feri

ng m

othe

r to

ngue

as

fore

ign

lang

uage

,bili

ngua

l and

mot

her-

tong

ue m

ediu

m.

84Sh

ort

cour

ses/

spec

ialis

t ap

pren

tices

hips

for

stu

dent

s w

ith S

EN

or

soci

al d

isadv

anta

ge

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Hun

gary

Upp

er s

econ

dary

,age

10

/ 12

/ 14

- 1

8/ 1

9 –

free

Seco

ndar

y gr

amm

ar s

choo

l(g

imná

zium

)83

Seco

ndar

y vo

catio

nal s

choo

l(s

zakk

özép

iskol

a)

Voc

atio

nal t

rain

ing

scho

ol(s

zakm

unká

skép

zö is

kola

c 20

0sp

ecia

lism

s

Spec

ial v

ocat

iona

l tra

inin

g sc

hool

84

Irel

and

15-1

7/18

– f

ree

Sen

ior

Cyc

le o

f sec

onda

ry s

choo

ls,vo

catio

nal s

choo

ls,co

mpr

ehen

sive

scho

ols

Com

mun

ity s

choo

ls an

d co

llege

s

Mod

e

FT FT

Mod

e

FT

Age

10/1

2or

14

to 1

8

c13- 18

14-1

7

Age

12-1

8

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Opt

iona

l sel

ectiv

eex

amin

atio

n

Opt

iona

l sel

ectiv

eex

amin

atio

n

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

n/a

Gen x x

Gen x

Tech x

Tech

Voc x x x Voc x x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Mat

urity

exa

min

atio

nE

ntra

nce

to t

ertia

ry e

duca

tion

or t

he la

bour

mar

ket

Tech

nici

ans

cert

ifica

te,s

ervi

ce p

rofe

ssio

ns;

mat

urity

exa

min

atio

n (é

retts

égi)

+ v

oc c

ertif

icat

e.

A n

atio

nally

rec

ogni

sed

skill

ed w

orke

rs c

ertif

icat

e

Lea

ving

Cer

tifica

te (

Esta

blish

ed);

Lea

ving

Cer

tifica

te V

ocat

iona

lPr

ogra

mm

e (L

CV

P);L

eavi

ng C

ert A

pplie

d (L

CA

)


112

85In

199

3,31

.6 p

er c

ent

of t

he 1

4+ a

ge g

roup

ent

ered

cla

ssic

al a

nd s

cien

tific

edu

catio

n,3.

5 pe

r ce

nt a

rtist

ic,3

5.8

per

cent

tec

hnic

al a

nd 1

9.5

per

cent

voc

atio

nal.

At

pres

ent,

25 p

er c

ent

of s

tude

nts

in t

his

cate

gory

of

educ

atio

n le

ave

scho

ol d

urin

g th

e fir

st t

wo

year

s.86

Agr

icul

tura

l,co

mm

erci

al,t

ouri

sm,s

urve

ying

,nav

al a

nd i

ndus

tria

l occ

upat

ions

,and

hom

e ec

onom

ics

and

soci

al s

ervi

ces

prof

essio

ns.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Ital

y 14

-19

Firs

t ye

ar i

s co

mpu

lsory

sin

ce 1

999.

Post

-com

pulso

ry i

s fe

epay

ing

(mea

nste

sted

)

Scu

ole

supe

rior

i (u

pper s

econ

dary

scho

ols)

85

Lice

o cla

ssico

(cl

assic

al b

ranc

h)

Lice

o sc

ient

ifico

(sci

ence

bra

nch)

Lice

o ar

tistic

o(f

ine

arts

and

sta

gede

sign;

arch

itect

ure)

Istit

uti d’

arte

cera

mic

s,go

ld,t

extil

es,c

oral

,al

abas

ter,

prin

ting,

woo

d,m

osai

cs,

glas

s et

c.

Istit

uto

tecn

ico(t

echn

ical

sch

ool)86

Mod

e

FT FT FT FT FT

Age

14-1

9

14-1

9

14-1

8

14-

17/1

9

14-1

9

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Dip

lom

a di

lice

nza

med

ia (

low

erse

cond

ary

scho

olle

avin

g ce

rt.)

