international journal of research in the academic...

1- International Journal of Research in the Academic Disciplines in Higher Education,

Vol. 1, Number 3, August, 2014

International Journal of Research in the Academic Disciplines in Higher Education

Arts, Sciences, Social Sciences, Engineering, Health and Environment

IJRDHE A Quarterly Scholarly Journal, VOL. 1, Number 3, August, 2014.

Chair of The Editorial Board: Emmanuel S. Eneyo, PhD, PE Editor In Chief: Zephyrinus C. Okonkwo, M.Phil, PhD

Managing Editor: Robert Steven Owor, PhD

_________________________________________________________ ISBN: 978-1-62407-664-0

EDITORS Dr. Emmanuel S. Eneyo USA Dr. Zephyrinus C. Okonkwo, USA Dr. Robert S. Owor USA Dr. Khalil Dajani USA Dr. Fabian O. Uzoh Nigeria Dr. Charles Ochie USA Dr. Martin Onuh Nigeria Dr. Jonathan Elimimian USA Dr. Godfrey Nneji Nigeria Dr. Anthony Denkyirah USA Dr. Michael O. Afolayan USA Dr. Said Ngobi USA Dr. Maxensia Owor Uganda

International Journal of Research in the Academic Disciplines in Higher Education, Vol. 1, Number 3, August, 2014



Editorial Board Dr. Emmanuel S. Eneyo, P.E.

Department of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering

Southern Illinois University

Edwardsville,

Edwardsville, Illinois 62026-1805, USA

[email protected]

Areas: Industrial and Production

Engineering, Operations Research,

Engineering Education

Dr. Zephyrinus C. Okonkwo

Department of Mathematics and

Computer Science

Albany State University Albany, Georgia,

31705, USA

[email protected] Areas: Applied Mathematics, Operations

Research,

Applied Statistics

STEM -Education

Dr. Robert S. Owor,


Computer Science, Albany State

University Albany, Georgia

31705, USA Computer Science

[email protected]

Areas: Software Engineering,

Information Assurance,

Computer Security, Hypermedia

Database Visualization

Applied Statistics

STEM-Education

Khalil Dajani, Ph.D.

Southern Arkansas University


Computer Science

Magnolia, Arkansas 71754 U.S.A.

Areas: Computer Science

Information Technology

Bioengineering

Information Assurance

STEM-Education

Dr. Fabian O. Uzoh

Department of Computer Science

Federal University of Technology,

Owerri

P.M.B. 1526 Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Areas: Computer Science

Dr. Martin Onuh

Department of Agriculture

Imo State University Owerri, Imo

State, Nigeria Agriculture

Areas: Agriculture

Dr. Godfrey Nneji

Chief Lecturer

Federal College of Education-

Technical

Akoka, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria

Areas: Education

Engineering Education

Curriculum Studies

Dr. Jonathan Elimimian

College of Business

Albany State University Albany,

GA 31705, USA Areas: Marketing, International

Business

Dr. Anthony Denkyirah

Department of Special Education

and Communication Disorders

Southern Illinois University

Edwardsville

Edwardsville, IL 62026-1147 Areas: Education, Psychology

Dr. Michael O. Afolayan

University of Illinois at Springfield

Springfield, IL 62704

Assistant Director of Academic

Affairs State of Illinois' Board of

Higher Education

Professor and Deputy Executive

Director,

Center for Language in

Education(CELED) and

Development

Obafemi Awolowo University, (CELED), Ile-Ife, Nigeria

Areas: Education

Languages, Educational Leadership

Dr. Said Ngobi

Professor of Mathematics, Victor

Valley College

Orange County, California, USA

Areas: Mathematics, Statistics,

Operations Research,

Computational Algorithms

mailto:[email protected]





Dr. Charles Ochie

Department of Criminal Justice and

Forensic Science

Albany State University Albany, GA

31705, USA Areas: Criminal Justice, Forensic Science

Dr. Maxensia Owor, Clinical

Director

Makerere University /Johns

Hopkins University Care Project

Upper Mulago Hill Road, P.O. Box

23491, Kampala, Uganda Areas: Human Medicine, Biology,

Virology, Pediatrics Virology, Pediatrics



International Journal of Research in THE Academic Disciplines in Higher Education

Arts, Sciences, Social Sciences, Engineering, Health & Environment

BI-ANNUAL SCHOLARLY JOURNAL

Dear reader/ subscriber:

On behalf of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Research in the

Academic Disciplines in Higher Education, I am most pleased to present to you

International Journal of Research in the Academic Disciplines in Higher

Education, Volume I, Number 3, August, 2014. Articles in this journal are

subjected to double-blind refereeing procedure. As promised in the premier

edition of this journal, you will find the articles in this edition scholarly, yet very

captivating. We continue to meet the goal of publishing original scholarly works,

including articles which seek to explore issues in developing countries.

Fortunately, many scholars based in the United States and Europe find these

articles very exciting, as most of them delve into areas which have not been

discussed in great details in the literature.

We accept articles from a broad spectrum of academic disciplines: physical and

natural sciences, mathematical sciences, business, social sciences, computer

science and information technology, education, the arts, health sciences,

environment, and interdisciplinary studies.

Without delving into specifics of articles in this volume, you will find them

exciting: some of them are providing solutions to current issues encountered in

developing countries, and which are alien to the developed world.

We are here to continue to serve you. Thank you for your patronage. Zephyrinus Okonkwo

Zephyrinus C. Okonkwo, M.Phil., PhD



TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE 7

THE ROLE OF THE MILITARY IN NIGERIAN DEMOCRACY

Denis A. Osuagwu, Ph.D, School of Business, Department of Public Administration

School of Business, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo- Ohaji, Imo State, Nigeria

PAGE 16

PERMANANCE OF ABODE IN THE IGBO CULTURE: A SOURCE OF COGNITIVE

DISSONANCE FOR IGBO IMMIGRANTS RELOCATING TO NIGERIA

Dr. Winifred C. Nweke, Department of Teacher Education, Clayton State University, Morrow, Georgia

Contributing Faculty (in Teacher Leadership, Richard Riley College of Education, Walden University

Minneapolis, Minnesota

Dr. Godson C. Ezejiofor, Healthcare Research Consultant in Maryland

Adjunct Professor of Financial Management and Healthcare Administration

Strayer University, Takoma Park Campus, Washington, DC

PAGE 23

EMPLOYING NATURAL SYSTEMS THEORY IN ANALYZING GEORGIA’S PLEDGE TO

PRESERVE HISTORIC INFRASTRUCTURES

Dr. Robert-Theophilus Dauphin, Master's of Public Administration Program,

College of Arts and Humanities

Albany State University Albany, GA 31705, USA

PAGE 33

EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF INNOVATIVE ELECTRONICPAYMENT

SYSTEM IN AFRICA

O. F Uzoh, PhD and C. E. Orji, Computer Science Department, Federal University of Technology

Owerri, Nigeria

PAGE 50

HEALTHCARE DELIVERY IN THE STATE OF MARYLAND: TRENDS ANDCHALLENGES,

DIFFERENT AND BETTER OR DIFFERENT AND EQUAL

Godson Ezejiofor, DHA, Healthcare Consultant and Adjunct Professor of Healthcare Administration

and Finance, Strayer University- Washington D.C



THE ROLE OF THE MILITARY IN NIGERIAN DEMOCRACY Denis A. Osuagwu, Ph.D

School of Business, Department of Public Administration

School of Business, Imo State Polytechnic

Umuagwo- Ohaji, Imo State, Nigeria

Abstract

The presence of the military in the governance of any country is an aberration; the primary duty

of the military is to defend the country against external aggression and when needed, maintain

law and order in times of crisis. However, like many countries in the developing countries in the

1950’s and 1960’s that experienced military administration, the military emerged in Nigerian

political scene on January 15, 1966. The aim was purportedly to cleanse the mess of the

political class and to prevent the political instability the country was then experiencing. The

military was initially welcomed by the majority of the country but the politicization of the

Nigerian military and the militarization of Nigerian politics brought many challenges and few

prospects. Nigerians are still living with the aftermath of the military rule. This paper discusses

the success and failures of the military and proffers suggestions on how to overcome the negative

military heritage.

Keywords: Nigeria, Democracy, Military Rule, Politics, Coup d’état, Revolution

Introduction

The military has a role in the civil society which is to defend the country from external

aggression and help maintain law and order especially in emergency situation. Military

government however, has no constitutional basis because governance legitimately belongs to the

democratically elected members of the society. When the military first emerged in Nigerian

politics it was welcome by the majority of the people. Their original aim was believed by many

to be noble because of the attempt to quail the political crises brought upon the country by the

political class of the time.

A look at the public administration in Nigeria shows that prior to 1914 there was no

country called Nigeria; the different parts of the country operated under their native law and

custom. During the colonial era however, due to administrative convenience coupled with the

political, religious and demographic differences, Britain imposed the indirect rule of

administration in the country. In the different geographic units, there were three major ethnic

nationalities namely: the Hausa- Fulani in the North, the Igbo in the East, and the Yoruba in the

West. Later on in each of the zones, there emerged three political parties dominated by the

major ethnic groups. These parties however, were mistaken to represent the interest and

aspirations of all Nigerians (Okeke, 1989). These political parties were the Northern Peoples’

Congress dominated by Hausa-Fulani with Ahmadu Bello, Sardauna of Sokoto (Fulani) as

leader; the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens under the dominance of the Igbo and

headed by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe; while the Action Group was dominated by the Yoruba under the

leadership of Chief Obafemi Awolowo. These arrangements in the different regions created in



themselves hegemony of sorts. The arrangement, though promoted by the British, undermined

the yearnings and aspirations of the minority ethnic groups. It became a source of strife, fear,

and agitation for the minority groups. The greed, pride, and selfishness of major ethnic groups

and their leaders on one hand, and the fear and suspicion of the minority coupled with wanton

corruption after the independence on the other hand, led to the first coup d’état of January 15

1966. There was also the counter coup of July 27 of 1966, and other coups in 1975, 1983, 1986

and 1993. The long years of the military rule militarized Nigerian politics on one hand and on

the other, politicized the Nigerian military. This paper x-rays the different impacts of the military

on the country’s political landscape and makes recommendation for a way forward. The work is

divided into four sections. Section one explains the concepts. Section two looks at the major

positive contributions of the military. Section three x-rays the failure of the military in the

polity. Section four proffers a way forward with concluding remarks.

Clarification of Concepts

The term ‘military’ refers to the characteristics of soldiers or the armed forces. Military

rule is the administration of a country by soldiers. It is the administration of a country by martial

laws and decrees; the constitution of the country is suspended and the legislative and executive

arms of governance are in the hands of the military. As witnessed in Nigeria since 1966 and

intermittently through 1999, military rule is a situation where successful coup plotters suspend

the Constitution; backed by decrees and the barrels of the gun, run the affairs of the country.

The successful coup plotters are above the law and rule by decree.

Democracy on the other hand is generally understood as the government of the people by

the people and for the people. Democracy according to the Webster’s New College Dictionary is

the government in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through elected

representatives. Aristotle describes democracy as the government of the poor or a rule where the

benefit of the whole is the major concern. According to him, a democratically governed state

must operate according to law; the law ought to govern all and the best citizens take the saddle of

governance (Bk IV of Aristotle: The Politics). The beauty of democracy is that it upholds the

wishes of the majority based on the common law which contains the accumulated reason of the

society. The law is the master while the people in government are the servants (Nwande, 2010).

The difference between democracy and the military rule is that in democracy the law of the land

is sovereign while in military rule, the power lies in the hand of the successful coup plotters who

are the select few comprising of the members of the Supreme Military Council and the Head of

State.

While the first military rule was an accident of history, the militarization of Nigerian

politics was by choice. The politicization of Nigerian military and the militarization of the

Nigerian politics left indelible marks in the various institutions in the country. The militarization

tendencies are seen when the politicians refuse to obey court orders, ride in motor-cades, are

assigned armed personnel who can be instructed to intimidate road users and political opponents.

These many undemocratic practices express the failure of the military in Nigerian democracy.

However, the contributions of the military to Nigeria will continue to be debated in the years to

come.



The Major Contributions of the Nigerian Military to the Polity

Despite the fact that the best military rule in the civilized world is an aberration, the

different contributions of the Nigerian military in Nigeria cannot be dismissed by a wave of

hand. Nigerian soldiers are among the best in the world; they bear arms to defend the nation,

they are actively involved in peace-keeping operations across the globe; they maintain peace and

order in times of crises and are not afraid to pay the ultimate sacrifice for “one Nigeria.” When

the military first got involved in the nation’s politics, many believed it was for a noble purpose:

to save the new independent and fledgling democracy. In other words, it acted as a corrective

regime (Dent as cited in Frank and Ukpere, 2012). The greed, corruption, and religious/ethnic

bigotry of the First Republic almost destroyed the new and independent nation. Among the

reasons why the military intervened include: the 1962 census and the forced recount of 1963 that

maintained that the Hausa - Fulani and not the South had higher census figure; the rancorous

House of Representative election of 1964 and the House of Assembly election in the Western

Region of October 1965 (Okeke, 1989). In January 1966, Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu

and the Revolutionary Council ceased power purportedly to establish a strong united and

prosperous nation free from corruption and internal strife, the people embraced them (Osuagwu

and Ejigiri, 2013). However, the subsequent seizure of power by the military at various times

led to what one school of thought calls the politicization of the military and the perpetuation of

Hausa-Fulani hegemony. Suffice it to argue that the initial entry of the military in Nigerian polity

was to a great extent a unifying factor despite the civil war and the lives that were lost.

Another major contribution of the military to democracy in Nigeria is the Constitution of

the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Aristotle rightly argues in The Politics that the law is the basis

for constitution and that the law ought to rule over all. In other words, without law there is no

democracy; governing by decree is not a democracy and does not have general validity

(Aristotle, The Politics, Bk IV). Undoubtedly, a major contribution of the military to Nigerian

democracy is the 1979/1999 Constitution. Prior to this Constitution, all Nigerian Constitutions

dating back to the 1914 through 1960 were supervised and prepared according to the wishes of

the colonial master. A common practice in preparing the colonial Constitution then was that the

Constitutional Conferences took place outside the shores of the country; to insert the wishes of

the royal crown. The Constitutional Conferences that saw to the production of the Richards

Constitution of 1946, the Macpherson Constitution of 1950 and the Lyttleton Constitution of

1954 took place in England. Again, after Nigeria became independent in 1960, her first

Constitution as a sovereign nation which came into effect on 1 October 1960 was still enacted by

the British order in Council; under this Constitution Queen Elizabeth II was still the titular head

of state (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Nigeria, retrieved 4/21/14). The imperial

influence did not cease even after independence; the October 1, 1963 Constitution still had lots

of the British influence.

It was however during the military regime that Nigerians for the first time prepared an

“indigenous Constitution” in Nigeria by Nigerians for Nigeria. Nigerians abandoned

Westminster System in preference to the Presidential System of government. Among other

things, the “Indigenous Constitution” took into consideration the multi-ethnic nature of Nigeria.

Afigbo (1989) argues that “The term “federal character” is one of the inventions of the

Constitution Drafting Committee (CDC) inaugurated by the late General Murtala Mohammed on

18th

October 1975.” According to Afigbo, the aim was to promote national loyalty in a multi-



ethnic society. The point remains clear that despite the inadequacies of the various Constitutions

prepared during the military regime ranging from the 1979, 1993, and the 1999 Constitutions;

these constitutions took into consideration the aspirations of Nigeria as an independent and

sovereign nation. In these constitutions, Nigeria parted way with the Westminster system of

government and embraced the Presidential system as a matter of choice and with the aim to

satisfy the aspirations of Nigerians.

It must also be acknowledged that the military contributed immensely to the integration

of the minority in Nigerian politics. Prior to 1954, Nigeria was divided into 24 provinces, but the

twenty-four -province structure was abandoned in preference for the three-regional structure

despite agitation for more regions (www.waado.org/nigeria-scholars/archive retrieved 4/18/14).

For convenience, the British government introduced the indirect rule in the administration of

Nigeria, abandoned the provincial structure of governance; divided the country into three regions

thereby undermining the aspirations of the minority in Nigeria. Okeke (1989) rightly argues that

both the north and south had minority problems such that as Nigeria’s independence approached,

there was a high sense of unease in the country. Put simply, “To the minority groups, the three-

regional structure of the country was an incubus which promised the substitution of the foreign

(British) domination with more humiliating if not more oppressive domination by Nigerians

belonging to the country’s largest ethnic groups” (Okeke, 1989, p. 29). Okeke maintains that

prior to independence, the attempt by the minority group to break up the domination of the major

ethnic groups failed. But in 1963, ethnic minorities were separated from Western Region into

Midwestern Region by an act of the Parliament allowing for the 4th

region. In the east, the

ethnic tension went unabated hence Isaac Adaka Boro, on behalf of the minority sought for an

independent state in the Niger Delta (Okeke, 1989). It was with the coming of the military just

before the civil war that the minority groups felt somewhat emancipated. For instance, the

minority groups, in the north played dominant role in the counter-coup of 1966 and became a

formidable force with one of their own emerging as the Head of State (Yakubu Gowon) with its

political, psychological and material advantages. It was also during the military regime that the

twelve-state structure first emerged. Other things that later followed include the division of the

country into six geo-political zones such as South East, South South, South West, North Central

North East and North West. The further division of the country into 36 states and the Federal

Capital Abuja played to the advantages of the minority groups and the development of the

country. This development took place under the military and helped to reduce the ethnic tension

within the different geographic zones. The implication was that the minority groups controlled

their destiny in their own hands while remaining integral parts of the nation.

There is no denying the fact also that the country experienced many socio-economic

developments during the military era especially immediately after the civil war in the 1970s.

With the oil boom during this period, the country witnessed unparalleled cash inflow never

before experienced. There were so many awards to workers such as the Udorji award. For the

first time, workers had more spendable income. Many workers were also able to buy vehicles

and other household items. Unemployment was very low and graduate unemployment was

below 6 percent. The military government undertook many development projects such as roads,

bridges, secretariat, etc. Again, with the creation of the states and local government, the rural

areas felt more the impact of democracy. Administration was brought to the door steps of

ordinary people. As part of the development, it was during the military regime especially that of

Buhari/Idiagbon (during the period 1983-1986) that the “War Against Indiscipline” along with

the monthly sanitation exercise took place. Nigerians were encouraged to adopt some sense of

http://www.waado.org/nigeria-scholars/archive%20retrieved%204/18/14



discipline like queuing up in line, being punctual at work and clean habits like proper handling of

refuse disposal. To effect these changes, some military governors sometimes paid surprise visits

to offices to drive home the sense of accountability and punctuality. However, despite the many

positive contributions of the military towards enhancing democracy, the counter side of the

argument is that many Nigerians still believe that the “rescue mission” of the military failed.

The Failed Military Legacy

Many Nigerians believe that the many years of the military in politics rather militarized Nigeria

polity by institutionalizing undemocratic practices. Major among the undemocratic practices

include: aggressive behavior, intimidation, and lawlessness. Once upon a time, Nigeria used to

be the giant of Africa. Along with this notion is that among Africans, Nigerians are believed to

be rich, strong, aggressive and somewhat arrogant. Nigeria and Nigerians contributed to

liberation movements and peace-keeping efforts in different parts of Africa. But with the many

years of military rule, Nigerians have lost the sense of decency and respect. During the military

era, the Constitution was suspended and martial law reigned. Frank and Ukpere (2012) recall

how Miniere Amakiri of the Nigerian Observer (a news paper) had his head shaved for writing

something unpalatable to the then Governor of Rivers State (cf. Badejo, 1978). They go on to

show how Newbreed Magazine and many journalists suffered similar faith. In other words, one

of the major aftermaths of the military rule is that Nigerians are no longer bold to speak up and

consequently, politicians like their military counterparts manipulate and intimidate the citizenry.

Nigerians have become so malleable and gullible that politicians know to intimidate the average

Nigerians by the use of motor-cades and military personnel assigned to their office. According

to Frank and Ukpere (2012):

Intimidation is a weapon of warfare deployed by the military to psyche the

enemy. It is a psychological approach to warfare. This has been extrapolated

into the democratic milieu. The Economic and Financial Crime Commission

(EFCC) has been used as a mechanism to intimidate political opponents to toe

the same part with the executive. Impeachment had been used as an instrument

of intimidation.

Candidates were selected and not nominated by the party. Aggrieved members

remained mute in order not to arouse the anger of the party leaders. Party offices and

election are by patronage and not by merit or ability to deliver service to the people.

The political class, the military personnel and the police are supposed to be law abiding

but they rather flout the law of the land with impunity. The abuse of power by the new breed

politicians is unimaginable such that governors, lawmakers, and the elite often disobey court

order; the military personnel take the laws into their hands and sometimes match to the police

barracks and engage the police in a fight for presumably harassing one of their own at check

points; governors make laws and appropriate any amount of money in the name of pension

despite the economic situation in their states. The police and military at road blocks engage in

illegal collection of fees and sometimes engage in extrajudicial punishment as they choose. In

the face of all these, Nigerians do not seem to bother. For instance, on June 9, 2014 the Edo

State House of Assembly after suspending four lawmakers (PDP members) for what it described

as misconduct obtained court order restraining their participating in the activities of the House.

The four suspended members along with five other PDP members turned around and suspended

the Speaker (APC Member) and other principal officers of the House at a sitting without a mace,



the Sergeant at Arms, Clerks of the House and other accoutrements needed for a valid assembly

sitting: “Both factions are spoiling for war as the four suspended lawmakers have resolved to

join the House session on Monday (June 16, 2014) despite a court injunction restraining them

from the premises of the Assembly according to Channels TV of June 16. One wonders where

such flouting of court order takes place in any civilized world except in Nigeria.

Presently a number of State Houses of Assembly are passing laws that place the

governors on pension after serving four or eight years. Two of such states in the news are Rivers

and Akwa Ibom. The Labour is calling for the repeal of the pension law passed by the governor

of Akwa Ibom because the benefits are humongous for the governor, his wife and the deputy

governor (Daily Sun, June 16, 2014). According to DailySun, the governor among, other things

had packaged N200 million life pension fund for himself despite the harsh economic situation in

the state. According to the DailySun:

N100m million medical allowance which he is seeking to review; building and

maintenance of mansions of not less than 5-bed room in Abuja and Akwa Ibom

State; vehicle maintenance allowance, 300% of annual salary; gratuity: 300%;

utility allowance, 100%; entertainment allowance, 100%; N5 million monthly

allowance for three domestic servants all for life… (p. 52)

The Labour Union argues that Akwa Ibom according to the National Bureau of

Statistics, generates about N1 billion monthly and in the meantime the national

minimum wage is N18,000. A similar case is also going on in Rivers State (cf.

DailySun, Monday June 16, 2014, p. 62).

The founding fathers of Nigeria fought for independence because they believed in the

right of the individual. They were mistreated and sometimes imprisoned for fighting for dear

country. But how come that many Nigerians are no longer proud to be identified with Nigeria

and what is Nigerian? We can adduce many factors as the cause including but not limited to the

experiences of the civil war, corruption in our polity, the bastardized education system and the

weakening of the economy that worsened with the introduction of the Structural Adjustment

Program (SAP) by Babangida. It was during the military regime that life became miserable- a

period of brain-drain of the worst type. When one looks at the list of these miseries, one wonders

whether Nigeria is a country worth dying for. Further still, the fledgling democracy does not

offer the youth any hope because life is not getting much better for the average person. There is

a general feeling amongst some Nigerians that many Nigerian young men may not be able to see

their grandchildren because most in their late 30s are not yet married because they do not have

the means to maintain a family. The situation gets worse because the political class rather than

invest in the country, like their military counterparts, siphon the wealth of the country overseas.

Osuagwu and Ejigiri (2013) argue that some had in the past blamed colonialism for the corrupt

practices and lack of patriotism; while not discounting the colonialism argument, they maintain

that the problem with Nigeria is internal and speaks more of inherent character flaws with the

leaders. Osuagwu and Ejigiri further argue that “Great economic institutions that would have

transformed the nation have often been destroyed or undermined because of tribal/ethnic

differences. Because of the protection ethnicity affords public officers, many have used it to

abuse their offices” (Osuagwu & Ejigiri, 2013, p. 82).

Recommendation and Concluding Remarks



A major problem that has continued to undermine the development of Nigeria is lack of

discipline. The politicians of the first republic started it, the military juntas sustained it with

military decree and the barrels of the gun while, the new breed politicians sealed it by further

impoverishing the masses. For Nigeria to make progress our sense of discipline must be in line

with the basic understanding of the word across the globe. There is general lack of discipline

among Nigerians as shown in their lack of patience; they are always in a hurry with nothing to

show for it; ready to cut corners, jump queues, drive one way, provided they get ahead of others.

For most Nigerians, corruption and indiscipline are inseparable; but if one is forced to choose

between the two as to which is worse, it is corruption because the masses suffer more its effect

while the political class gets away with indiscipline. However, so much has been written about

how to move Nigeria forward bu revolution.

A critical look at the hundred-year history of Nigeria as a nation, a fifty-year plus history

as an independent nation, and about thirty-four years of military rule, Nigeria is a nation

yearning for revolution. From the ineptitude of the post-independence administration, to the

many years of military decadence, Nigeria has had men in the helms of affairs that were barely

educated or ill prepared to run the affairs of the country. No wonder their stock in trade was

ethnic/religious bigotry and reckless spending of the national wealth. Nigerian erstwhile leaders

may have been gallant in the battle field or won elections but they lacked the competence for

governance. The level of hopelessness in the country: youth unemployment, religious/political

motivated killing, recklessness of the political class, corruption and political unrest are indicative

of a country that is about to implode.

Thomas (1995) in his book Locke on Government argues that for John Locke revolution

could be either defensive or radical. Defensive revolution he argues is the commitment to certain

political and social institution believed to be traditional and appropriate for the society. In

defensive revolution the perpetrators believe either that these institutions are under threat, or that

they have been swept away by some hostile political power (Thomas, 1995). An example of

defensive revolution is the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 in England or the French

Revolution; revolution that is salutary without bloodshed (Davis, 1990). According to Davis:

What made this revolution so glorious was its demonstration that a corrupt

king who conspired to subvert the constitution could be induced to vacate the

throne without bloodshed and without infringing on the hereditary succession

of monarchs or disturbing the delicate constitutional balance that supposedly

ensured political and social stability (Davis, 1990, p. 9).

Radical revolution on the other hand does not defend the status quo. In Locke’s view, it is the

commitment to bring down an entirely intolerable political/social structure that is corrupt, unjust,

inefficient, tyrannical or evil and replace it with acceptable principles like justice, liberty,

equality and efficiency (Thomas, 1995). An example of this type of revolution is what took

place in Ghana in 1979. In 1979, Ghana was very corrupt and the system had to be cleansed.

According to RadioXYZonline (2014), while addressing students in the Volta region as a guest

speaker at the closing ceremony of the regional camp of the International Youth Fellowship at

the Adidome Senior High School on January 10, 2014, the former Military leader, Flt Lt

Rawlings, admitted that corruption had so badly gripped the society that they had no choice but

to kill “Good Innocent” people to save Ghana. In this “house cleansing” Gen. Acheampong, Lt.



Gen. Akuffo, and six others lost their lives. Though extra-judicially killed, Ghana has been

much better ever since.

For some, Nigeria is a “child” that should never have been born or worse still, a still-

birth. The amalgamation of the country in 1914 has served no purpose except to boost the

Hausa-Fulani domination. Though Rawlings and his cohorts succeeded with radical revolution

in Ghana, the yearning in Nigeria as a result of lack of standard starting with the indirect rule of

the colonial government, to the corrupt and inept government of Tafewa Belawa, to the wasteful

spending of the military juntas, and the deception of the new breed politicians, radical revolution

in Nigeria appears urgent but improbable. If Nigeria is to take cue from what happened in Ghana

in 1979, a repeat of the 1966 first coup may repeat itself with its negative impact. Though it is

unfortunate that the January 15, 1966 revolution did not succeed as was originally intended by

Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna and Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu; it is regrettable also that

the counter coup of July 1966 led by Hausa-Fulani was partial and selective; it is also

unfortunate that the attempt by Ojukwu and his compatriots to secede from Nigeria did not

succeed; it is also most unfortunate that the soldier-politicians and the new breed politicians who

have impoverished the country are alive still walking the street; there is urgent need for

revolution of sorts in Nigeria. The radical revolution however that Nigeria needs is mental: a

change in attitude and behaviour that befits civilized people and time has come for every

Nigerian to account for one’s action irrespective of one’s ethnicity, religion, or position in the

society. This is the only time sanity will reign and justice, equity, equality and efficiency will be

enthroned in Nigeria. This will be a new Nigeria where ethnic and religious bigotry will be a

thing of the past and the military heritage put in perspective.

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buttressing-the-anti-corruption-regime-in-nigeria-prospects-and-challenges Akinsanmi, G., Chiemelie, E. Nigeria: Human rights watch-police threat to 2011 polls.” August

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(Ed.): Soldier and the Oil- The Political Transformation of Nigeria. (London: Frank Cass).

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The Nigerian case. International Journal of Philosophy & Public Affairs 1(1), 77-94.

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Rawlings. Retrieved http://africanspotlight.com/2014/01/10/we-killed-good-innocent-

people-to-save-ghana-ex-president-jerry-rawlings/

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PERMANENCE OF ABODE IN IGBO CULTURE: A SOURCE OF

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE FOR IGBO IMMIGRANTS RELOCATING

TO NIGERIA

By

Dr. Winifred C. Nweke

Associate Professor & Assessment Director

Department of Teacher Education, Clayton State University, Georgia

Contributing Faculty, Richard Riley College of Education,

Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota

Dr. Godson C. Ezejiofor

Healthcare Research Consultant in Maryland

Adjunct Professor of Healthcare Administration and Financial Management

Strayer University, Takoma Park Campus, Washington, DC

Abstract

Igbos have the distinguishing characteristics of entrepreneurship, property

acquisition/accumulation, fortune hunting, mobility and permanence of abode. The last two,

mobility and permanence of abode, appear to be contradictory, but not for Igbos. Our focus in

this paper is on the impact of the permanence of abode on Igbos. It is our contention that

permanence of abode has had both a stabilizing and a destabilizing impact on Igbo people. We

present how this feature can be a blessing especially with regard to identity development

(Erikson, 1970) and a flip on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs between a sense of belongingness on

the one hand and physiological and security needs, on the other (Maslow, 1943). We also argue

that permanence of abode causes cognitive dissonance which manifests in inability to fully

participate in one’s host community, politically, socially, and even economically. These give rise

to contradictions in the life of Igbo immigrants, a people who believe that “ebe onye bi ka o na

awachi,” which literally means that one takes care of where one lives or in common English

usage “where you live is your home”. Yet Igbos in the US, and everywhere outside Igboland, are

always thinking of somewhere else as home and always preparing to return home. Thus, they

exhibit dual loyalties, dual citizenship and dual financial and social responsibilities to Igboland

and to a host community against the backdrop of offspring that considers itself American who

only plans to visit, but never relocate to Nigeria.

Key words: Igbo, Permanence of abode, Umunna, Home, , Dualism , Mobility, Igbo immigrants,

Relocate, In-laws, Extended family, Igbo men, Community, Status Symbol, age group system,

Lineage, Finance, village politics and politicking.

Introduction



The topic assumes that Igbos are here in the USA on an excursion and that they will be returning

to Nigeria. Thus, the focus is how to prepare for the home journey or how to ease back into the

Nigeria that they left behind. Many have written or addressed strategies and suggestions on the

dos and don’ts for returning to Nigeria. Our focus will be a little different. We just want to

supply some food for thought. We will examine what makes Igbos want to go back home. What

are the implications of this attachment to Igboland for life in their host countries? What are the

implications and expectations for second generation Nigerians? How do these affect the decision

and preparation for exodus back to Nigeria?

Characteristics of Igbos

For the benefit of non-Igbos, non-Nigerians, and for second generation Nigerians, or more

accurately, Nigerian-Americans, Igbos have very distinguishing characteristics. Most Igbo

groups are patrilineal, have very well developed extended family system, democratic

governance, age group system that help to run most Igbo communities. The patrilinearity help to

maintain family name and inheritance through the male children. Together with responsibilities

to the extended family, or Umunna, male children take their rightful position in the community.

One is, or is not, somebody depending on how well one discharges those responsibilities which

include contributing to the general well-being of one’s Umunna financially and otherwise,

defending that family and family name, building a house in one’s village as a symbol of coming

of age, getting married, becoming a decision maker, and having children to extend the lineage,

etc.

In terms of governance, a group of elders run each Umunna. Decisions are made in that elders’

group and adult men join as their age permits. Young male adults attend meeting of the elders

and listen and learn how the system operates, knowing that they will be in charge when they are

old enough. The elders use the various age groups to maintain peace and order, maintain

infrastructure like village streets and markets, etc. Igbos are self-reliant and believe in self-help.

That is one of the reasons some politicians and government officials get away with embezzling

money meant for the community without question from the community. The communities are so

used to doing things for themselves that they almost ignore the local government officials and

their neglect and/or incompetence.

Other characteristics of the Igbos include their mobility, versatility, entrepreneurship, property

acquisition and what others may call “fortune hunting.” To discharge those family

responsibilities and meet the expectations, Igbos engage in activities, trades, ventures of all kinds

that will enable them make enough money to meet family expectations. When they saw that

acquiring “white man’s” or western education facilitated meeting one’s responsibilities, families

made investments in their children, especially males, to position them well and provide them

with a competitive advantage. Igbos would travel far and wide in search of opportunities. In

Nigeria, it is almost impossible to find a community that does not have an Igbo person living

there, no matter how remote. That is how cities like Kano, Kaduna, Maidugiri, Markurdi,

Kafanchan, Port-Harcourt, Lagos, Ibadan, Benin, Warri, Sapele, etc., have so many Igbos living

as business owners, or civil servants. Wherever the Igbos are or live, they acquire or build

property. They are referred to in Nigeria as “Jews of Nigeria” (Robinson, 2013). Igbos have a

saying that “Ebe onye bi ka o na awachi” which literally means one repairs where one lives or

more appropriately, where one lives is one’s home. This explains why there was an issue of



Abandoned Property during and after the Nigeria-Biafra war. When Igbos fled from other parts

of Nigeria, some individuals and governments realized that most of the rental property and

businesses belonged to Igbos. They felt they were tenants in their own states. Thus, they declared

the massive real estate and businesses that Igbos left behind as abandoned and appropriated

many. The final outcome on how that ended is still being debated. Many Igbos eventually got

their property back, others were forced to “short sell” theirs, like banks in the USA would say.