Dip

lom

a di

lice

nza

med

ia (

low

erse

cond

ary

scho

olle

avin

gce

rtifi

cate

)

Gen x x x

Tech x

Voc x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Uni

vers

ity a

cces

s

Uni

vers

ity a

cces

s

Uni

vers

ity a

cces

s

Mas

ter

of a

rt d

iplo

ma

(dip

lom

a di

mae

stro

d’ar

te)

afte

r th

ree

year

s;ap

plie

d ar

ts u

pper

sec

onda

ry c

ertif

icat

e (d

iplo

ma

Stat

o d’

arte

app

licat

a)af

ter

3 ye

ars

– gr

antin

g ac

cess

to

univ

ersit

y

Upp

er s

econ

dary

tech

nica

l sch

ooll

eavi

ng d

iplo

ma

(esa

me

diSt

ato)

and

acce

ss to

hig

her

educ

atio

n,tr

aini

ng o

r em

ploy

men

t


113

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Voca

tiona

l edu

catio

n (I

stitu

tipr

ofes

siona

li)87

Two

furt

her

year

s of

san

dwic

h st

udy

incl

wor

k pl

acem

ents

Japa

n,ag

e 15

- 1

8+88

Seni

or H

igh

Scho

ols

(kôt

ô-ga

kkô)

gene

ral a

cade

mic

(74

% )

Spec

ialis

ed v

ocat

iona

l89

Inte

grat

ed c

ours

es b

oth,

thro

ugh

elec

tives

New

all-

thro

ugh

seco

ndar

y sc

hool

,19

99 (

expe

rim

enta

l)91

Mod

e

FT o

rPT

Mod

e

FT,P

TD

istan

ce

FT

Age

14-1

7

17-1

9

Age

15-1

8+

12-1

8

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Very

com

petit

ive

14+

ent

ranc

eex

ams90

Juni

or h

igh

Gen

Gen x x

Tech

Tech x x

Voc

Voc x x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Thr

ee-y

ear

basic

tra

inin

g in

a s

peci

fic a

rea

and

guid

ance

to a

ssist

stu

dent

s in

sel

ectin

g fu

ture

cou

rses

,sch

ools

orem

ploy

men

t.U

pper

sec

onda

ryvo

catio

nal s

choo

llea

ving

dip

lom

a,(e

sam

e di

Stat

o) g

rant

s ac

cess

to

high

er e

duca

tion

Qua

lific

atio

n

Cer

tific

ate

of U

pper

Sec

onda

ry E

duca

tion

acce

ss t

oun

iver

sity

(dai

gaku

)

Cer

tific

ate

of U

pper

Sec

onda

ry E

duca

tion

acce

ss t

oun

iver

sity

(dai

gaku

)

87A

gric

ultu

re;i

ndus

try

and

craf

ts (

econ

omic

s an

d bu

sines

s,cl

othi

ng/f

ashi

on,b

uild

ing)

;che

mic

o-bi

olog

ical

(in

cl m

echa

nica

l,th

erm

al,e

lect

rica

l and

ele

ctro

nic

stud

ies)

;ser

vice

sec

tor

(incl

eco

nom

y,bu

sines

s,to

urism

,adv

ertis

ing,

hote

l and

cat

erin

g,an

d so

cial

ser

vice

s).

88In

Jap

an,p

ost-

com

pulso

ry u

pper

sec

onda

ry c

ours

es p

rovi

ded

in a

ny i

nstit

utio

n ot

her

than

the

kôt

ô-ga

kkô

are

ofte

n re

gard

ed a

s co

urse

s of

hig

her

educ

atio

n.89

Agr

icul

ture

,ind

ustr

y,co

mm

erce

,fish

ery,

hom

e ec

onom

ics,

nurs

ing,

scie

nce-

mat

hem

atic

s,ph

ysic

al e

duca

tion,

mus

ic,a

rt,E

nglis

h la

ngua

ge e

tc)