The “Ebe onye bi ka o na awachi” philosophy actually may appear to be a contradiction to what

Igbos do. This brings us to one of the major characteristics or paradoxes of the Igbo culture that

provides such an attachment to the Igboland that no matter where they live, they consider home

to be else where. This pull is a feature of Permanence of Abode. What does that mean? How

many Igbo immigrants have built a house or home in their village? When did they visit home

last? How often do they visit home and use that house? Whether Igbos live in other parts of

Nigeria or overseas, they always strive to build their own house in that permanent home or

village to which they always return. Even if one’s father already has a mansion and more rooms

than the whole siblings and the nuclear families would ever need, each male child is wired to

obtain family land or buy land to build his own house, and own his own compound. Why? This

is one of the symbols of maturity and of coming of age. It is like a rite of passage. If a man does

not fulfill this responsibility, he is mocked and considered to be tied to his “mother’s apron

strings” and to be of little or no consequence. This becomes even more debilitating when his age-

group becomes the elders and takes over the leadership and governance of the Umunna or

village. His opinions do not count because he is not considered a fully grown man. An exception

is where the father dies before the first son reaches the age of manhood. That first son

traditionally inherits the father’s house and so that would not diminish his stature in the

community. However, other sibling brothers are expected to move out of their father’s

compound and build their own.

Compare the mobility of Igbos to other cultures that are also very mobile. The United States is a

good example. How often does one hear American friends and colleagues say they were

“originally from” say Michigan or California? Do they keep the homes they used to live in? No.

Actually, they might have moved three to four times before they got to Georgia or Maryland!

The difference is that every time they moved, they pulled up the roots. They sold their home and

are no longer from there. Their new location is, for all intents and purposes, now their only

home. Igbos, on the other hand, keep their permanent home and that provides a compass for

them. Thus, despite how mobile Igbos are, this permanence of abode keeps pulling them back to

their roots.

Advantages versus Disadvantages of Permanence of Abode

Is this permanence of abode a blessing or a curse? Some of each. In the USA where if one

moves today from Georgia to Maryland, register there, has a home address verified by one’s

utility bills, one is considered, henceforth, a Marylander. One would have all the rights and

responsibilities of all Marylanders, no matter when one arrived compared to others born there. In

Nigeria, on the other hand, where integration is not real and total, where no matter how long one

lives and pays tax in the state where one resides, benefits are shared according to one’s “state of

origin,” having a permanent home in one’s village is an advantage and a blessing. This is

because, that is really the only place where one is somebody, where one is not regarded as a

“visitor” who is expected to leave some day. Thus, it is a blessing to have somewhere to return to



when there is pogrom or genocide as in the months leading up to the civil war in Nigeria. Most

adult Igbos that returned to Igboland had a home to walk into. Those who had not built one, had

a member of the Umunna close enough to harbor them, especially if they had been discharging

their family responsibilities with due diligence before the displacement. In Igboland, one’s

family is one’s Social Security, defined pension fund, 403(b), 437, and, 401K!

A second advantage of permanence of abode is that it provides firm grounding in

children/offspring in the family as they keep coming back to it, on vacations, at Christmas,

weddings, funerals, family reunion, etc. Thus, Igbo children develop a strong sense of

belongingness in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs parlance. Maslow (1943) and McLeod (2007)

proposed that security needs for shelter and food are the most basic of needs and have to be

fulfilled before a person concerns himself or herself with other higher needs. Similarly, Erikson’s

(1970) Stages of Psychosocial Development posits that identity is the 5th stage. From personal

knowledge of the Igbo culture, we contend that, among the Igbos, the first step in Maslow’s

hierarchy is the sense of belongingness and on Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development;

identity development is probably the second stage after trust. For even when Igbo children are

not sure of their livelihood, they are sure whose sons or daughters they are and what family they

belong to. This needs to be empirically demonstrated. Thus, permanent abode in a permanent

village provides an unconditional acceptance, definite and unquestionable roots, and a sense of

worth that is not affected by any vicissitudes of life (Mirabela & Madela, 2013; Mousari &

Dargahi, 2013). Nevertheless, there are some disadvantages of having a permanent abode which

keeps tugging at and pinching one.

Disadvantages of having a permanent home

What could be wrong with having a permanent abode where can can always return when things

do not work out where one is? We propose that this phenomenon creates cognitive dissonance in

Igbos. They develop a sense of duality that makes it difficult to live life to the fullest outside of

their permanent village. Because of the obligations to the Umunna, the village and permanence

of abode, Igbos develop a dual sense of citizenship, loyalty, and responsibility. Even though dual

citizenship is not a new phenomenon in many parts of the worlds as presented by Faist and

Gerdes (2008), the Igbos have taken it to a new level, leading to cultural inertia (Zarate, Shaw,

Marquez and Biagas, 2013). This leads to lack of full participation in the host community, like

here in the USA. For example, until recently, Igbos, and Nigerians in general, did not participate

in the political process like other immigrants in running for office, banding together to form a

formidable political bloc to be reckoned with, solicited, courted, etc. Despite their numbers,

Igbos are, politically, virtually ignored because they have not gotten involved like the Hispanics

or Chinese etc., have done. Why? Because Igbos are always hoping and planning to go home!

How many Igbos in the USA are prepared for old age needs, retirement, etc.? How many have

set up life insurance, retirement funds like 401K, 437 (b), 457, long term care, invested in

mutual funds, taken advantage of stock options, or even paid into Social Security? Some do not

participate in these financial preparations for old age and retirement because they are saving

money to send to their homes to meet their financial obligations as Igbo males to their extended

families and their in-laws, and to build houses in their permanent villages. Though some have

lived here in the USA for 20, 30 years or even more, Igbo men are not exempted from

community financial obligations such as levies, dues, etc. These obligations keep them plugged

into their Umunna and into village politics and village politicking. For example, if a member of



the family dies, or is getting married, and the family decides to contribute some amount of

money for the ceremony, one’s parents, siblings or closest relations would make sure one gets

the message and what is expected of people of one’s socio-economic level. Some relations

would even inflate the levy to extract a few dollars for themselves!

Added to financial demands associated with obligations to the extended family, is the

expectation to marry a wife approved by the clan, usually a girl from the same ethnic and cultural

background. Many first generation male Igbo immigrants succumbed to these expectations and

took wives arranged by relations in Nigeria. This practice is probably not unique to Igbos or

Nigerians; Indians do that too! Cursory observation shows that only very few Igbo first

generation immigrants exercised enough independence to go against those expectations to marry

girls they met in their host countries, irrespective of the girls’ ethnic origins. One would ask:

What is wrong with an Igbo man marrying a girl he meets in the host country who shares his

values, who probably has more in common with him than a girl who is recommended to, or even

chosen for, him by family and friends at home? Nevertheless, due to the attachment to and pull

from the permanent abode and its traditions and expectations, Igbo men find themselves making

marriage decisions that have not always worked out well. Some have ended in domestic

violence, divorce and even homicides, at least in the USA (Staff, 2012; Kerogi, 2010). Even

where there is no domestic acrimony or violence, such marriages add to the Igbo man

responsibilities to and the pull from not only his permanent abode, but that of the wife. To meet

obligations in the host country and in Igboland, some men have turned their wives into money

mints by first requiring them to train or retrain as nurses, a profession in which some men help

set their wives’ work schedules which often entail working very long hours, until the exhausted

wives decide to rebel. For the first generation Igbo immigrants, who have not embraced USA as

home, amidst the dissonance of being pulled in different directions, they still have to find a way

to save enough to establish a business in Nigeria to return to or in the USA to generate funds that

their offspring will be remitting to them when they retire to Nigeria.

Second Generation Igbo immigrants

Additional source of cognitive dissonance is the thought of what happens to Igbo children born

and/or raised as Americans? Research findings show that for many of these children, USA is

home. They do not experience the tug that first generation Igbo immigrants feel. They like their

cousins in Nigeria, or being waited hand and foot by house-help when they visit. But they do not

feel the obligation to that permanent home or village, especially where there is hardly any

running water or power supply, unless one generates one’s own. They often do not have friends

in Nigeria to relate to. They also do not understand the system, the culture and the community

life. Thus, Igbos worry about who will inherit those nice homes they built in their village? Will

their children ever return to take their rightful place in their Umunna? If their children never

return to live in their permanent village, will future generations of the village know or remember

their line of the family?

Conclusion

First generation Igbo immigrants have many issues to deal with as they respond to that tug from

their permanent homes. How do they prepare financially to make the move? How do they

prepare emotionally to fit back into basically a different society? Who is returning with them?

What do they do in Nigeria when we get there? Have they saved enough to live on throughout



retirement or set up businesses to generate enough funds for their needs? Have their children

learnt that they are part of their parents’ “Social Security”? When is the best time to make the

move to relocate?

Our analysis show that the best advice is to decide early where home is or going to be. Then

prepare for life and old age necessities for that home. If Nigeria, Igbo immigrants must make

sure to take their children to visit home in Nigeria at regular intervals, set up business in Nigeria

that they will return to, remain plugged into the Umunna and the village politics. If Igbo

immigrants choose to remain in the US for good, they should participate both politically, socially

and economically in their current communities. They must make a concerted effort to

understand the system. They must galvanize into recognizable voting blocs, pay into social

security, Medicare; set up IRA, mutual funds, 403, 437(b), or 401K, establish a life insurance,

make a living will, and pay into long term insurance. Lots of questions; few answers; lots of

food for thought and soul searching for first generation Nigerian-Americans.



References

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http://psychology.about.com/library/bl_psychosocial_summary.htm.

Faist and Gerdes (2008). Dual Citizenship in the age of mobility. Retrieved on April 2, 2014

from // Migrationpolicy.org/research/dual citizen.

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Frist, G. (2012, October). Out of Control: Nigerian men killing their wives. News + Rescue,

retrieved from http://newsrescue.com/control-nigerian-men-killing-wives/#axzz2yELJwyD7.

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from www.Nigeriansvillage quare.com/article/Farooq

Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation, Psychological Review, 50,

370-396.

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved on April 2, 2014,

from www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html.

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European Union. Annals of the University of Oradea, Economic Science

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Robinson, G (2013). The Jewish week: Are the Igbos of Nigeria Jewish?

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Igbos-Nigeria-Jewish

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http://news.onlinenigeria.com/nigeria-news/3473-nigerian-men-killing-wives-in-the-us.html.

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48 (3). Retrieved on April 7, 2014 www.sciencedirect.com/science



EMPLOYING NATURAL SYSTEMS THEORY IN ANALYZING

GEORGIA’S PLEDGE TO PRESERVE HISTORIC INFRASTRUCTURES

Dr. Robert-Theophilus Dauphin Master's of Public Administration Program, College of Arts and Humanities Albany State University Albany, GA 31705, USA

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to use the natural systems theory to analyze how effective and

efficient Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT) can maintain Georgia’s historic

infrastructures; it is also intended to fill a gap with regards to using natural systems theory to

analyze the implementation of public organization policies. The article establishes a framework

for using natural systems theory to analyze organizations. Such framework include: identifying

boundaries and examining the structural, technical and social forces acting within and upon the

Georgia Department of Transportation. The analysis concludes that there are deficiencies that

can and must be eliminated if the State is to gain the maximum benefit from what has been

determined to be a valuable resource, and its investment in historic infrastructure preservation.

Introduction

The natural systems perspective provides a link between the rational, bureaucratic

tradition of public organization, and today’s cutting-edge complex theories. Public

administrators now have a multitude of components with which to analyze the internal and

external dynamics that impact public organizations effectiveness and efficiency. An

understanding of what each set of theories has to offer, and how they fit into public organizations

realities, can make the difference between success and failure for administrators in

accomplishing missions, goals, and objectives at every level within public organizations.

The natural systems perspective offers a holistic perspective of organizations, viewing

them as living organisms that must simultaneously maintain internal cohesion, adapt to external

forces, and evolve over time in order to survive and thrive (Wolf, Korosec, & Goltz, 2008). This

perspective builds on the work of the classical theorists, led by Max Weber’s analysis of the

“ideal-type bureaucracy” (Tomkins, 2005, p.48), which described a more mechanistic view of

organizational functioning (Scott, 2004).

Important concepts for natural systems theorists involve: the interrelatedness and

interdependence of system components; interactive change processes and equilibrium. These

concepts were amalgamated from a variety of sources that came into prominence during the 19th

and early 20th

centuries, including advances in the engineering, biological and physical sciences.

Each of these sciences recognized the nonlinearity of system relationships and the multitude of

factors that interact to produce results.

The subject being analyzed is how effective and efficient Georgia Department of

Transportation (GDOT) would maintain Georgia’s historic infrastructures. Georgia Historic

Preservation Division (HPD), the Georgia Tourism Division and the Georgia Department of

Transportation divulge a possible link between the organizations’ missions. HPD (2012) reports

a mission “to promote the maintenance and preservation of historic places for a better Georgia”



(pages unnumbered), and the Tourism Division (2010) highlights the value of tourism,

particularly heritage tourism, to the state’s economy.

Regardless of the conditions of Georgia’s historic infrastructures, such as highly

maintained, less maintained, or poorly maintained, Georgia politicians and government should

continuously invest and maintain Georgia’s historic infrastructures, as they will serve as major

revenue sources for the state and localities.

The impetus of this analysis is to apply natural systems theory to an analysis of the

effectiveness and efficiency of Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT), in analyzing the

significant aspects of maintaining Georgia’s historic infrastructures. As a government entity

whose purpose is to implement and serve public needs and desires, Georgia Department of

Transportation boundaries are vaguer than those of private transportation organizations.

Effectiveness and efficiency not only relate to the accomplishment of specific plans and goals,

but also to public participation and approval with those achievements. Even though the primary

purpose of this analysis is to apply natural systems theory to analyze the effectiveness and

efficiency of GDOT maintenance of Georgia historic infrastructures, it is also intended to fill a

gap with regards to using natural systems theory to analyze the implementation of public

organization policies.

Private organizations, too, must consider public satisfaction; however, public input in the

decision-making process is not a requirement, nor is the public bound to do business with a

particular private organization. However, the concentration of resources and official sanction in

the hands of GDOT compels both GDOT officials and citizens to be responsive to rules and

regulations that may at times facilitate or encumber organizational efficiency and effectiveness,

as well as public satisfaction.

The result is a permeable boundary which, like human cell membranes, must allow

various materials to enter and exit in a manner that will enable a healthy cell (organization) and a

healthy environment (road, bridges, buildings, and public satisfaction). The concept of

equilibrium is very beneficial in analyzing these relationships.

How does Georgia’s commitment to maintain historic infrastructures being effectively

and efficiently carried out by GDOT policies, programs and actions? How can the natural

systems framework be applied to analyze GDOT’s performance as it relates to maintaining

Georgia historic infrastructures?

Background

Seung-Won and Kuchinke (2005) describe the origins of systems theory as emerging

from the sciences of biology, economics and engineering. Nineteenth-century discoveries in the

physical and biological sciences set the stage for natural systems theory, which was to blossom

in the 1930s. The concept of equilibrium, or homeostasis, contributed by these sciences was

particularly salient for social scientists, and figured heavily in the writings of Chester I. Barnard

and other proponents of systems theory.

Tomkins (2005) identifies Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist, as a direct progenitor of

the school of organizational analysis that compares marketplace relationships to sociological

relationships. Tomkins reports that Pareto’s 1916 Treatise on General Sociology found its way

into the hands and imagination of Laurence J. Henderson, a Harvard biochemist-turned-business

student. Henderson was so taken with Pareto’s ideas, that he absorbed them and began to teach

them to a number of his contemporaries, including Chester I. Barnard.



Barnard went on to become a seminal natural systems theorist, while others who attended

Henderson’s classes took up closely-related human relations theory and structural functional

theory. Tomkins (2005) quotes Cynthia Eagle Russett’s statement of Henderson’s important

impact on the development of the systems theory of organizational analysis:

Henderson may have given greater impetus to the diffusion of equilibrium concepts

among American social scientists than any other individual. To a whole generation of

Harvard students he passed on his conception of scientific method, of social science

methodology, and specifically of the place of equilibrium analysis in social science (p.

189).

Literature Review

Literature from the websites of the Georgia Historic Preservation Division (HPD), the

Georgia Tourism Division and the Georgia Department of Transportation reveal a potential fit

between the organizations’ missions. HPD (2012) reports a mission “to promote the preservation

and use of historic places for a better Georgia” (pages unnumbered), and the Tourism Division

(2010) highlights the value of tourism, particularly heritage tourism, to the state’s economy:

Tourism, the world’s largest industry, is essential to a community’s economic vitality,

sustainability, and profitability. In Georgia, tourism is the state’s second largest industry

and heritage tourism is its fastest-growing segment. Georgia is among the top 10 states in

the country in heritage tourism visitation . . . .The Tourism Division facilitates local and

regional collaborations that increase tourism and strengthen values fundamental to

community vitality (pp. 5 & 6).

GDOT (A) (2012) defines a complementary mission to “provide a safe, seamless and

sustainable transportation system that supports Georgia’s economy and is sensitive to its citizens

and environment” (pages unnumbered).

Wolf, Korosec and Goltz’ (2008) application of an open-systems approach to analyze

external factors affecting the implementation of police agencies, and Giblin and Burruss’ (2008)

use of a related tool, institutional theory, to examine policing organizations, both demonstrate

how systems theories can be used to analyze public organizations. Kim and Rhee (2010), while

not expressly utilizing natural systems theory, nevertheless consider the impact of social

networks, a type of informal organization in the workplace, and its impact upon organizational

commitment. Barnard found these informal structures to be valuable in providing adequate non-

material rewards to workers, and thereby boosting efficiency and effectiveness.

Knudsen (2010) provides some guidance in using systems theory to assist in empirical

studies, using methods developed by contemporary structural-functional theorists. John and

Ruckert-John (2010) utilize a related approach, called the function-analytical approach, to study

organizational change.