90In

clud

ing

pass

es i

n E

nglis

h;pr

evio

us s

choo

l rec

ord

and

volu

ntar

y co

mm

unity

wor

k.E

ntry

to

a go

od s

enio

r hi

gh s

choo

lis

a vi

tal f

irst

ste

p to

an

elite

uni

vers

ity/

high

stat

us jo

b in

the

civ

il se

rvic

e,pr

ofes

sions

or

larg

e co

rpor

atio

ns.T

his

mak

es 1

4+ r

esul

ts c

ruci

ally

im

port

ant

to J

apan

ese

teen

ager

s an

d ex

plai

ns t

he d

evel

opm

ent

ofju

kus,

priv

ate

inst

itutio

ns o

fferi

ng t

uitio

n in

Jap

anes

e la

ngua

ge a

nd m

athe

mat

ics

and

also

ofte

n in

Eng

lish

and

scie

nce.

17 p

er c

ent

of e

lem

enta

ry s

choo

l and

45

per

cent

of

juni

or h

igh

scho

olst

uden

ts a

tten

d ju

kus.

Seni

or h

igh

scho

ol s

tude

nts

who

con

tem

plat

e un

iver

sity

spen

d tw

o to

thr

ee h

ours

a d

ay o

r m

ore

stud

ying

afte

r sc

hool

at a

juku

,th

ree

or f

our

times

a w

eek,

to p

ass

the

diffi

cult

univ

ersit

y en

tran

ce e

xam

s.91

The

ir p

rinc

ipal

aim

is

to d

ecre

ase

the

leve

l of

com

petit

ion

for

entr

y to

sen

ior

high

scho

ol e

duca

tion


114

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Com

preh

ensiv

e se

nior

hig

hsc

hool

s(45

)92

Col

lege

s of

tech

nolo

gy (

kôtô

-sen

mon

-ga

kkô)

(pr

ofes

siona

l tra

inin

g co

llege

s)

Spec

ial t

rain

ing

colle

ges

(sen

shû-

gakk

ô)(m

ainl

y pr

ivat

e)93

Misc

ella

neou

s sc

hool

s (k

akus

hu-g

akkô

).(m

ainl

y pr

ivat

e –

voca

tiona

l)

Mod

e

FT FT FT FT

Age

15-1

8

15-2

0

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Juni

or h

igh

Juni

or h

igh;

entr

ance

exa

m

Com

plet

edju

nior

hig

h

Com

plet

edju

nior

hig

h

Gen

Tech x x

Voc x x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Cer

tific

ate

of U

pper

Sec

onda

ry E

duca

tion

acce

ss t

oun

iver

sity

(dai

gaku

)

Lead

ing

to t

he t

itle

of a

ssoc

iate

.Acc

ess

to c

omm

erci

al o

rin

dust

rial

Hig

h Sc

hool

s

Acc

ess

to c

omm

erci

al o

r in

dust

rial

Hig

h Sc

hool

s

Acc

ess

to c

omm

erci

al o

r in

dust

rial

Hig

h Sc

hool

s

92E

stab

lishe

d by

mid

-199

7,as

par

t of

a g

ener

al p

lan

to r

evita

lise

educ

atio

n an

d,in

res

pons

e to

rea

ctio

ns f

rom

bus

ines

s le

ader

s,to

cre

ate

a m

ore

dyna

mic

wor

kfor

ce.

The

sch

ool a

ims

to d

evel

op s

tude

nts’