Marcol’s New Systems Thinking (2005), while it predates the work of Knudsen and John

& Ruckert-John, is on the cutting edge of complexity theory, which grew out of the natural

systems theory of the 1930s, and is particularly useful for examining the myriad of factors that

public organizations must consider in order to function effectively.

Scott’s 2010 Reflections on a Half-Century of Organizational Sociology, provides a very

useful review of the development and application of natural and open systems analysis, and

complexity theory. As a sociologist, Scott’s interest is in highlighting his profession’s

contribution to the field of organization theory; however, in the process he demonstrates the

multi-disciplinary nature of organizational analysis.



Vigoda’s 2002 examination of how public administrators relate to citizens is

exceptionally relevant to the research questions undertaken in this paper. Vigoda considers

whether the business-like approach of responding to citizens like customers tends to reduce

active citizen involvement—very intriguing in the light of the very technical nature of the work

that public organizations administer, juxtaposed against their requirements for citizen

involvement in the process.

Dai (2008) describes human living systems in the way that captured the imaginations of

systems theorists in the early 20th

century, and provided the basis for their analysis, stating that

“human living systems are open, dynamic, intentional systems and, therefore, are capable of

building ever more complex behaviors through self-organization and self-direction” (p. 114).

His statement also seems to justify and explain the development of complexity theory, as a

necessary response to the evolving complexity of public organizational reality.

Seung-Won and Kuchinke (2005) take the position that more traditional systems theory is

compatible with both contemporary complexity theory, and new ideas resulting from

communication technologies, and that all are useful tools for organizational analysis.

The literature from the past five to ten years shows the extent to which natural systems

theory has been supplanted by open systems and complexity theories. However, organizational

reality shows that even the most modern organizations cannot escape a measure of the early

theorists’ perspectives. There remains a place for Max Weber’s analysis of bureaucracy. In fact,

increasing technical specialization exacerbates the need for bureaucratic specialization, while the

proliferation of specialties makes complexity theory a necessity. Meanwhile, we continue to

exist as natural beings in a natural environment, making natural systems theory—well, and

natural.

Analysis This writer will utilize a diagram described as the natural systems analytical process

below to analyze the questions posed in this analysis. The diagram includes: identifying

boundaries and examining the structural, technical and social forces acting within and upon the

Georgia Department of Transportation. The central concept of equilibrium will be discussed

throughout all the dimensions of analysis.

Based on natural systems principles, diagram below to illustrate the natural systems

process of analysis:



Figure 1: Diagram of the Natural Systems Analysis Process

This diagram illustrates a central concept of the natural systems perspective: that the removal of

any component from the analysis process would skew the perspective of the entire

organism/organization; as would a change in shape of either component.

Identifying Boundaries.

Level of Analysis. Public organizations within every level of government i.e. federal,

states, and local governments. As a government entity, public organizations are parts of the

executive branch whose actions are dictated by both national and state laws and funding

requirements. Regardless of the levels within which a public organization exists, their

responsibilities are by necessity to citizens, and therefore must be responsive to the needs of

citizens within communities.

While deeply imbedded in government, GDOT must also maintain relationships with a

host of private companies that supply the internal needs of the organization, and carry out much

of its external work. The agency can easily be seen as a living being, whose existence requires

constant monitoring in order to maintain internal and external equilibrium.

Components. The GDOT website (2012) lists a number of offices and divisions that are tasked

with carrying out the functions of the organization. Eleven offices, under the leadership of the

Deputy Commissioner and the Chief Engineer, plus nine divisions, with anywhere from one to

five offices each, for a total of twenty-six division offices, must work together. In addition, the

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the Federal and State Departments of Natural

Resources must work closely with the organization. A great deal of funding for GDOT projects

comes through FHWA, and with funding, requirements for action.

The Federal and State Departments of Natural Resources have a hand in determining

whether and how GDOT is able to proceed with specific projects (SRI Foundation, 2011). Laws

require reviews of the environmental impact of each project, which include ecological, historical,

economic and cultural surveys of project areas. In addition, laws require informing and

Nonlinear

Relationships

Identify Boundaries

- Level of Analysis - Components

Structural

forces

Technical Forces

Social Forces



involving the public early in the design process (Georgia Department of Transportation (F),

Undated).

Although there are specific project phases in which public involvement is mandated, in a

democratic society, the public may become involved at any point, and place pressure on

politicians and agency administrators to change decisions that have already been enacted. In

addition, many internal documents must be accessible to the public via open records requests,

and may potentially be used to redirect agency decisions. Thus, the organizational boundaries of

GDOT are permeable by design, a fact that may be an irritant to administrators who do not have

a genuine commitment to full citizen participation, and see it as a hindrance to getting their jobs

done (Vigoda, 2002).

Structural Forces

GDOT’s organizational structure fits Max Weber’s ideal bureaucracy, containing all of

the elements that Tomkins (2005) attributes to Weber. Fixed official duties, hierarchy of

authority, systems of rules, technical expertise, career service and written documentation are all

present within each office and division (Georgia Department of Transportation (D), 2012).

These elements are outlined in organizational charts on the agency’s website, as well as in

procedural manuals, such as GDOT’s Bridge and Structures Design Manual (2012), that are

available for public viewing and downloading.

It is also clear that an organic organizational structure (flat structure) exist between

departments, requiring collaboration between staff members with varied areas of expertise, all of

which are required to successfully complete projects and fulfill agency goals and objectives.

This organic structure and employee specialization may result in a narrow comprehension of the

big picture of organizational functioning, and interfere with evaluating the extent to which goals

and objectives are being attained.

There is one basic set of data that would be very useful in answering the question of

whether Georgia’s commitment to historic preservation is being effectively and efficiently

carried out through Department of Transportation policies, programs and actions regarding

historic infrastructure preservation. First, how many historic infrastructures exist in the state and

where are they located? Next, how many historic infrastructures have been rehabilitated, over

what number of years? How many historic bridges have been bypassed, demolished or replaced?

What has been the cost in local, state and federal dollars? What has been the return on the state’s

investment in historic preservation staff and facilities? How should that return be measured?

The answers to these questions are not readily available, as reported by agency leaders in

the departments handling cultural resources, engineering and infrastructure maintenance. Nor is

the data collected by the State Historic Preservation Office within the Department of Natural

Resources. The leaders in these departments reported to this researcher in April 2012 that data

of this nature is not routinely maintained. The answers to these questions, which are essential to

evaluate GDOT’s performance in historic infrastructure preservation, require an in-depth

correlation of information from several departments.

Technical Forces

Safety and efficient movement of traffic are paramount concerns for state departments of

transportation, as GDOT’s mission statement reveals. The agency must ensure that the

engineering knowledge, skills and expertise are available to accomplish these vital goals. To that



end, the agency requires that private companies that bid on GDOT projects be certified, and

deemed qualified to handle specific types of work.

Expertise in historic preservation, particularly for bridges, is not widespread in the

engineering and construction professions. In 2003, a workshop was convened and attended by

engineers, educators and transportation officials at the highest levels of policy making and

implementation, to evaluate the state of the nation’s historic infrastructure resources. The

participants found that the educational infrastructure necessary to produce adequate bridge

preservation expertise was lacking:

Most civil engineering curricula do not provide academic courses on material degradation

processes, nor on structural assessment and rehabilitation technologies. A state-of-the-

art, accessible resource will improve engineers’ ability to make decisions on

rehabilitation versus replacement, especially for culturally important components of our

built infrastructure (DeLony & Klein, 2004, p. 10).

Efforts to make this information available to engineers continued in 2007, with the

publication by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program of Guidelines for Historic

Bridge Rehabilitation and Replacement (SRI Foundation, 2011). According to the SRI

Foundation, this was the first time that such guidelines had been made available. The

Foundation augmented the 2007 publication with case studies of preserved infrastructures in its

2011 publication.

In spite of these deficiencies, there are now a number of engineering and construction

companies that can be located on the Internet, that are experienced in historic infrastructure

preservation, as well as a host of infrastructures that have been rehabilitated (Bridgehunter.com,

2012; Historicbridges.org, 2012). However, the dissemination of the knowledge of infrastructure

preservation techniques remains limited, and many historic structures continue to be demolished

each year (Historicbridges.org, 2012). This remains, despite the promotion of preservation by

agencies like the Georgia Tourism Board, the Federal Highway Administration and the

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO, 2011).

Social Forces

Social forces form the major part of the external and internal environments of

organizations, including economics, politics, education and culture. As Giblin and Burruss

(2009) discuss, organizations must maintain legitimacy in order to survive, and that legitimacy is

derived from the environment. Public opinion and priorities, political power struggles and

economic realities are just a few of the factors that figure into the environment with which

organizations like GDOT must maintain a workable balance or equilibrium.

The proliferation of rehabilitated historic infrastructures across the country

(Historicbridges.org, 2012) demonstrates a changing social environment and greater public

support for historic infrastructure preservation. Wolf, Korosec, & Goltz (2008) describe the

importance of the ability to change on the part of organizational administrators in order to adjust

to “ever-changing environments” (p. 2). Although they wrote from an open systems perspective,

the principle of adaptability that these writers discussed is an integral part of the natural systems

framework, as organisms must adapt to their environments in order to maintain homeostasis and

survive.

Vigoda (2002) raised the question of whether public organizations handle public

involvement with a focus on responsiveness or collaboration, arguing that organizational

responsiveness encourages less active involvement on the part of citizens than does



collaboration. How does GDOT handle its requirements for public involvement? It aappears

that, without strong community reactions to plans to replace, rather than rehabilitate historic

infrastructures, the agency makes only perfunctory efforts at public involvement, going through

the motions in order to check the public involvement requirement off their list. This attitude is

reflected in GDOT’s very brief, half-page document entitled “Cultural Resources

Responsibilities” (undated), consisting of five bulleted statements, the first of which speaks to

public involvement:

Coordinating and consulting with the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the

State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO), local historic commissions, Tribal Historic

Preservation Offices, other federal and state agencies, and other interested parties

regarding impacts on historic properties (p. 1).

Likewise, GDOT’s document entitled “Marketable Historic infrastructures” (undated),

only slightly more extensive at just over one page, refers to an undefined “feasibility” of

rehabilitation, with no commitment to utilizing best practices, exploring new technologies or

involving the public in the decision making process.

True collaboration may require more time, and reduce the ability of administrators to

complete projects within the time frame that they desire. On the other hand, collaboration may

reduce the incidence of public outcries after preliminary decisions have already been made.

Local community and political concern for historic preservation can help to drive the

adoption of available technologies and their application on a routine basis. Faced with projects

requiring unfamiliar expertise, engineering and construction companies may take the path of

least resistance—simply doing what they already know, rather than investing in continuing

education and new technologies. Capitalist forces of supply and demand come into play to

determine how businesses make investment decisions.

Funding is always a concern (DeLony & Klein, 2004), as communities and politicians

must make difficult choices with available resources. Although reports exist, such as the

Heritage Tourism Handbook (Burns, et al., 2010), that extoll the virtues of heritage tourism and

its value in promoting economic revitalization and livable cities, detailed data are difficult to

locate. Without this data, communities may tend to cut programs like historic preservation that

seem to be luxuries, without an accurate evaluation of their economic and social contribution.

Conclusion and Recommendations Natural systems theory remains useful as a framework for analyzing organizational

efficiency and effectiveness, providing tools to examine both the internal and external workings

of organizations. The number of forces at work within and around modern organizations may

lead analysts to prefer open systems and complexity theories; however those advanced concepts

can be seen as simply adding more components to natural systems theory. No systems are

completely open or completely closed, and natural biological and physical systems provide rich

examples of specialization, overlapping influence, interdependence and equilibrium.

The extent to which the Georgia Department of Transportation fulfills the State’s

commitment to the maintenance of historic infrastructures cannot be determined at present, due

to the current status of data management within the agency. This deficiency can and must be

eliminated if the State is to gain the maximum benefit from what has been determined to be a

valuable resource, and its investment in historic infrastructure preservation.

Several simple, inexpensive recommendations are offered. The State’s Historic

infrastructure inventory can be augmented with three additional columns of data, indicating the



current status of these resources, at very little cost to the Department. One column would record

the most recent action taken on historic infrastructures. As historic infrastructure projects are

completed by the various infrastructure Maintenance Units and Engineering Division, the

information can be forwarded to cultural resources for recording in the inventory.

Two additional columns in the inventory could record the amount spent on maintenance

during a given year and the estimated local economic impact of increased tourism as a result of

improvements. This data can be provided by whatever entity is responsible for the various

maintenance units, whether local or State, and local chambers of commerce. This would help in

decision making by providing information that can be shared between localities, about the impact

of historic infrastructure preservation in communities where these resources are located, and

what adjustments should be made to improve outcomes.

The State can also require that engineers evaluating the “marketability” of historic

infrastructures have expertise in historic infrastructure preservation. This would encourage the

development of even greater expertise, both in the field and in academia.

Homeostasis in a changing environment is a dynamic state that requires flexibility on the

part of public administrators, and a willingness to see the vision that laws, rules and regulations

are designed to bring into being. Working creatively to participate in manifesting the vision,

rather than stopping at minimum requirements, helps organizations remain relevant, maintain

internal and external legitimacy and survive into the future.

References

(2012). Retrieved from Bridgehunter.com: www.bridgehunter.com

(2012). Retrieved from HistoricBridges.org: www.historicbridges.org

Burns, L., Eaddy, M. A., Moore, C., Speno, L., Talley-McRae, H., & Green, B. (2010). Heritage

Tourism Handbook: A How-To Guide for Georgia. (L. Speno, Ed.) Atlanta, GA: GA

Historic Preservation Division & GA Tourism Division.

Dai, D. Y., & Renzulli, J. S. (2008). Snowflakes, living systems, and the mystery of giftedness.

Gifted Child Quarterly, 52(2), 114-130. doi:10.1177/0016986208315732

DeLony, E., & Klein, T. H. (2004). Historic Bridges: A Heritage at Risk: A Report on a

Workshop on the Preservation and Management of Historic Bridges. SRI Foundation.

Retrieved April 2012, from http://www.srifoundation.org/pdf/bridge_report.pdf

Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Historic Preservation Division. (2012). About the

Historic Preservation Division, DNR. Retrieved from http://georgiashpo.org/about

Georgia Department of Transportation (A). (2012). About Georgia DOT. Retrieved from

http://www.dot.state.ga.us/aboutGeorgiaDot/Pages/default.aspx

Georgia Department of Transportation (B). (2012). Bridge and Structures Design Manual.

Georgia Department of Transportation (C). (2012). Cultural Resources Responsibilities.

Retrieved April 2012, from

http://www.dot.state.ga.us/informationcenter/programs/environment/resources/documents

/responsibilities.pdf

Georgia Department of Transportation (D). (2012). Homepage. Retrieved April 2012, from

http://www.dot.state.ga.us/Pages/default.aspx

Georgia Department of Transportation (E). (2012). Marketable Historic Bridges. Retrieved April

2012, from

http://www.dot.state.ga.us/doingbusiness/policiesmanuals/roads/environmental/culturalre

sources/cultural%20resources_hist_marketable%20historic%20bridges.pdf



Georgia Department of Transportation (F). (2012). Plan Development Process. Atlanta, GA:

GDOT.

Giblin, M. J., & Burruss, G. W. (2009). Developing a measurement model of institutional

processes in policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies &

Management, 32(2), 351-376. doi:10.1108/13639510910958226

John, R., & Jana, R.-J. (2010). Observing possibilities: A Function-Analytical Approach to

Organizational Change Processes. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 11(3), Art. 22.

Retrieved from http://www.psychologie.uni-hannover.de/john.html

Kim, Y.-C., & Rhee, M. (2010). The contingent effect of social networks on organizational

commitment: A comparison of instrumental and expressive ties in a multinational high-

technology company. Sociological Perspectives, 53(4), 479-502.

doi:10.1525/sop.2010.53.4.479

Knudsen, M. (2010). Surprised by Method-Functional Method and Systems Theory. Forum:

Qualitative Social Research, 11(3), 1-14. Retrieved from http://proxygsu-

alb1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/869912848?accountid

=8244

Morcol, G. (2005). A new systems thinking: Implications of the sciences of complexity for

public policy and administration. Public Administration Quarterly, 29(3), 297-320.

Scott, W. R. (2004). Reflections on a half-century of organizational socioloty. Annual Review of

Sociology, 30(X), 1-21. doi:ProQuest Doc ID: 199576187

Seung-Won, Y., & Kuchinke, K. P. (2005). Systems theory and technology: Lenses to analyze an

organization. Performance Improvement, 44(4), 15-20. doi:ProQuest Doc ID: 237234962

SRI Foundation. (2011). Case Studies in the Rehabilitation of Historic Bridges. Rio Rancho,

NM: AASHTO.

Tompkins, J. R. (2005). Organization Theory and Public Management. Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth.

Vigoda, E. (2002, Sep/Oct). From responsiveness to collaboraion: Governance, citizens, and the

next generation of public administration. Public Administration Review, 62(5), 527-540.

doi:ProQuest Doc ID: 197169081

Wolf, R., Korosec, R., & Goltz, J. W. (2008). An Analysis of Factors Affecting the

Implementation of Small Minicipal Police Agencies: An Open-Systems Approach.

American Journal of Criminal Justice, 177-192, 309-310, Fall, 2008. Retrieved from

http://proxygsu-

alb1.galileo.usg.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/203519756?accountid

=8244



EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF INNOVATIVE ELECTRONIC

PAYMENT SYSTEM IN AFRICA

O. F Uzoh and C. E. Orji

Computer Science Department, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria

*[email protected]

[email protected]

Abstract

The forex (short for foreign exchange) market daily turnover is about 1.7 trillion USD thus

making it the largest financial market on earth. Mechanical or automated forex trading has been

popularized with advances in information AND Communications Technology(ICT). Automated

trading is highly favoured due to the fact that human traders are susceptible to their emotion.

Advances in ICT and the incorporation of programming in trading platforms have made it

possible to build a 100% automated forex trader, popularly called Expert Advisors (EAs),

capable of exploiting the profit potentials in forex. Besides, with automated trading, the

potentials of different trading strategies could easily be demonstrated. In this paper, an

automated trading system was built to exploit the profit potential in forex and further to buttress

the promise inherent in automated trading.

Keywords: forex, automated trading, expert advisor, system, profit potential

1.0 Introduction The FOREX (short for Foreign Exchange) market daily turnover is about 1.7 trillion USD

thus making it the largest financial market on earth [1]. Thus, there is a huge profit potential in

speculating the forex market. There has been a tremendous research interest in profitably

exploiting the forex market [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Automated trading has resulted in the offering of

forex managed account services by forex brokers and fund managers [9, 10].

2.0 Challenges of Forex Forecasting The challenges involved in forecasting foreign exchange are due to the very nature of foreign

exchange. An understanding of what moves forex is very important in appreciating the

difficulties involved in forecasting foreign exchange. Forex is a news-driven market. Local,

regional or world events can cause sudden spikes and falls to occur in seconds. Depending upon

the significance of the news, and how closely it is related to a particular currency, an amazing

amount of trading can occur in a very brief period of time [2]. Predicting exchange rates is more

of an art than science. There are basically two primary approaches of analyzing currency

markets: fundamental analysis and technical analysis. Fundamental analysis is based on the

underlying economic conditions, whereas technical analysis is about using historical price

mailto:*[email protected]



information to forecast future price actions. Technical analysis works under the assumption that

history tends to repeat itself. Quite a number of models for forecasting foreign exchange rates

have been based on these approaches. Historically, linear models have been used to model

foreign exchange rates. However, due to the high level of noise, linear models have performed

abysmally. Non linear models have since become the model of choice in the efforts being made

in forecasting forex. There have been increasing successful report on the performance of non

linear models over linear models in forex forecasting. In [3], a model based on SVM was

reported to have performed very well. [4] examined two ANN models using univariate and

multivariate time series. In [5], a study was conducted that integrated the back-propagation

neural network(BPNN)- based forex rolling forecasting system to accurately predict the change

in direction of daily exchange rates, and the web-based forex trading decision support system to

obtain forecasting data and provide some investment decision suggestions for financial

practitioners. In [6], an investigation was carried out on an ANN based prediction model for

forex forecasting using three learning algorithms: Standard Back Propagation (SBP), Scaled

Conjugate Gradient (SCG) and Back Propagation with Bayesian Regularization (BPR). [7],

reported empirical evidence that a neural network model is applicable to the prediction of foreign

exchange rates. [8], demonstrated how a forex trading system could be adopted as a poverty

eradication model.

3.0 Mechanical Trading Advances in ICT and incorporation of programming capabilities in trading platforms have made

mechanical trading 100% realizable. In the MT4 [11], an Expert Advisor capable of replacing a

human expert could be built with the MQL4 [11], an MT4 trading platform programming

language. Figure1 shows how an automated forex trading system could be incorporated in the

MT4 environment [12].



Figure1: A program in MQL4 as a part of MetaTrader 4 Client Terminal.

The Expert Advisor is copied into the expert folder of the installed MT4 platform (for Windows

Operating System). A good familiarization of the MT4 platform is needed for one to be able to

programme the Expert Advisor and to initiate its operation in the platform. On successful

attachment of the Expert Advisor on the platform, program controls which are devoid of bugs are

passed by the platform to the dealing centre. See [12] for details.

3.1 A Mechanical Trading System The trading system described here was originally built by [13] for the INTL Corp. shares but

here adapted for the forex market. The original system could not have worked well for forex due

to the higher volatility of the forex market. The appendix1 shows the full code of the adapted

Expert Advisor programmed in mql4. The trading system is based on a perceptron [15]. The

following function contained in the Expert Advisor’s program (see Appendix1) depicts the

perceptron:

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

//| The PERCEPTRON - a perceiving and recognizing function

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

double perceptron()

{

double w1 = x1 - 100;

double w2 = x2 - 100;

double w3 = x3 - 100;



double w4 = x4 - 100;

double a1 = iAC(Symbol(), 0, 0);




return(w1 * a1 + w2 * a2 + w3 * a3 + w4 * a4);

}

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

Symbolically, such a perceptron could be represented by figure 2 below.

W1

W2

y

W3

W4

Figure2: A perceptron

y = w1*a1 + w2*a2 + w3*a3 + w4*a4

a1 , a2, a3, and a4 are based on the Bill William’s Accelerator/Decelerator oscillator[14].

For instance,

double a1 = iAC (symbol(),0,0); is explained as follows[16]:

symbol(): the symbol name of the security on the data of which the indicator will be

calculated. NULL means the current symbol.

0: the current chart frame

0: means that no value was taken from the indicator buffer

w1, w2, w3 and w4 are weights. However, on a more advanced perceptron, the values of

w1, w2, w3 and w4 are determined after training the perceptron. However, w1, w2, w3

and w4 are functions of x1, x2, x3 and x4 respectively. The values of x1, x2 x3and x4 are

135, 127, 16 and 93 respectively.

The returned values of this perceptron are used to determine the kind of order to be placed (a

buy, or a sell order) and order modification.

4.0 Result and Discussion Our trading system was back tested on the 15 minutes chart of the EURUSD between the period

2008.01.01 and 2008.08.19. The Expert advisor’s initial deposit was$10,000, at the end of the

testing period, the amount appreciated by 92%. Figure 4 shows the result of the Expert Advisor

(EA). Figure 3 below shows a graph of the balance/equity of the EA plotted against the tested

period.



Figure 3: a graph of the balance/equity of the EA plotted against the tested period.

Figure 3: a graph of the balance/equity of the EA plotted against the tested period. Appendix 2 shows the back tested report of the Expert Advisor within the tested period. Figure 3:

a graph of the balance/equity of the EA plotted against the tested period. In order to appreciate the

results shown in figure 4 properly, a background on the

following key concepts is necessary:

� Bars in test — the amount of the modeled history data in bars;

� Ticks modeled — the amount of the modeled ticks;

� Modeling quality — the quality of ticks modeled during testing in per cents.

� Initial deposit — the volume of the initial deposit;

� Total net profit — financial result of all trades. This index represents a

difference between the "Gross profit" and "Gross loss";

� Gross profit — the sum of all profitable trades in terms of money;

� Gross loss — the sum of all unprofitable trades in terms of money;

� Profit factor — the ratio between gross profit and gross loss in per cents. The

one value means that profit equals to loss;

� Expected payoff — the expected payoff. This statistically calculated index

represents the average profit/loss factor of a trade. It can also be considered

for representing the expected profit/loss factor of the next trade;

� Absolute drawdown — the largest loss is lower than the initial deposit value;

� Maximal drawdown (%) — maximal loss of the local maximum in the

deposit currency and in percents of the deposit;

� Total trades — the total amount of trade positions;



� Short positions (won %) — the amount of short positions and percentage of

won thereof;

� Long positions (won %) — the amount of long positions and percentage of

won thereof;

� Profit trades (% of total) — the amount of profitable trade positions and

their percentage in the total trades;

� Loss trades (% of total) — the amount of profitable trade positions and their

percentage in the total trades;

� Largest profit trade — the largest profit among all profitable positions;

� Largest loss trade — the largest loss among all unprofitable positions;

� Average profit trade — average profit value for a trade (the sum of profits

divided by the amount of profitable trades);

� Average loss trade — average loss value for a trade (the sum of losses

divided by the amount of unprofitable trades);

� Maximum consecutive wins (profit in money) — the longest series of

profitable trade positions and the sum of their wins;

� Maximum consecutive losses (loss in money) — the longest series of

unprofitable trade positions and the sum of their losses;

� Maximal consecutive profit (count of wins) — the maximum profit of a

series of profitable trades and the amount of profitable trades corresponding

with it;

� Maximal consecutive loss (count of losses) — the maximum loss of a series

of unprofitable trades and the amount of unprofitable trades corresponding

with it;

� Average consecutive wins — the average amount of profitable positions in

consecutive profitable series;

� Average consecutive losses — the average amount of unprofitable positions

in consecutive unprofitable series.

In figure 4, we can see that the EA was tested between the period 2008.01.01 and 2008.08.19 on

the 15 minutes chart of the EURUSD. The initial deposit was $10,000 which appreciated by well

over 92% to $19214.40



Figure 4: Expert Advisor’s report.

at the end of the testing period. The Gross profit was $52831.80 whereas the gross loss was

$43617.40, thus resulting to a net profit of $9214.40. Figure 4: Expert Advisor’s report. The profit

factor was 1.21, while the expected payoff was 73.72. The absolute draw down was 1216.60,

maximal drawdown was 6263.00 representing 7.47%, whereas the relative drawdown was

4814.00, representing 33.28%. A total of 125 trades were executed by the Expert Advisor in

which 61 represented short positions and 64 represented long positions. The number of the trades

that resulted to profits were 75, representing 60.00%, and 50 (40.00%) of these trades resulted in

losses. The largest profit trade was $5279.60, whereas the largest loss trade was $938.40. The

average profit trade was $704.42, whereas the average loss trade was $872.35. Above all, the

Expert Advisor’s modelling quality is 90%.

5.0 Conclusion Automated trading holds enormous promise and has been made possible by advances in ICT. In

the West African sub region, there has not been any reported managed account based on forex.

Much of the portfolios of fund managers have been on stocks, bonds and real estate. We have

been able to demonstrate in this paper that automated trading holds enormous promise. It is time

for fund managers in West Africa to consider forex as a possible option in their portfolio

diversification considering the current crisis rocking stock markets across the region and beyond.

References



[1] Mark, G. et al (2007), “Currency Trading for Dummies”, Getting Started Edition, Wiley

Publishing Inc.

Pages 8 – 10.

[2] http://fxtradingguide.com/13/ retrieved on 17/04/2008

[3] Kamruzzaman, J. et al (2003) “Third IEEE International Conference on Data Mining”. Pages

557 –

560.

[4] Woon-Seng, G. et al(1995), “Multivariate FOREX forecasting using artificial neural

networks”,

Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks, Vol 2, Pages 1018 –

1022.

[5] Lai, K.K. et al (2005), “A Neural Network and Web-Based Decision Support System for

Forex

Forecasting and Trading”, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-540-23987-1. Pages 243 -

253.

[6] Joarder, K. et al (2004), “ANN – Based Forecasting of Foreign Currency Exchange Rates”,

retrieved

from http://www.nip-1r.info/V03N02/abstract-V03N02P4-49-58.htm on 17/04/2008.

[7] Jingtao, Y et al (2000), “A case study on using neural networks to perform technical

forecasting of

forex” retrieved from http://www.elsevier.com/locate/neucom on 17/04/2008.

[8] Akinkunmi B.O. & Orji C.E.(2008), “Forex Forecasting As a Tool to Wealth Creation”,

Nigeria

Computer Society Conference Proceedings. Pages 143 – 152.

[9] http://www.fxcm.com, visited on 13/10/08

[10] http://mgiforex.com/index.php visited on 12/10/08

[11] http://www.mql4.com, visited on 14/10/08

[12] http://www.mql4.com/book, visited on 14/10/18

[13] http://forum.mql4.com visited on 12/10/07

[14]http://www.investopedia.com/university/technicalanalysis/default.asp retrieved on 20/06/07

[15] Bruce J. Vanstone, Gavin R. Finnie, Clarence N. W. Tan: Evaluating the Application of

Neural

Networks and Fundamental Analysis in the Australian Stockmarket,

http://www.informatik.unitrier.

de/~ley/db/conf/iastedCI/ci2005.html#VanstoneFT05 visited on 18/10/08

[16] www.mql4.com/documentation visited on 24/04/08

Appendix 1 In this appendix, we present the code listing of the Expert Advisor explained in section 3.1.

//---- input parameters

extern int x1 = 135;

extern int x2 = 127;

extern int x3 = 16;

extern int x4 = 93;

// StopLoss level



extern double sl = 85;

extern double lots = 1;

extern int MagicNumber = 888;

static int prevtime = 0;

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

//| expert initiali11ation function |

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

int init()

{

//----

return(0);

}

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

//| expert deinitiali11ation function |

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

int deinit()

{

//----

return(0);

}

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

//| expert start function |

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

int start()

{

if(Time[0] == prevtime)

return(0);

prevtime = Time[0];

int spread = 3;

//----

if(IsTradeAllowed())

{

RefreshRates();

spread = MarketInfo(Symbol(), MODE_SPREAD);

}

else

{

prevtime = Time[1];

return(0);

}

int ticket = -1;

// check for opened position

int total = OrdersTotal();

//----

for(int i = 0; i < total; i++)

{

OrderSelect(i, SELECT_BY_POS, MODE_TRADES);

// check for symbol & magic number

if(OrderSymbol() == Symbol() && OrderMagicNumber() == MagicNumber)

{

int prevticket = OrderTicket();

// long position is opened

if(OrderType() == OP_BUY)

{



// check profit

if(Bid > (OrderStopLoss() + (sl * 2 + spread) * Point))

{

if(perceptron() < 0)

{ // reverse

ticket = OrderSend(Symbol(), OP_SELL, lots * 2, Bid, 3,

Ask + sl * Point, 0, "AI", MagicNumber, 0, Red);

Sleep(30000);

//----

if(ticket < 0)

prevtime = Time[1];

else

OrderCloseBy(ticket, prevticket, Blue);

}

else

{ // trailing stop

if(!OrderModify(OrderTicket(), OrderOpenPrice(), Bid - sl * Point,

0, 0, Blue))

{

Sleep(30000);

prevtime = Time[1];

}

}

}

// short position is opened

}

else

{

// check profit

if(Ask < (OrderStopLoss() - (sl * 2 + spread) * Point))

{

if(perceptron() > 0)

{ // reverse

ticket = OrderSend(Symbol(), OP_BUY, lots * 2, Ask, 3,

Bid - sl * Point, 0, "AI", MagicNumber, 0, Blue);

Sleep(30000);

//----

if(ticket < 0)

prevtime = Time[1];

else

OrderCloseBy(ticket, prevticket, Blue);

}

else

{ // trailing stop

if(!OrderModify(OrderTicket(), OrderOpenPrice(), Ask + sl * Point,

0, 0, Blue))

{

Sleep(30000);

prevtime = Time[1];

}

}

}

}

// exit



return(0);

}

}

// check for long or short position possibility

if(perceptron() > 0)

{ //long

ticket = OrderSend(Symbol(), OP_BUY, lots, Ask, 3, Bid - sl * Point, 0, "AI",

MagicNumber, 0, Blue);

//----

if(ticket < 0)

{

Sleep(30000);

prevtime = Time[1];

}

}

else

{ // short

ticket = OrderSend(Symbol(), OP_SELL, lots, Bid, 3, Ask + sl * Point, 0, "AI",

MagicNumber, 0, Red);

if(ticket < 0)

{

Sleep(30000);

prevtime = Time[1];

}

}

//--- exit

return(0);

}

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

//| The PERCEPTRON - a perceiving and recognizing function |

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

double perceptron()

{

double w1 = x1 - 100;

double w2 = x2 - 100;

double w3 = x3 - 100;

double w4 = x4 - 100;





return(w1 * a1 + w2 * a2 + w3 * a3 + w4 * a4);

}

//+------------------------------------------------------------------+

Appendix 2 The back tested report of the Expert Advisor. The fields are explained as follows:

• # — the sequence number of the trade operation;

• Time — time of the trade operation;

• Type — the type of operation performed (sell, buy, s/l, t/p, modify, close at stop, etc.);

• Order — the ticket number of a trading position or a pending order (not to be mixed up with the

trade operation number described above);

• Lots — the amount of lots that participated in the operation;



• Price — the price of the security at the operation performing;

• S/L — the Stop Loss order value. No entries in this field mean that no order was placed;

• T/P — the Take Profit order value. No entries in this field mean that no order was placed;

• Profit — profit/loss. The value of profit/loss will be entered only after positions have been closed;

• Balance — the value of balance. This value will be entered only after positions have been closed.