abili

ties

and

tale

nts

to i

mpr

ove

upon

the

ir p

ower

to

thin

k,ju

dge

and

beha

ve f

or t

hem

selv

es,b

y al

low

ing

grea

ter

stud

ent

choi

ce (

stud

ents

can

sel

ect

10 p

er c

ent

of t

heir

sub

ject

s in

the

fir

st y

ear,

50 p

er c

ent

in t

he s

econ

d ye

ar a

nd 9

0 pe

r ce

nt i

n th

e th

ird

year

).A

s w

ell a

s of

feri

nggr

eate

r fle

xibi

lity

to s

tude

nts,

thes

e sc

hool

s ar

e al

so p

art

of a

n in

itiat

ive

to i

ntro

duce

mor

e co

mpu

ters

int

o th

e cl

assr

oom

.93

Thr

ee c

ateg

orie

s:po

st-c

ompu

lsory

upp

er s

econ

dary

,pos

t-se

cond

ary

and

gene

ral c

ours

es.E

ach

cour

se g

ives

at

leas

t 40

stu

dent

s sy

stem

atic

ins

truc

tion,

last

ing

not

less

tha

n on

e ye

ar,f

or 8

00 h

ours

or

mor

e pe

r ye

ar


115

94In

clud

ing

spec

ialis

t/sp

ecia

l pur

pose

hig

h sc

hool

s (f

or t

alen

ted/

gifte

d st

uden

ts)

art/

mus

ic,a

thle

tics,

fore

ign

lang

uage

s,sc

ienc

e 95

The

pra

ctic

e of

set

ting

entr

ance

exa

ms

for

adm

issio

n to

Hig

h Sc

hool

educ

atio

n is

dim

inish

ing.

Sinc

e 19

74,a

dmiss

ion

has

been

bas

ed o

n a

prel

imin

ary

exam

inat

ion

and

lott

ery

assig

nmen

t to

ahi

gh s

choo

lin

the

scho

ol d

istri

ct o

f th

eir

resid

ence

.Con

sequ

ently

,som

e pa

rent

s m

ove

into

goo

d di

stri

cts.

In r

ural

are

as a

nd s

mal

l citi

es,

each

sch

ool d

evise

s its

ow

n en

tran

ce c

rite

ria.

Thi

s al

low

s so

me

sele

ct m

ore

acad

emic

ally

abl

e st

uden

ts a

nd r

emai

n pr

estig

ious

sch

ools.

96A

gric

ultu

ral,

tech

nica

l,co

mm

erci

al,f

isher

y &

oce

anog

raph

y an

d co

mpr

ehen

sive

voca

tiona

l)97

Hig

h Sc

hool

s th

at o

ffer

mor

e th

an t

wo

voca

tiona

l cou

rses

are

kno

wn

as c

ompr

ehen

sive

voca

tiona

l Hig

h Sc

hool

s.T

hese

sch

ools

offe

r a

com

bina

tion

of a

cade

mic

and

voca

tiona

l cou

rses

and

are

usu

ally

loca

ted

in r

ural

are

as o

r sm

all a

nd m

ediu

m-s

ized

citi

es,s

o th

at t

he y

oung

peo

ple

who

live

the

re c

an h

ave

equa

l sec

onda

ryed

ucat

iona

l opp

ortu

nitie

s.98

The

fir

st c

ycle

of

seco

ndar

y ed

ucat

ion

(bas

isvor

min

gno

rmal

ly Y

ears

1-3

,age

s 12

-15)

,com

prise

s a

com

mon

cur

ricu

lum

for

all

stud

ents

plu

s ad

ditio

nal s

ubje

cts

depe

ndin

g on

sch

ool t

ype.

Tho

se w

ho e

nd t

heir

ful

l-tim

e sc

hool

ing

at t

he a

ge o

f 16

mus

t at

tend

sch

ool o

n at

leas

t tw

o da

ys a

wee

k un

til t

he e

nd o

f th

e sc

hool

year

in

whi

ch t

hey

reac

h 17

.Tho

se r

ecei

ving

pra

ctic

al t

rain

ing

whi

lst e

mpl

oyed

mus

t re

ceiv

e ge

nera

l edu

catio

n at

a d

ay-r

elea

se c

olle

ge f

or a

t le

ast

one

day

per

wee

k.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Kor

ea,a

ge 1

5 –

18 (

fee

payi

ng)

Gen

eral

/aca

dem

ic hi

gh s

choo

ls94

Spec

ialis

e fr

om Y

r 2

inhu

man

ities

/soc

ial s

cien

ces;

natu

ral

scie

nces

;voc

atio

nal t

rain

ing

Voca

tiona

l hig

h sc

hool

s96

Com

preh

ensiv

e vo

catio

nal h

igh

scho

ols97

The

Net

herl

ands

age

16-

17/1

898

(pos

t co

mpu

lsor

y is f

eepa

ying

)