# Time Type Order Si11e Price S / L T / P Profit Balance

1 2008.01.02 09:01 buy 1 1.00 1.4654 1.4567 0.0000

2 2008.01.03 11:45 modify 1 1.00 1.4654 1.4655 0.0000

3 2008.01.09 16:43 s/l 1 1.00 1.4655 1.4655 0.0000 21.20 10021.20

4 2008.01.09 16:45 sell 2 1.00 1.4653 1.4740 0.0000

5 2008.01.10 15:41 s/l 2 1.00 1.4740 1.4740 0.0000 -904.20 9117.00

6 2008.01.10 15:45 buy 3 1.00 1.4739 1.4652 0.0000

7 2008.01.14 07:15 modify 3 1.00 1.4739 1.4770 0.0000

8 2008.01.16 11:50 s/l 3 1.00 1.4770 1.4770 0.0000 316.40 9433.40

9 2008.01.16 12:00 sell 4 1.00 1.4770 1.4857 0.0000

10 2008.01.16 17:15 modify 4 1.00 1.4770 1.4686 0.0000

11 2008.01.16 19:43 s/l 4 1.00 1.4686 1.4686 0.0000 840.00 10273.40

12 2008.01.16 19:45 sell 5 1.00 1.4676 1.4763 0.0000

13 2008.01.21 01:15 modify 5 1.00 1.4676 1.4651 0.0000

14 2008.01.21 12:00 modify 5 1.00 1.4676 1.4562 0.0000

15 2008.01.22 08:45 modify 5 1.00 1.4676 1.4472 0.0000

16 2008.01.22 10:08 s/l 5 1.00 1.4472 1.4472 0.0000 1971.60 12245.00

17 2008.01.22 10:15 buy 6 1.00 1.4461 1.4374 0.0000

18 2008.01.22 14:45 modify 6 1.00 1.4461 1.4476 0.0000

19 2008.01.22 23:30 modify 6 1.00 1.4461 1.4588 0.0000

20 2008.01.23 09:13 s/l 6 1.00 1.4588 1.4588 0.0000 1271.60 13516.60

21 2008.01.23 09:15 sell 7 1.00 1.4584 1.4671 0.0000

22 2008.01.24 12:22 s/l 7 1.00 1.4671 1.4671 0.0000 -904.20 12612.40

23 2008.01.24 12:30 buy 8 1.00 1.4671 1.4584 0.0000

24 2008.01.24 20:00 modify 8 1.00 1.4671 1.4681 0.0000

25 2008.01.25 17:49 s/l 8 1.00 1.4681 1.4681 0.0000 101.60 12714.00

26 2008.01.25 18:00 sell 9 1.00 1.4672 1.4759 0.0000

27 2008.01.28 15:17 s/l 9 1.00 1.4759 1.4759 0.0000 -881.40 11832.60

28 2008.01.28 15:30 sell 10 1.00 1.4756 1.4843 0.0000

29 2008.01.30 20:15 s/l 10 1.00 1.4843 1.4843 0.0000 -892.80 10939.80

30 2008.01.30 20:30 buy 11 1.00 1.4870 1.4783 0.0000

31 2008.02.05 09:27 s/l 11 1.00 1.4783 1.4783 0.0000 -860.40 10079.40

32 2008.02.05 09:30 sell 12 1.00 1.4782 1.4869 0.0000

33 2008.02.05 11:30 buy 13 2.00 1.4679 1.4592 0.0000

34 2008.02.05 11:30 close by 13 1.00 1.4782 1.4592 0.0000 1030.00 11109.40

35 2008.02.05 11:30 buy 14 1.00 1.4679 1.4592 0.0000

36 2008.02.05 11:30 close by 12 0.00 1.4782 1.4869 0.0000 0.00 11109.40

37 2008.02.06 09:23 s/l 14 1.00 1.4592 1.4592 0.0000 -868.40 10241.00

38 2008.02.06 09:30 sell 15 1.00 1.4613 1.4700 0.0000

39 2008.02.07 15:00 buy 16 2.00 1.4503 1.4416 0.0000

40 2008.02.07 15:00 close by 16 1.00 1.4613 1.4416 0.0000 1065.80 11306.80

41 2008.02.07 15:00 buy 17 1.00 1.4503 1.4416 0.0000

42 2008.02.07 15:00 close by 15 0.00 1.4613 1.4700 0.0000 0.00 11306.80

43 2008.02.12 15:30 modify 17 1.00 1.4503 1.4510 0.0000

44 2008.02.15 12:15 sell 18 2.00 1.4688 1.4775 0.0000

45 2008.02.15 12:15 close by 18 1.00 1.4503 1.4775 0.0000 1862.80 13169.60



46 2008.02.15 12:15 sell 19 1.00 1.4688 1.4775 0.0000

47 2008.02.15 12:15 close by 17 0.00 1.4503 1.4510 0.0000 0.00 13169.60

48 2008.02.21 16:46 s/l 19 1.00 1.4775 1.4775 0.0000 -938.40 12231.20

49 2008.02.21 17:00 buy 20 1.00 1.4790 1.4703 0.0000

50 2008.02.26 13:15 modify 20 1.00 1.4790 1.4792 0.0000

51 2008.02.26 21:00 sell 21 2.00 1.4965 1.5052 0.0000

52 2008.02.26 21:00 close by 21 1.00 1.4790 1.5052 0.0000 1754.80 13986.00

53 2008.02.26 21:00 sell 22 1.00 1.4965 1.5052 0.0000

54 2008.02.26 21:00 close by 20 0.00 1.4790 1.4792 0.0000 0.00 13986.00

55 2008.02.27 08:31 s/l 22 1.00 1.5052 1.5052 0.0000 -881.40 13104.60

56 2008.02.27 08:45 sell 23 1.00 1.5042 1.5129 0.0000

57 2008.02.27 17:20 s/l 23 1.00 1.5129 1.5129 0.0000 -870.00 12234.60

58 2008.02.27 17:30 sell 24 1.00 1.5121 1.5208 0.0000

59 2008.02.28 18:18 s/l 24 1.00 1.5208 1.5208 0.0000 -904.20 11330.40

60 2008.02.28 18:30 sell 25 1.00 1.5205 1.5292 0.0000

61 2008.03.05 17:18 s/l 25 1.00 1.5292 1.5292 0.0000 -915.60 10414.80

62 2008.03.05 17:30 buy 26 1.00 1.5280 1.5193 0.0000

63 2008.03.06 17:30 modify 26 1.00 1.5280 1.5281 0.0000

64 2008.03.11 11:45 sell 27 2.00 1.5479 1.5566 0.0000

65 2008.03.11 11:45 close by 27 1.00 1.5280 1.5566 0.0000 1999.60 12414.40

66 2008.03.11 11:45 sell 28 1.00 1.5479 1.5566 0.0000

67 2008.03.11 11:45 close by 26 0.00 1.5280 1.5281 0.0000 0.00 12414.40

68 2008.03.11 13:45 modify 28 1.00 1.5479 1.5471 0.0000

69 2008.03.11 16:00 buy 29 2.00 1.5285 1.5198 0.0000

70 2008.03.11 16:00 close by 29 1.00 1.5479 1.5198 0.0000 1940.00 14354.40

71 2008.03.11 16:00 buy 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5198 0.0000

72 2008.03.11 16:00 close by 28 0.00 1.5479 1.5471 0.0000 0.00 14354.40

73 2008.03.12 06:00 modify 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5292 0.0000

74 2008.03.12 11:30 modify 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5380 0.0000

75 2008.03.12 21:00 modify 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5471 0.0000

76 2008.03.14 18:45 modify 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5572 0.0000

77 2008.03.17 01:00 modify 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5665 0.0000

78 2008.03.17 03:30 modify 30 1.00 1.5285 1.5812 0.0000

79 2008.03.17 07:29 s/l 30 1.00 1.5812 1.5812 0.0000 5279.60 19634.00

80 2008.03.17 07:30 buy 31 1.00 1.5816 1.5729 0.0000

81 2008.03.17 11:08 s/l 31 1.00 1.5729 1.5729 0.0000 -870.00 18764.00

82 2008.03.17 11:15 sell 32 1.00 1.5743 1.5830 0.0000

83 2008.03.18 11:28 s/l 32 1.00 1.5830 1.5830 0.0000 -881.40 17882.60

84 2008.03.18 11:30 buy 33 1.00 1.5828 1.5741 0.0000

85 2008.03.18 19:22 s/l 33 1.00 1.5741 1.5741 0.0000 -870.00 17012.60

86 2008.03.18 19:30 sell 34 1.00 1.5762 1.5849 0.0000

87 2008.03.18 20:45 buy 35 2.00 1.5651 1.5564 0.0000

88 2008.03.18 20:45 close by 35 1.00 1.5762 1.5564 0.0000 1110.00 18122.60

89 2008.03.18 20:45 buy 36 1.00 1.5651 1.5564 0.0000

90 2008.03.18 20:45 close by 34 0.00 1.5762 1.5849 0.0000 0.00 18122.60

91 2008.03.19 10:00 modify 36 1.00 1.5651 1.5675 0.0000

92 2008.03.19 14:17 s/l 36 1.00 1.5675 1.5675 0.0000 241.60 18364.20

93 2008.03.19 14:30 sell 37 1.00 1.5685 1.5772 0.0000

94 2008.03.20 02:00 modify 37 1.00 1.5685 1.5671 0.0000

95 2008.03.20 10:45 buy 38 2.00 1.5489 1.5402 0.0000

96 2008.03.20 10:45 close by 38 1.00 1.5685 1.5402 0.0000 1925.80 20290.00

97 2008.03.20 10:45 buy 39 1.00 1.5489 1.5402 0.0000

98 2008.03.20 10:45 close by 37 0.00 1.5685 1.5671 0.0000 0.00 20290.00

99 2008.03.20 15:10 s/l 39 1.00 1.5402 1.5402 0.0000 -870.00 19420.00



100 2008.03.20 15:15 sell 40 1.00 1.5399 1.5486 0.0000

101 2008.03.25 03:21 s/l 40 1.00 1.5486 1.5486 0.0000 -904.20 18515.80

102 2008.03.25 03:30 buy 41 1.00 1.5510 1.5423 0.0000

103 2008.03.25 17:15 modify 41 1.00 1.5510 1.5514 0.0000

104 2008.03.26 10:30 modify 41 1.00 1.5510 1.5609 0.0000

105 2008.03.26 18:45 modify 41 1.00 1.5510 1.5720 0.0000

106 2008.04.01 08:20 s/l 41 1.00 1.5720 1.5720 0.0000 2111.20 20627.00

107 2008.04.01 08:30 buy 42 1.00 1.5691 1.5604 0.0000

108 2008.04.01 15:41 s/l 42 1.00 1.5604 1.5604 0.0000 -870.00 19757.00

109 2008.04.01 15:45 sell 43 1.00 1.5611 1.5698 0.0000

110 2008.04.02 21:38 s/l 43 1.00 1.5698 1.5698 0.0000 -881.40 18875.60

111 2008.04.02 21:45 buy 44 1.00 1.5685 1.5598 0.0000

112 2008.04.03 10:56 s/l 44 1.00 1.5598 1.5598 0.0000 -865.20 18010.40

113 2008.04.03 11:00 buy 45 1.00 1.5594 1.5507 0.0000

114 2008.04.03 18:30 sell 46 2.00 1.5680 1.5767 0.0000

115 2008.04.03 18:30 close by 46 1.00 1.5594 1.5767 0.0000 860.00 18870.40

116 2008.04.03 18:30 sell 47 1.00 1.5680 1.5767 0.0000

117 2008.04.03 18:30 close by 45 0.00 1.5594 1.5507 0.0000 0.00 18870.40

118 2008.04.04 14:34 s/l 47 1.00 1.5767 1.5767 0.0000 -881.40 17989.00

119 2008.04.04 14:45 buy 48 1.00 1.5697 1.5610 0.0000

120 2008.04.08 02:15 modify 48 1.00 1.5697 1.5698 0.0000

121 2008.04.08 14:06 s/l 48 1.00 1.5698 1.5698 0.0000 13.20 18002.20

122 2008.04.08 14:15 buy 49 1.00 1.5695 1.5608 0.0000

123 2008.04.09 17:30 modify 49 1.00 1.5695 1.5711 0.0000

124 2008.04.10 11:15 sell 50 2.00 1.5908 1.5995 0.0000

125 2008.04.10 11:15 close by 50 1.00 1.5695 1.5995 0.0000 2136.40 20138.60

126 2008.04.10 11:15 sell 51 1.00 1.5908 1.5995 0.0000

127 2008.04.10 11:15 close by 49 0.00 1.5695 1.5711 0.0000 0.00 20138.60

128 2008.04.10 15:45 buy 52 2.00 1.5822 1.5735 0.0000

129 2008.04.10 15:45 close by 52 1.00 1.5908 1.5735 0.0000 860.00 20998.60

130 2008.04.10 15:45 buy 53 1.00 1.5822 1.5735 0.0000

131 2008.04.10 15:45 close by 51 0.00 1.5908 1.5995 0.0000 0.00 20998.60

132 2008.04.10 17:52 s/l 53 1.00 1.5735 1.5735 0.0000 -870.00 20128.60

133 2008.04.10 18:00 buy 54 1.00 1.5745 1.5658 0.0000

134 2008.04.11 09:45 sell 55 2.00 1.5843 1.5930 0.0000

135 2008.04.11 09:45 close by 55 1.00 1.5745 1.5930 0.0000 981.60 21110.20

136 2008.04.11 09:45 sell 56 1.00 1.5843 1.5930 0.0000

137 2008.04.11 09:45 close by 54 0.00 1.5745 1.5658 0.0000 0.00 21110.20

138 2008.04.14 00:01 modify 56 1.00 1.5843 1.5791 0.0000

139 2008.04.14 09:55 s/l 56 1.00 1.5791 1.5791 0.0000 508.60 21618.80

140 2008.04.14 10:00 sell 57 1.00 1.5783 1.5870 0.0000

141 2008.04.14 13:34 s/l 57 1.00 1.5870 1.5870 0.0000 -870.00 20748.80

142 2008.04.14 13:45 sell 58 1.00 1.5866 1.5953 0.0000

143 2008.04.15 19:30 modify 58 1.00 1.5866 1.5856 0.0000

144 2008.04.16 09:39 s/l 58 1.00 1.5856 1.5856 0.0000 77.20 20826.00

145 2008.04.16 09:49 sell 59 1.00 1.5842 1.5929 0.0000

146 2008.04.16 11:36 s/l 59 1.00 1.5929 1.5929 0.0000 -870.00 19956.00

147 2008.04.16 11:45 buy 60 1.00 1.5937 1.5850 0.0000

148 2008.04.17 13:58 s/l 60 1.00 1.5850 1.5850 0.0000 -865.20 19090.80

149 2008.04.17 14:00 buy 61 1.00 1.5854 1.5767 0.0000

150 2008.04.18 10:00 sell 62 2.00 1.5950 1.6037 0.0000

151 2008.04.18 10:00 close by 62 1.00 1.5854 1.6037 0.0000 961.60 20052.40

152 2008.04.18 10:00 sell 63 1.00 1.5950 1.6037 0.0000



153 2008.04.18 10:00 close by 61 0.00 1.5854 1.5767 0.0000 0.00 20052.40

154 2008.04.18 12:15 buy 64 2.00 1.5862 1.5775 0.0000

155 2008.04.18 12:15 close by 64 1.00 1.5950 1.5775 0.0000 880.00 20932.40

156 2008.04.18 12:15 buy 65 1.00 1.5862 1.5775 0.0000

157 2008.04.18 12:15 close by 63 0.00 1.5950 1.6037 0.0000 0.00 20932.40

158 2008.04.18 13:58 s/l 65 1.00 1.5775 1.5775 0.0000 -870.00 20062.40

159 2008.04.18 14:00 sell 66 1.00 1.5780 1.5867 0.0000

160 2008.04.21 09:52 s/l 66 1.00 1.5867 1.5867 0.0000 -881.40 19181.00

161 2008.04.21 10:00 buy 67 1.00 1.5881 1.5794 0.0000

162 2008.04.22 16:30 modify 67 1.00 1.5881 1.5905 0.0000

163 2008.04.23 15:12 s/l 67 1.00 1.5905 1.5905 0.0000 243.20 19424.20

164 2008.04.23 15:15 buy 68 1.00 1.5905 1.5818 0.0000

165 2008.04.24 10:00 s/l 68 1.00 1.5818 1.5818 0.0000 -865.20 18559.00

166 2008.04.24 10:15 sell 69 1.00 1.5767 1.5854 0.0000

167 2008.04.24 17:15 modify 69 1.00 1.5767 1.5762 0.0000

168 2008.04.25 10:00 buy 70 2.00 1.5583 1.5496 0.0000

169 2008.04.25 10:00 close by 70 1.00 1.5767 1.5496 0.0000 1828.60 20387.60

170 2008.04.25 10:00 buy 71 1.00 1.5583 1.5496 0.0000

171 2008.04.25 10:00 close by 69 0.00 1.5767 1.5762 0.0000 0.00 20387.60

172 2008.04.28 08:15 modify 71 1.00 1.5583 1.5592 0.0000

173 2008.04.29 08:43 s/l 71 1.00 1.5592 1.5592 0.0000 93.20 20480.80

174 2008.04.29 08:45 buy 72 1.00 1.5596 1.5509 0.0000

175 2008.05.01 10:45 s/l 72 1.00 1.5509 1.5509 0.0000 -863.60 19617.20

176 2008.05.01 10:45 buy 73 1.00 1.5511 1.5424 0.0000

177 2008.05.02 14:30 s/l 73 1.00 1.5424 1.5424 0.0000 -868.40 18748.80

178 2008.05.02 14:45 sell 74 1.00 1.5402 1.5489 0.0000

179 2008.05.05 10:19 s/l 74 1.00 1.5489 1.5489 0.0000 -881.40 17867.40

180 2008.05.05 10:30 buy 75 1.00 1.5493 1.5406 0.0000

181 2008.05.06 16:15 modify 75 1.00 1.5493 1.5499 0.0000

182 2008.05.07 04:02 s/l 75 1.00 1.5499 1.5499 0.0000 63.20 17930.60

183 2008.05.07 04:15 sell 76 1.00 1.5491 1.5578 0.0000

184 2008.05.07 15:15 modify 76 1.00 1.5491 1.5483 0.0000

185 2008.05.08 04:00 modify 76 1.00 1.5491 1.5386 0.0000

186 2008.05.08 14:57 s/l 76 1.00 1.5386 1.5386 0.0000 1015.80 18946.40

187 2008.05.08 15:00 buy 77 1.00 1.5383 1.5296 0.0000

188 2008.05.09 09:45 modify 77 1.00 1.5383 1.5393 0.0000

189 2008.05.12 08:07 s/l 77 1.00 1.5393 1.5393 0.0000 103.20 19049.60

190 2008.05.12 08:15 sell 78 1.00 1.5381 1.5468 0.0000

191 2008.05.12 15:30 s/l 78 1.00 1.5468 1.5468 0.0000 -870.00 18179.60

192 2008.05.12 15:45 buy 79 1.00 1.5479 1.5392 0.0000

193 2008.05.12 19:30 modify 79 1.00 1.5479 1.5482 0.0000

194 2008.05.13 10:47 s/l 79 1.00 1.5482 1.5482 0.0000 31.60 18211.20

195 2008.05.13 11:00 sell 80 1.00 1.5481 1.5568 0.0000

196 2008.05.16 16:44 s/l 80 1.00 1.5568 1.5568 0.0000 -927.00 17284.20

197 2008.05.16 16:45 buy 81 1.00 1.5562 1.5475 0.0000

198 2008.05.20 12:15 modify 81 1.00 1.5562 1.5574 0.0000

199 2008.05.21 11:30 sell 82 2.00 1.5748 1.5835 0.0000

200 2008.05.21 11:30 close by 82 1.00 1.5562 1.5835 0.0000 1864.80 19149.00

201 2008.05.21 11:30 sell 83 1.00 1.5748 1.5835 0.0000

202 2008.05.21 11:30 close by 81 0.00 1.5562 1.5574 0.0000 0.00 19149.00

203 2008.05.28 13:30 modify 83 1.00 1.5748 1.5732 0.0000

204 2008.05.29 12:45 modify 83 1.00 1.5748 1.5639 0.0000

205 2008.06.03 15:30 modify 83 1.00 1.5748 1.5548 0.0000

206 2008.06.05 15:59 s/l 83 1.00 1.5548 1.5548 0.0000 1806.20 20955.20



207 2008.06.05 16:00 sell 84 1.00 1.5546 1.5633 0.0000

208 2008.06.06 14:30 s/l 84 1.00 1.5633 1.5633 0.0000 -881.40 20073.80

209 2008.06.06 14:45 buy 85 1.00 1.5665 1.5578 0.0000

210 2008.06.06 20:15 modify 85 1.00 1.5665 1.5672 0.0000

211 2008.06.09 16:00 s/l 85 1.00 1.5672 1.5672 0.0000 71.60 20145.40

212 2008.06.09 16:15 buy 86 1.00 1.5683 1.5596 0.0000

213 2008.06.10 02:21 s/l 86 1.00 1.5596 1.5596 0.0000 -868.40 19277.00

214 2008.06.10 02:30 sell 87 1.00 1.5577 1.5664 0.0000

215 2008.06.10 17:00 modify 87 1.00 1.5577 1.5567 0.0000

216 2008.06.11 17:30 s/l 87 1.00 1.5567 1.5567 0.0000 88.60 19365.60

217 2008.06.11 17:45 sell 88 1.00 1.5561 1.5648 0.0000

218 2008.06.12 07:15 modify 88 1.00 1.5561 1.5554 0.0000

219 2008.06.13 11:30 modify 88 1.00 1.5561 1.5459 0.0000

220 2008.06.16 12:41 s/l 88 1.00 1.5459 1.5459 0.0000 963.00 20328.60

221 2008.06.16 12:45 buy 89 1.00 1.5462 1.5375 0.0000

222 2008.06.19 02:15 sell 90 2.00 1.5564 1.5651 0.0000

223 2008.06.19 02:15 close by 90 1.00 1.5462 1.5651 0.0000 1028.00 21356.60

224 2008.06.19 02:15 sell 91 1.00 1.5564 1.5651 0.0000

225 2008.06.19 02:15 close by 89 0.00 1.5462 1.5375 0.0000 0.00 21356.60

226 2008.06.19 14:00 modify 91 1.00 1.5564 1.5562 0.0000

227 2008.06.20 09:56 s/l 91 1.00 1.5562 1.5562 0.0000 8.60 21365.20

228 2008.06.20 10:00 buy 92 1.00 1.5562 1.5475 0.0000

229 2008.06.23 14:46 s/l 92 1.00 1.5475 1.5475 0.0000 -868.40 20496.80

230 2008.06.23 15:00 sell 93 1.00 1.5487 1.5574 0.0000

231 2008.06.24 09:32 s/l 93 1.00 1.5574 1.5574 0.0000 -881.40 19615.40

232 2008.06.24 09:45 sell 94 1.00 1.5566 1.5653 0.0000

233 2008.06.25 20:28 s/l 94 1.00 1.5653 1.5653 0.0000 -881.40 18734.00

234 2008.06.25 20:30 buy 95 1.00 1.5648 1.5561 0.0000

235 2008.06.26 14:00 modify 95 1.00 1.5648 1.5651 0.0000

236 2008.06.30 10:45 sell 96 2.00 1.5832 1.5919 0.0000

237 2008.06.30 10:45 close by 96 1.00 1.5648 1.5919 0.0000 1848.00 20582.00

238 2008.06.30 10:45 sell 97 1.00 1.5832 1.5919 0.0000

239 2008.06.30 10:45 close by 95 0.00 1.5648 1.5651 0.0000 0.00 20582.00

240 2008.06.30 17:15 modify 97 1.00 1.5832 1.5828 0.0000

241 2008.07.01 18:24 s/l 97 1.00 1.5828 1.5828 0.0000 28.60 20610.60

242 2008.07.01 18:30 buy 98 1.00 1.5813 1.5726 0.0000

243 2008.07.03 16:22 s/l 98 1.00 1.5726 1.5726 0.0000 -863.60 19747.00

244 2008.07.03 16:30 buy 99 1.00 1.5728 1.5641 0.0000

245 2008.07.07 03:48 s/l 99 1.00 1.5641 1.5641 0.0000 -866.80 18880.20

246 2008.07.07 04:00 buy 100 1.00 1.5644 1.5557 0.0000

247 2008.07.07 19:15 modify 100 1.00 1.5644 1.5659 0.0000

248 2008.07.08 16:24 s/l 100 1.00 1.5659 1.5659 0.0000 151.60 19031.80

249 2008.07.08 16:30 sell 101 1.00 1.5672 1.5759 0.0000

250 2008.07.10 08:34 s/l 101 1.00 1.5759 1.5759 0.0000 -915.60 18116.20

251 2008.07.10 08:45 buy 102 1.00 1.5742 1.5655 0.0000

252 2008.07.11 14:15 modify 102 1.00 1.5742 1.5749 0.0000

253 2008.07.11 16:30 sell 103 2.00 1.5936 1.6023 0.0000

254 2008.07.11 16:30 close by 103 1.00 1.5742 1.6023 0.0000 1941.60 20057.80

255 2008.07.11 16:30 sell 104 1.00 1.5936 1.6023 0.0000

256 2008.07.11 16:30 close by 102 0.00 1.5742 1.5749 0.0000 0.00 20057.80

257 2008.07.14 10:15 modify 104 1.00 1.5936 1.5934 0.0000

258 2008.07.14 19:01 s/l 104 1.00 1.5934 1.5934 0.0000 8.60 20066.40

259 2008.07.14 19:15 sell 105 1.00 1.5927 1.6014 0.0000



260 2008.07.15 11:18 s/l 105 1.00 1.6014 1.6014 0.0000 -881.40 19185.00

261 2008.07.15 11:30 sell 106 1.00 1.6011 1.6098 0.0000

262 2008.07.15 17:30 modify 106 1.00 1.6011 1.6003 0.0000

263 2008.07.16 17:00 modify 106 1.00 1.6011 1.5906 0.0000

264 2008.07.21 10:33 s/l 106 1.00 1.5906 1.5906 0.0000 981.60 20166.60

265 2008.07.21 10:45 buy 107 1.00 1.5902 1.5815 0.0000

266 2008.07.22 17:14 s/l 107 1.00 1.5815 1.5815 0.0000 -868.40 19298.20

267 2008.07.22 17:15 buy 108 1.00 1.5822 1.5735 0.0000

268 2008.07.23 10:41 s/l 108 1.00 1.5735 1.5735 0.0000 -868.40 18429.80

269 2008.07.23 10:45 sell 109 1.00 1.5728 1.5815 0.0000

270 2008.07.24 19:45 buy 110 2.00 1.5639 1.5552 0.0000

271 2008.07.24 19:45 close by 110 1.00 1.5728 1.5552 0.0000 855.80 19285.60

272 2008.07.24 19:45 buy 111 1.00 1.5639 1.5552 0.0000

273 2008.07.24 19:45 close by 109 0.00 1.5728 1.5815 0.0000 0.00 19285.60

274 2008.07.25 08:30 modify 111 1.00 1.5639 1.5641 0.0000

275 2008.07.29 16:05 s/l 111 1.00 1.5641 1.5641 0.0000 24.80 19310.40

276 2008.07.29 16:15 sell 112 1.00 1.5613 1.5700 0.0000

277 2008.07.30 15:45 buy 113 2.00 1.5527 1.5440 0.0000

278 2008.07.30 15:45 close by 113 1.00 1.5613 1.5440 0.0000 848.60 20159.00

279 2008.07.30 15:45 buy 114 1.00 1.5527 1.5440 0.0000

280 2008.07.30 15:45 close by 112 0.00 1.5613 1.5700 0.0000 0.00 20159.00

281 2008.07.31 08:45 modify 114 1.00 1.5527 1.5533 0.0000

282 2008.08.01 14:33 s/l 114 1.00 1.5533 1.5533 0.0000 66.40 20225.40

283 2008.08.01 14:45 sell 115 1.00 1.5532 1.5619 0.0000

284 2008.08.04 16:15 s/l 115 1.00 1.5619 1.5619 0.0000 -881.40 19344.00

285 2008.08.04 16:30 buy 116 1.00 1.5621 1.5534 0.0000

286 2008.08.05 03:43 s/l 116 1.00 1.5534 1.5534 0.0000 -868.40 18475.60

287 2008.08.05 03:46 buy 117 1.00 1.5533 1.5446 0.0000

288 2008.08.05 20:13 s/l 117 1.00 1.5446 1.5446 0.0000 -870.00 17605.60

289 2008.08.05 20:15 buy 118 1.00 1.5482 1.5395 0.0000

290 2008.08.07 15:17 s/l 118 1.00 1.5395 1.5395 0.0000 -863.60 16742.00

291 2008.08.07 15:30 sell 119 1.00 1.5399 1.5486 0.0000

292 2008.08.08 02:15 modify 119 1.00 1.5399 1.5348 0.0000

293 2008.08.08 09:30 modify 119 1.00 1.5399 1.5238 0.0000

294 2008.08.08 14:45 modify 119 1.00 1.5399 1.5141 0.0000

295 2008.08.11 00:01 modify 119 1.00 1.5399 1.5031 0.0000

296 2008.08.11 09:52 s/l 119 1.00 1.5031 1.5031 0.0000 3657.20 20399.20

297 2008.08.11 10:00 buy 120 1.00 1.5035 1.4948 0.0000

298 2008.08.11 18:01 s/l 120 1.00 1.4948 1.4948 0.0000 -870.00 19529.20

299 2008.08.11 18:15 sell 121 1.00 1.4952 1.5039 0.0000

300 2008.08.12 07:45 modify 121 1.00 1.4952 1.4936 0.0000

301 2008.08.12 14:21 s/l 121 1.00 1.4936 1.4936 0.0000 148.60 19677.80

302 2008.08.12 14:30 buy 122 1.00 1.4912 1.4825 0.0000

303 2008.08.14 18:11 s/l 122 1.00 1.4825 1.4825 0.0000 -863.60 18814.20

304 2008.08.14 18:15 sell 123 1.00 1.4827 1.4914 0.0000

305 2008.08.15 09:30 buy 124 2.00 1.4732 1.4645 0.0000

306 2008.08.15 09:30 close by 124 1.00 1.4827 1.4645 0.0000 938.60 19752.80

307 2008.08.15 09:30 buy 125 1.00 1.4732 1.4645 0.0000

308 2008.08.15 09:30 close by 123 0.00 1.4827 1.4914 0.0000 0.00 19752.80

309 2008.08.18 23:59 close at

Stop 125 1.00 1.4678 1.4645 0.0000 -538.40 19214.40



HEALTHCARE DELIVERY IN THE STATE OF MARYLAND: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES, DIFFERENT AND BETTER OR DIFFERENT AND EQUAL

Godson Ezejiofor, DHA

Healthcare Consultant and

Adjunct Professor of Healthcare Administration and Finance

Strayer University- Washington D.C

Abstract The healthcare market place is unique and complex primarily because the insurance industry that administers consumers’ coverage and eligibility is regulated by individual state. Therefore the insurance industry and healthcare delivery system are shaped by the local market forces such as state government and consumers. Medicare is an exception to this rule because it is administered by the federal government. State control and regulation is made more noteworthy in Maryland. The state creates a different type of payment structure in inpatient delivery system. For over three decades, Maryland is the only state in the country with a single payer system. The states regulatory body known as Health Services Cost Review Commission (HSCRC) sets the rate for all public and private inpatient services. This single payer system is designed to cut costs, guarantee access, increase quality, stabilize the market place, and restore equitability and fairness. Maryland is the only state in the country with Medicare waiver. In the past three decades, the state stabilized some areas of healthcare delivery system, however, the overall result during this period is not different and not better than many other states in the country. Research shows that while improvements were made in some areas, other parts of the delivery system suffer. Therefore, the regulation and control may be different; the overall result is the same. Key Words : Maryland, Regulation and Control, HSCRC, Medicare, Cost, Access, Affordability, Quality, Stabilize, Fairness, Equity, Revenue, Healthcare marketplace, Admission Readmission Revenue, Evidence based, Total Patient Revenue

Introduction The delivery of healthcare in the United States of America (U.S.A) is both unique

and complex compared to other countries of the world. The uniqueness and complexity are as a result of lack of universal or national insurance programs of one payer system. Propositions for a single payer system financed through taxes, such as in Canada, Britain, and other western world have become an elusive reality. In the USA, healthcare is dominated by several moving levers. The industrial dynamics of change is in



constant competition for more access to a broader, healthier market, and population. Providers are competing to gain market share from those who have the ability to choose from many coverage menu, and payer-mix.

In a free market, competition is a healthy imperative, though healthcare marketplace is different. It has become a function of endless government regulations and control. Unlike other normal products, price, demand, and quantity are not the only determinant factors of supply. Other exogenous variables such as affordability, consumer payer mix, supply induced demand(sid) to mention but a few play significant roles. Hicks (2014) explains how the supply induced demand has undermined the inevitability of market forces and consumer choices.

In 2009, the USA healthcare spending was about 17% of gross domestic product (GDP) compared with other western world with about 12% of their GDP spent on similar or better healthcare provision. The high spending does not translate to increases in healthcare services and qualities but only a result of price inflation and unguarded profit maximization forces (Mahon & Weymouth, 2012). The dynamics of these variables are not easy to quantify and control. Consequently, some economists and policy makers feel the urgency of government intervention as the only solution to control the spiraling costs of care in all the states including Maryland. The passage of Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) by the Congress and the signature approval by President Obama in 2009 was a historical huge undertaking in the health care industry. Prior to this law, many states have been experimenting with different types of policy alternatives in order to cut cost, provide accessibility, affordability and quality.

As a result of the socio-demographic, economic, and political dynamics, some states embarked on creative and innovative approach of reforming and controlling the escalating cost of healthcare. The endemic turbulence and imperfections in the health care marketplace are some of the issues at the center of reform. Some state governments embarked on aggressive cost containment policies while some choose rationing and allocating healthcare services based on the societal worth of the citizens or the patients' productive years. For example, in Oregon state government has about 2000 procedures that are covered with Medicaid. The state rations and allocates procedure based on quality of life adjusted years (QUALYS). Transplants and many other expensive procedures are not based on need or ability to argument the payment, but are based on QUALYS. Young children less than 12 years old or senior citizens above 70 years receive less than favorable chances of receiving the needed procedures (Perry and Holze, 2011).