VB

O:

pre-

voca

tiona

l sec

onda

ryed

ucat

ion

cert

ifica

te.S

econ

d cy

cle

–Ye

ar 4

Mod

e

FT FT FT

Mod

e

FT

Age

15-1

8

15-1

8

15-1

8

Age

15-1

6

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Ent

ranc

e ex

am95

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Satis

fact

ory

first

cycl

e

Gen x x

Gen x

Tech x

Tech

Voc x x Voc x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Hig

h Sc

hool

dip

lom

a,gr

antin

g un

iver

sity

entr

ance

Hig

h Sc

hool

dip

lom

a,gr

antin

g un

iver

sity

entr

ance

Hig

h Sc

hool

dipl

oma,

gran

ting

univ

ersit

y en

tran

ce

Qua

lific

atio

n

VM

BO

:th

e pr

e-vo

catio

nal s

econ

dary

edu

catio

nce

rtifi

cate

,gra

ntin

g ac

cess

to

inte

rmed

iate

voc

atio

nal

educ

atio

n (M

BO

)


116

99Su

bdiv

ided

int

o G

ymna

sium

(co

mpu

lsory

cla

ssic

s [G

reek

and

Lat

in])

;Lyc

eum

(opt

iona

l cla

ssic

s);A

then

aeum

(no

clas

sics)

10

0Po

lyte

chni

cs a

re c

lass

ified

as

Inst

itute

s of

Hig

her

Lear

ning

.10

1In

stitu

tes

of T

echn

ical

Edu

catio

n ar

e cl

assif

ied

unde

r Fu

rthe

r E

duca

tion.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

HA

VO

:ge

nera

l upp

er s

econ

dary

educ

atio

n ce

rtifi

cate

.Sec

ond

cycl

e –

Year

s 4-

5

VW

O:

the

pre-

univ

ersit

y ce

rtifi

cate

99.

Seco

nd c

ycle

- Y

ears

4-6

MB

O M

idde

lbaa

r be

roep

sond

erw

ijs

New

Zea

land

,age

16+

- 1

8+Se

cond

ary

scho

ols

(cat

erin

g fo

r lo

wer

seco

ndar

y 13

-15

as w

ell a

s up

per

seco

ndar

y)

Sing

apor

e,ag

e 17

- 2

0

Juni

or c

olle

ges

Cen

tralis

ed in

stitu

tes10

0

Poly

tech

nic

Insti

tute

s of

Tec

hnica

l Edu

catio

n101

Mod

e

FT FT FT

Mod

eFT

Mod

e

FT FT FT FT

Age

15-1

7

15-1

8

16--

Age

13-1

8

Age

17-1

8

17-1

8

17-2

0

17-2

0

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Satis

fact

ory

first

cycl

e

Satis

fact

ory

first

cycl

e

VM

BO

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

sn/

a so

cial

adva

ncem

ent

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

UC

LES

GC

E O

Leve

l res

ults

UC

LES

GC

E O

L

UC

LES

GC

E O

& N

Lev

el r

esul

ts

Gen x x

Gen x

Gen x x x x

Tech x

Tech

Tech x x

Voc x Voc

Voc x

Qua

lific

atio

n

HA

VO

:the

gen

eral

upp

er s

econ

dary

edu

catio

n ce

rtifi

cate

,gr

antin

g ac

cess

to

VW

O 5

or h

ighe

r vo

catio

nal e

duca

tion

(HB

O)

VW

O:

the

pre-

univ

ersit

y ce

rtifi

cate

req

uire

d fo

r (b

ut n

otgu

aran

teei

ng)

acce

ss t

o un

iver

sity

Satis

fact

ory

com

plet

ion

give

s ac

cess

to

high

er v

ocat

iona

led

ucat

ion

(HB

O)

Qua

lific

atio

nN

atio

nal C

ertif

icat

e of

Edu

catio

nal A

chie

vem

ent

(NC

EA

phas

ed i

n 20

02-4

) at

thr

ee le

vels,

com

prisi

ng s

tand

ards

-ba

sed

cred

its.