Unlike the state of Oregon, Maryland adopted a different regulatory approach to slow the costs of healthcare delivery. The state weighs heavily on cost containment of inpatient reimbursement services in addition to hospital based outpatient and emergency services (Murray, 2010). The state designed a creative policy initiative of slowing down financial outlay and stabilizing revenue allocation while maintaining quality outcomes. The state embarked on revenue reallocation of single payer system in which rates for hospitals reimbursement is set by the state. Statement of the Problem



As a result of escalating costs in healthcare delivery, the state of Maryland in 1971, commissioned an independent agency to set uniform rate of reimbursement to all public and private hospitals in Maryland. The independent agency is known as Health Services Cost Review Commission (HSCRC). The body sets hospital rates for all payers. In, 1974 a single payer system was adopted. This system addressed the problem of fairness, equity, accessibility and affordability (Murray, 2010). Unlike any other state in the USA, a single payer hospital reimbursement system became the only payment option (Rajkumar, et al., 2014). In 2009, a study published by Manandhar (2009) ranked the state as 17th in overall best health care systems in the USA. Cohen (n.d) explained that many healthcare economists lauded the financial predictability and stability of the system. However, the dynamics and evolving problems of overregulation and price fixing created monopolistic tendencies and lack of competition in the state. Prior to enactment of Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010, price fixing and price control in the free market were the only available policy. While this is antithesis to healthy economic competition, it also undermines the quality and revenue maximization of the healthcare providers. For example, since 1994, Maryland hospitals have been averaging profits between 3-5% while the national average at the same time and period is 5- 6%. Furthermore, Medicare's new comprehensive assessment of hospital readmissions shows that at least 20% of hospitals in Maryland and four other states have higher rates of patients returning than the national average (Rau, pg.1, 2014). The data also shows that Baltimore in Maryland has seven hospitals with large numbers of high readmission rate (Rau, pg. 2). As the concepts of costs minimization, stability, and control have become one of the enduring platforms of persistent and current healthcare reform, it is necessary to look into this method of payment to evaluate and analyze the costs, access, and quality. It is also necessary to analyze if the difference in delivery systems has made the state services better or the same. Research Objective

The purpose of this study is to assess and analyze the Maryland's single payer system especially as it affects, cost minimization, cost shifting, revenue maximization, fairness, accessibility, affordability, and quality. Maryland's single payer system has not been duplicated by any other state in the country. For many years, the rising costs and quality of health care have been the main focal point of discussions and policy differences of competing alternatives. Healthcare related issues and complexities such as payer mix, access, affordability, quality, cost allocation, and cost shifting have all dominated the nuances of the debate. Scott II, Solomon, and McGowan (2001) suggest that examination of resource allocation in the health-care industry is complicated because the free market competition, demographics characteristics, and other variables differ from those in a perfectly competitive market. These structures often times are complex and are in constant changing model. For example, healthcare payers such as commercial payers, self-insurers, managed care organizations, private payers, public payers such as Medicare and Medicaid, are constantly changing their payer-mix, reimbursement methods, coverage levels, and enrollment policies. These and others have left many analysts proposing many different types of resource re-allocation and cost cutting measures. Consequently, it has left researchers and analysts asking if Maryland's approach to rationing and cost/revenue allocation is better or different and



equal. This research intends to address that question. Research Design and Methodology.

In order to address this problem, a qualitative method of case study was employed. Concerted efforts were made to increase the reliability and validity of research, by collecting data from various sources such as Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission body, Ebsco library, Centre for Medicare/Medicaid Services and oral interview from Health Financial Management Association (HFMA) board member, Maryland chapter. Cross checking and corroborating these different data lend credence and reliability to the research outcomes. Research, Analysis, and Discussion Health Care Delivery in the State of Maryland

Every healthcare system must deal with the trade-off among issues of access, cost, and quality. Market driven changes have been transforming the financing and organization of healthcare around the USA. The state of Maryland is not an exception. Some consumers believe these changes would not correct the endemic deficiencies in the delivery system without active government intervention. Others think that excessive government interventions are the problem, not the solution. Mahon & Wymouth (2012) argue that the changes and out of control costs of health care delivery in the USA is driven by technology rather than excessive use of physicians and hospital services. In the healthcare industry, the pace of change, cost, quality and technology are accelerating alongside with transparency (Fifer, 2014). Cognizance of these factors, the state of Maryland through legislation created a body that would formulate different and hopefully better options delivering inpatient care. The body will formulate policies that enhances minimizing costs, reallocating revenue to the providers, maximizing technological efficiency, maintaining of financial stability and fairness while reducing market turbulence and imperfections. Formation of Health Services Cost Review Commission (HSCRC)

In 1971, the state of Maryland set up a review panel to assess and set public and private pay for all inpatient, outpatient and emergency room hospital-based costs (Murray, 2010). As an independent body, it was given broad powers over hospitals in Maryland despite the initial opposition from the Maryland Hospital Association (MHA). The agency is also required to slow the growth of hospital costs, stabilize the market, and improve hospital accessibility, affordability and fairness. In 1974, the body set up and imposed a single payer system for all hospitals. In 1977, a milestone was reached when it spread its tentacles, solidified and negotiated Medicare/Medicare waiver that mandated the public insurance into paying Maryland rate (Murray, 2010). The agency conducts regular audit and data on costs to allow her regulate prices and quality. HSCRC and the Market Imperfections



In Maryland as in many states in the USA, physicians and hospitals are known to have market power. They often collude to manipulate the market and product prices. Hicks (2014) states that this is mainly due to the sliding scales that allow them to charge different prices for the same service at the same facility. In the absence of accurate price and quality information, comes market imperfection also known as price discrimination.

Furthermore, the unpredictability of the incidence of cost shifting, the ever changing co- pays deductibles, co-insurance and the payment of premiums through payroll deductions have left patients without accurate information. It has also undermined an understanding of the true cost of healthcare services. As a result, it is believed consumers have excessive use of healthcare services. This unintended surplus of healthcare usage leads to increase in healthcare expenditures and market imperfections. In Maryland, the establishment of HSCRC has enabled price stabilization, slowed the costs, minimized costs shifting, reallocated costs and revenues between the provider and payers. As a result of HSCRC policies, equitability and fairness in overall healthcare delivery systems in Maryland are regulated and managed to more realistic evidence-based outcomes. HSCRC Regulations and the Effects on Costs, Access, and Quality

The trio of costs (affordability), access, and quality are the nuclei for healthcare measurement, evaluation, efficiency, and effectiveness. Consequently, policy makers are continuously fine tuning the tangibles and intangibles of healthcare delivery process which addresses these fundamentals. Such efforts have led to systemic regulatory policies which oftentimes result to unintended consequences. Some of these measures have directly or indirectly created the market imperfections on healthcare costs, access and quality. Even though, free market competition can be difficult to sustain in changing demographics like the USA, excessive regulations of one payer system as in Maryland suffocates the healthcare markets, stifles incentives to create and innovate new ways of services and technology. For example, since the inception of one payer system in Maryland, the state has lost through closings and bankruptcy a total of eight hospitals (Cohen, n.d) Costs:

Maryland is the only state in the USA that has single payer system. Unlike any other state in the country, costs and reimbursements are regulated by the state commission that has the legislative power to set hospital rates. There is a conflicting analysis showing that in Maryland, the state's single payer system has slowed the growth of inpatient hospitals. For example, Murray (2010) indicates that the growth is well below the national trend. Continuing, the author indicates that in 1976, the cost of admission in Maryland's hospital was 26% above the national average. but in 2007, the average cost in the state dropped to 2% which was below the national average. Colmers & Murray (2009) also state that from 1977-2008 the state hospitals have the lowest cumulative growth in cost per adjusted admission of any state in the country. This results in approximately $43billion in hospital savings. This data also shows that the state has experienced consistently lower mark up of charges over the cost than most states. The national average increased from 20% in 1980 to more than 200% by 2010. Maryland's markups over the cost within the same period are between 18 %-



22%. (Pg.3). During this period, per capita hospital expenditures dropped from 92% of the national average to 81% (Cohen, n.d. pg.7). Rajkumar, et al (2014) comment on the positive ideas of the state's single payer system especially the elimination of cost shifting among payers, equitable distribution of the uncompensated care from the uninsured in addition to medical education. Atkinson (2009) explains the positive outcomes of rate setting. The author states that Maryland is one of the four states with the lowest rates of hospital cost increases. Access

In healthcare, access means having a payment source that covers most or all of the types of medical services that a consumer will need or desire (Coddington, Fischer & Moore 2001, pg.5). In the state of Maryland, HSCRC'S guarantees consumers' access to inpatient treatment facility. The commission ensures that hospitals provide medical care and medical education programs to the indigent consumers. Incentives are created to reward hospitals without consumers' barriers to access.

Consumers' ability to pay fully is secondary to access and quality of care and there is no cost shifting as is the general practice in the industry. Uncompensated and uninsured care is regarded as public and state responsibility and must be equitably and fairly compensated. This equitable and fair distribution of financing and compensation of uninsured and the indigent consumers is what Cohen (n.d) regards as Maryland social insurance (pg.3). HSCRC treats healthcare delivery as a legal and universal right of every Maryland citizen. Hospitals are held liable for refusing access to consumers or for dumping. However, the citizen's right for healthcare is subject to debates. Many analysts are of the opinion that guaranteed access is more of a moral and ethical imperative rather than legal or constitutional right, and that lack of dumping is not a state regulatory mandate but that of the federal government. Quality

In healthcare, most people confuse quality of care with customer service. Although they are not the same, they form a cohesive assessment tool for evaluation. Quality of care measures tangibles and intangibles of clinical outcomes including readmission rate within 30-days of consumers discharge. In order to boost quality, HSCRC establishes a voluntary revenue-constraint arrangement known as Admission-Readmission Revenue (ARR) (Colmers & Murray, 2011). This policy is evidenced based and it is pay for performance. Reimbursements and costs are tied to positive clinical outcomes. Charges linked with subsequent 30-day readmissions are bundled in one payment (pg.2). Participation in this program is voluntary, but as a result of the quality based outcomes of the initiative, an overwhelming majority of the hospitals participate in the incentive program. HSCRC and Revenue Allocation/Allotment

The HSCRC develops a system of revenue allocation called Total Patient Revenue system (TPR). This system provides hospitals with a financial incentive to manage their resources efficiently and effectively (HSCRS, 2012, pg.1). Unlike the



Medicare reimbursement system, the procedure uses a departmental unit rate which is computed and derived from an approved uniform markup. Hospital fees are paid on an approved per case system. The revenue formula contains incentives for slowing down costs of care while increasing quality. An allowance for cost shifting is equitably built in to accommodate the uninsured, the costly procedures and hospitals serving in rural areas with sparse population.

TPR assures hospitals of stability and equity by guaranteeing minimum revenue receipts each year, irrespective of the number of patients treated. This is intended to provide incentives for length of stay reduction, minimization of unnecessary admissions and readmissions, and consistency in maintaining quality of care (pg.1). Atkinson (2009) unveils that the systems' experience and success in revenue formula and cost containment across the board affords the hospital the ability to earn reasonable profits while maintaining quality. Resources are allocated equitably and with flexibility. Costs minimization is used as an alternative to costs shifting. Consequently, cost management and utilization become tools and competitive vehicle for profits maximization (Murray, 2009). Research Findings

Research findings show that Maryland is the only state in the country with single payer system. The system has lasted for over three decades. Also, it is the only state in the nation with Medicare waiver. This means that Maryland has the power to negotiate reimbursements and other institutionalized services with Centers for Medicare/Medicaid Services (CMS) out of the conventional Medicare policies. Medicare reimburses Maryland at the rate of HSCRC rate. This rate is above the national reimbursement rate of any other state. Research findings from the cases show that the state's price stability, fairness, affordability, accessibility and cost control measures are Medicare driven. In essence, the highly orchestrated gains in the states healthcare delivery system is not necessarily a function of her regulatory outcomes, but a partial function of the Medicare enabling hands. The delivery system is partially funded by Medicare. For example, Scherz (2011, pg. 2) comments that Maryland has more admissions in its Medicare hospitals at a rate higher than Medicare pays in other states. The national admission average is 21.55% while in Maryland, the rate is 22.4%; the national reimbursement amount is $12,811 while in Maryland it is $19,737 when adjusted for illness and demographics (pg.2). Maryland's control affects only inpatient care and some other outpatient hospital care such as emergency. The inpatient services account for over 44% of Medicare costs while the national average is 33%. This suggests a procedural shift of treatment. It also suggests that the mode of treatment is revenue driven and not based on best practice. Scherz (2011) comments that as a result of mode of treatment shifting, Medicare paid $285million extra to Maryland hospitals in 2009.

Moreover, since these regulatory policies, there have been seven hospital closings and one other hospital that went through bankruptcy procedure (Cohen, n.d). If this policy is different and better than others, why do we have closings and bankruptcy that are consistent with the national average? Continuing, research findings show that there are 364 hospitals in the USA with high rates of overall readmission. Out of this number, seven are in Baltimore city in Maryland. Rau (2014) list some of the hospitals



which include The University of Maryland Medical Center and Med star Good Samaritan Hospital to mention but few. Findings also show that in spite of Maryland's different inpatient healthcare delivery policies, quality of treatment is still not better. Medicare's new readmission list shows at least 20% of hospitals in the USA have higher than average rates of readmission. Maryland ranks second on the list behind only Illinois (Rau, 2014) Conclusion and Recommendation

This research/case study shows that healthcare leaders continue to assume erroneously or in erroneously that excessive regulations and control could yield the best practice and evidence based healthcare delivery system. They assume it would stabilize the industry. For over three decades of this regulation and regulatory body (HSCRC), the data and evidence based outcomes negate the commentary. Even though, there are many positive outcomes emanating from HSCRC regulatory power such as access, stability of revenue/finances, fairness and minimization of costs among others, the outcome is consistent with the rest of states in the USA. For example, the impatient readmission rate is among the worst in the country, the state has seven hospitals in this category. The state is also the second worst among hospitals with over 20% readmission rate (Rao, 2014). The author concludes by stating that Maryland standardized, and risk-adjusted figures are overstated (pg.3).

Maryland's inpatient rate of 44% to 33% national average is too high. The state stabilizes its revenue and cost through Medicare waiver. The high rate of inpatient care means an increase in reimbursement rate from Medicare. The state has inadvertently neglected the preventive care while creating incentives to unnecessary inpatient .procedures that is not in conformity with best practices. Maryland Governor, O,Malley (2014, pg 2) states “ Maryland’s healthcare reliance on paying for every hospital admission and procedure, has unintentionally discourages preventive care, undermines coordination of care and creates perverse incentive for costly often unnecessary procedures”. In the absence of Medicare-driven revenue and treatment shifting mode of healthcare delivery, this different policy is not better or worse rather it is different and equal.

Finally, in order to maintain a seamless healthcare delivery system with evidence based outcomes, policymakers should be cognizant that excessive regulation has the potential of changing other unforeseen vital elements of the problems we intend to solve. Solving a problem by creating other problems is counterproductive. While managing costs and costs shifting, the HSCRC or policy makers ignored the shifting mode of treatment which increased the rate of inpatient days thereby having Medicare almost subsidizing part of her inpatient delivery system. Due to a high rate of inpatient admission in Maryland, it is suggested that it causes high rate of readmission days. In concluding this paper, we state that due to many controlled and uncontrolled variable factors in hospital readmission rate, it is necessary to study further the correlation between the high rates of inpatient days in Maryland and the high readmission rates. References Atkinson, G. (2009). State hospital rate-setting revisited. Medline journal. Retrieved on February 20, 2014 from www. Unboundmedicine.com/evidence/ub/citation



Buntin, J. (2011). Health and human services: Maryland's all payer answer. Governing the States and localities. Retrieved February 18, 2014 from www.governing. com/topics/ Health- human services/maryland-all payer hospital rate setting-system.html

Coddington, D., Fischer, E., Moore, K., (2001). Strategies for the new health care marketplace: Managing the convergence of consumerism and technology. Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Imprints

Cohen, H. (n.d). Maryland's all-Payer Hospital Payment System, Executive Summary. Retrieved on February 2, 2014 from http://www.hscrc.state.md.us/documents/pdf Colmers, J. and Murray, R. (2011). Cost containment and quality improvement: Maryland Hospital rate setting system. Retrieved on February 20, 2014 from www. Statepolicyoptions.nga.org/sites/default Fifer (2014). Healthcare Financial Management Association. Retrieved on March 1, 2014 From www.hfma.org. Hicks, L. (2014). Economics of health and medical care (6th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC HSCRC (2012). The Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission. Retrieved on February 15, 2014 from www.hscrc.state.md.us HSCRC Initiatives (2012). Mahon, M., Wymouth, J., (2012). US spends far more for health care than 12 industrialized nations, but quality varies. The Commonwealth fund. Retrieved on September 22, 2013 from www.commonwealthfund.org/ Manandhar, S. (2009).Maryland Healthcare delivery remains steady, study says. Retrieved on February 10, 2014 from www.somd.com/nes /headline /2009 /10607/shtml McGowan, Jr. John E, Scott II, R. Douglas, Solomon, Steven L. (2001). Applying Economic Principles to HealthCare. Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol. 7 Murray, R. (2009). Setting hospital rates to control costs and boost quality : The Maryland experience. Retrieved on February 21, 2014 from www. Content .health affairs. Org/content. O'Malley, M. (2014). Maryland health care delivery will prioritize wellness. Retrieved February 14, 2014 from www. Baltimoresun.com/2014-01-11/news Rajkumar, R., Patel,A.,Murphy, K., Colmers,John.,Blum, J.Conway, P., Sharfstein, J. (2014). Maryland all payer approach to delivery system reform. The New England journal of medicine, 370,493-495. Retrieved on 02/22/2014 from ww.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056 /NEJMp1314868 Rau, Jordan.(2014). KHN : Kaiser health news. 364 hospitals have high rates of overall

readmissions, new Medicare data show. Retrieved on February 20, 2014 from www. Kaiserhealthnews.org/index.php/2014.

Scherz, J (2011). Managing healthcare costs : Maryland inpatient price controls-cost savings or cost shifting ?. Retrieved on February 23 from www. managinghealth carecosts.com

http://www.governing/

http://www.hfma.org/

http://www.commonwealthfund.org/

http://www.somd.com/nes%20/headline%20/2009



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ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOR IN STOCHASTIC FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF NEUTRAL TYPE

ZEPHYRINUS C. OKONKWO DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

ALBANY STATE UNIVERSITY ALBANY, GA 31705, USA ABSTRACT:

1. INTRODUCTION

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Appleby, J. (2012). Health care costs rose faster than inflation despite weak economy: Prices drive health spending

growth. Kaiser health journal. Retrieved February 3, 2012 from www.Lifeinc.today.com_news

Baker, D. (2010). A prescription with benefits: Globalizing health care. Counterpunch. Retrieved October 19, 2010

from www.counterpunch.org/baker



Bernal, R. (2007). The globalization of the health care industry: Opportunities for the Caribbean. Cepal Review,

Retrieved November 28, 2010 from www. netamericas.net


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