Qua

lific

atio

n

Sing

apor

e C

ambr

idge

(U

CL

ES)

GC

E A

Lev

el

Sing

apor

e C

ambr

idge

(U

CL

ES)

GC

E A

Lev

el

Dip

lom

a

Cer

tific

ate


117

102

App

lican

ts a

ged

18 y

ears

or

over

,who

pas

s an

acc

ess

test

,may

be

adm

itted

to

inte

rmed

iate

voc

atio

nal t

rain

ing

with

out

first

obt

aini

ng t

he c

ertif

icat

e of

sec

onda

ryed

ucat

ion.

103

Unt

il Se

ptem

ber

2001

,2,1

50 p

oint

s w

ere

requ

ired

to

com

plet

e th

e ar

ts,n

atur

al s

cien

ces

and

soci

al s

cien

ces

prog

ram

mes

.All

othe

r pr

ogra

mm

es r

equi

red

2,37

0po

ints

.Sin

ce t

he s

tart

of

the

2000

-200

1 sc

hool

yea

r,2,

500

poin

ts h

ave

been

req

uire

d to

suc

cess

fully

com

plet

e al

l pro

gram

mes

in

this

phas

e.T

he n

orm

al p

erio

d of

stud

y is

thre

e ye

ars

but,

unde

r th

e sy

stem

of

cour

ses

and

poin

ts,s

tude

nts

can

adju

st t

he p

ace

of s

tudy

mor

e cl

osel

y to

the

ir o

wn

circ

umst

ance

s.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Spai

n ag

e 16

– 1

8 (fre

e)

Insti

tuto

s de

edu

cació

n se

cund

aria

Seco

ndar

y sc

hool

s (u

pper

cyc

le)

Bac

hille

rato

sch

ools

(rar

e)

Esc

uela

de

arte

(sp

ecia

lised

art

sch

ool)

Spec

ialis

ed la

ngua

ge s

choo

ls.

Swed

en a

ge 1

6+ -

19+

(free

)

Inte

grat

ed u

pper

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l,G

ymna

siesk

ola

•2

gene

ral p

rogr

amm

es•

15 v

ocat

iona

l/te

chno

logi

cal

prog

ram

mes

Spec

ialis

t G

ymna

siesk

ola

agri

cultu

re,f

ores

try,

cari

ngpr

ofes

sions

Mod

e

FT FT FT

Mod

e

FT FT

Age

16-1

8

16-1

8

16-1

8+

Age 16-

18+

103

16-

18+

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Gra

duad

o en

Edu

cació

nSe

cund

aria

(L

ower

sec

)102

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Gru

ndsk

ola

leav

ing

cert

ifica

te(g

rund

skol

abet

yg)

in S

wed

ish,

Eng

lish,

mat

hs

Gru

ndsk

ola

Gen x x

Gen 2

Tech

Tech

Voc x Voc 15

Qua

lific

atio

n

Bac

hille

rato

or

spec

ific

voca

tiona

l tra

inin

g in

term

edia

te

Bac

hille

rato

Spec

ialis

t ar

t qu

alifi

catio

ns,l

eadi

ng t

o H

E i

n th

e ar

ts.

Spec

ialis

t la

ngua

ge q

ualif

icat

ions

,lea

ding

to

HE

.

Qua

lific

atio

n


118

104

If p

ropo

sals

to p

rovi

de i

nitia

l tea

cher

edu

catio

n at

ter

tiary

leve

l ins

titut

ions

(pä

dago

gisc

he F

achh

ochs

chul

e) o

r at

uni

vers

ities

are

im

plem

ente

d,te

ache

r tr

aini

ng c

olle

ges

will

disa

ppea

r.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

Switz

erla

nd (16

-18/

19)

(fre

e)

Gym

nasiu

m (

or M

atur

itäts

schu

le)

DM

S (t

echn

ical

Hig

h Sc

hool

s)ge

nera

l and

pre

voca

tiona

l (ch

osen

by

abou

t 70

per

cen

t)

Fren

ch-s

peak

ing

collè

ges

in c

erta

inSw

iss c

anto

ns (

phas

ed i

n 19

95-2

002)

Teac

her

trai

ning

col

lege

104

Ber

ufsle

hre

(app

rent

ices

hip

trai

ning

)du

al s

yste

m,2

0-30

per

cen

t of

tim

ein

sch

ool

Mod

e

FT FT FT FT PT

Age 16-

18/1

9

16-

18/1

9

15-1

9.

16-1

8

16-

18/2

0

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Hig

h gr

ades

in

Prog

ymna

sium

or

entra

nce

test

Gen x x x

Tech

Voc x x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Mat

ura

and

univ

ersit

y en

tran

ceA

em

phas

is on

Gre

ek a

nd L

atin

;B L

atin

and

mod

ern

lang

uage

s;C

Mat

hs a

nd s

cien

ce;D

Mod

ern

lang

uage

s;E

Eco

nom

ics

Dip

lom

mitt

elsc

hule

(D

MS)

acc

ess

to h

ighe

r,no

n-un

iver

sity

voca

tiona

l tra

inin

g (e

.g.K

inde

rgar

ten/

prim

ary

teac

hing

,he

alth

car

e,so

cial

wor

k,ad

min

istra

tion,

para

med

ics,

the

arts

)

Mat

urité

fédé

rale

Pre-

com

pulso

ry a

nd p

rimar

y sc

hool

teac

hers

qua

lifica

tion


119

105

Alth

ough

the

upp

er t

wo

year

s ar

e no

t co

mpu

lsory

,in

Wisc

onsin

,for

exa

mpl

e,ch

ildre

n ag

ed 6

-18

mus

t no

rmal

ly a

tten

d sc

hool

(or

sel

ect

a ho

me-

base

d pr

ivat

eed

ucat

iona

l pro

gram

me)

and

in

Ken

tuck

y,st

uden

ts b

etw

een

the

ages

of

16 a

nd 1

8 w

ho w

ish t

o te

rmin

ate

thei

r pu

blic

or

non-

publ

ic e

duca

tion

prio

r to

grad

uatin

g fr

om H

igh

Scho

olm

ay d

o so

onl

y af

ter

a co

nfer

ence

with

the

pri

ncip

al o

r hi

s de

signe

e.T

he s

tude

nt’s

pare

nt o

r gu

ardi

an m

ust

also

gen

eral

ly b

e in

volv

edin

thi

s m

eetin

g.W

ritt

en n

otifi

catio

n of

a s

tude

nts

with

draw

al m

ust

be r

ecei

ved

from

the

stu

dent

s pa

rent

or

guar

dian

at

the

time

of w

ithdr

awal

and

the

par

ent(

s)an

d st

uden

t ar

e al

so r

equi

red

to a

tten

d a

one-

hour

cou

nsel

ling

sess

ion

with

a s

choo

l cou

nsel

lor

on t

he p

oten

tial p

robl

ems

for

non-

grad

uate

s.

Inst

itut

iona

l st

ruct

ure

(con

tinue

d)Sh

aded

insti

tutio

ns a

re n

ot a

ddre

ssed

in th

e stu

dy a

s th

ey a

re n

ot p

art o

f the

sec

onda

ry s

choo

l sec

tor

in th

e co

untri

es c

once

rned

MA

IN f

ocus

USA

(fre

e)(c

ompu

lsory

to

age

16)10

5

Hig

h Sc

hool

s G

rade

s 10

-12

Hig

h Sc

hool

s G

rade

s 9-

12

Mag

net s

choo

ls (in

som

e sta

tes)

Voc

atio

nal/

tech

nica

l hig

h sc

hool

s

Mod

e

FT FT FT

FT/P

T

Age

15-1

8

14-1

8

14/1

517

/18

14--

--

Aca

dem

ic A

cces

s

Ele

men

tary

Ele

men

tary

Gen x x

Tech x x x x

Voc x x

Qua

lific

atio

n

Hig

h Sc

hool

grad

uatio

n di

plom

a

Hig

h Sc

hool

grad

uatio

n di

plom

a

Hig

h Sc

hool

gra

duat

ion

dipl

oma

(par

ticul

ar e

duca

tiona

lph

iloso

phy

or c

urri

cula

r sp

ecia

lity)

Hig

h Sc

hool

gra

duat

ion

dipl

oma


120

Aus

tral

ia

Can

ada

Eng

land

Fran

ce

Ger

man

y

Hun

gary

Irel

and

Ital

y

Nat

iona

l

Lang

uage

and

liter

atur

e

X X X X X X X

Alt.

natio

nal

and

fore

ign

lang

uage

s

S X X P X

Mat

hs

X X X X X

Scie

nces

phys

ics,

chem

istry

,

biol

ogy

geol

ogy

X X X X X

Hum

aniti

es

hist

ory,

geog

raph

y,

soci

al s

tudi

es

S X X X X X

Fine

Art

s

incl

udin

g

mus

ic

X X

Tech

nica

l

X

Phys

ical

educ

atio

n

incl

udin

g

heal

th

S X X P X

Citi

zens

hip

X S X10

6

X

Gui

danc

e

pers

onal

and

care

er

X X

Oth

er

Wor

k/

com

mun

ity

serv

ice

Rel

igio

us e

d.

Priv

ate

stud

y

Rel

igio

us e

d.

App

endi

x 3:

Ess

ential

lea

rnin

g ar

eas/

expe

rien

ces

Indi

catio

ns o

f the

ess

entia

l are

as o

f stu

dy/e

duca

tiona

l exp

erie

nce.

In s

ome

case

s su

bjec

ts ar

e sp

ecifi

ed,i

n ot

her

case

s stu

dent

s m

ay c

hoos

e fro

m a

rang

e of

sub

jects

with

in th

e ar

ea.

P=

subj

ects

/are

as w

hich

wil

l be

com

puls

ory

unde

r pr

opos

ed r

efor

ms.

S=su

bjec

ts/a

reas

whi

ch a

re c

ompu

lsor

y in

som

e,bu

t no

t ne

cess

arily

all,

juri

sdic

tion

s

106

Not

tau

ght

as a

sep

arat

e su

bjec

t.


121

Ess

ential

lea

rnin

g ar

eas/

expe

rien

ces

(con

tinue

d)In

dica

tions

of t

he e

ssen

tial a

reas

of s

tudy

/edu

catio

nal e

xper

ienc

e.In

som

e ca

ses

subj

ects

are

spec

ified

,in

othe

r ca

ses

stude

nts

may

cho

ose

from

a ra

nge

of s

ubje

cts w

ithin

the

area

.P

=su

bjec

ts/a

reas

whi

ch w

ill

be c

ompu

lsor

y un

der

prop

osed

ref

orm

s.S=

subj

ects

/are

as w

hich

are

com

puls

ory

in s

ome,

but

not

nece

ssar

ily a

ll,ju

risd

icti

ons

Japa

n

Kor

ea

Net

herla

nds

N.

Zea

land

Sing

apor

e

Spai

n

Swed

en

Switz

erla

nd

USA

Nat

iona

l

Lang

uage

and

liter

atur

e

X X X X X X X X/P X

Alt.

natio

nal

and

fore

ign

lang

uage

s

P X X X X X

X/P

2

S

Mat

hs

X X X X X X/P X

Scie

nces

phys

ics,

chem

istry

,

biol

ogy

geol

ogy

X X X X X X X/P X

Hum

aniti

es

hist

ory,

geog

raph

y,

soci

al s

tudi

es

X X X X X X/P X

Fine

Art

s

incl

udin

g

mus

ic

X X X X X

Tech

nica

l

X X

Phys

ical

educ

atio

n

incl

udin

g

heal

th

X X X X X X X X

Citi

zens

hip

X X

Gui

danc

e

pers

onal

and

care

er

X X

Oth

er

Mor

al,

mili

tary

Priv

ate

stud

y

Mor

al

Rel

igio

us e

d.

Com

mun

ity

serv

ice


122

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