international journal of scientific & technical...

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT(An International Research Journal) Abbreviation: IJSTD

ISSN: 2348-4047Volume 1 - May, 2015

U/S 2(f) of the UGC Act 1956 & Member, Association of Indian Universities (AIU)

International Journal of Scientific andTechnical Development

(An International Research Journal) Abbreviation: IJSTD

ISSN 2348-4047 (Print)

Volume 1 May 2015

All rights reserved © 2015 Desh Bhagat University

No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means withoutthe permission in writing from the copyright owner.

An official publication of

University School of Engineering

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Fatehgarh Sahib-147301

Punjab, INDIA

Phone : 01765-520531 www.dbuijstd.org E-mail: [email protected]

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC ANDTECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT

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Editor in ChiefIJSTD,

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International Journal of Scientific and Technical Development

Volume 1 MAY 2015

CONTENTS

Research Papers

Effect of rubbing and cell thickness on the Electro-optic properties of room temperatureferroelectric liquid crystal mixture ............1

Neeraj, Pankaj Kumar , K. K. Raina

Environmental Assessment of Hydrological and Microbiological Characteristics ofMunicipal Wastewater at Sewage Treatment Plant, Lakkar Ghat, Rishikesh(Uttarakhand) India .........12Sachin Srivastava, Dhiraj Sehgal, Piyusha SharmaEffect of Storage and Packaging Material on Quality Parameters of Garlic Flakes ...........21Jaspreet Singh Grewal, Mohammed Shafiq Alam, Shweta Goyal

Osmotic dehydration of Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) Cubes ...........30Sangeeta, Maya Rathod, Bahadur Singh Hathan

Review Article

A survey of bioresources based Industry of Punjab ..........40Neeelima Jerath, Gurharminder Singh, Dhiraj Kumar SehgalCournot's Model of Oligopoly- A Brief introduction ..........47Bhupinder Kaur, Amanpreet Singh, Randev SandhuMedicinal Plants With Special Focus On Adulterants And Substitutes ..........52

Kundailia Neetika, Saroch Vikas, Johar Smita

TPM- A review ..........64Gurpreet Singh, Ravinder Singh, Jagdeep Singh

Structural Genomics : From Genome mapping to Genome annotation ..........73Gaurav Aggarwal

Heavy Metal Stress and Phytoremediation ..........92 Harvinder Kaur Sidhu, Kirandeep Kaur

Obesity in Menopausal Women: A New Nutritional Emergency ..........98Harmanjot Kaur, Geetakshi Grover, Roopjot Kochar

Magnetic abrasive finishing: A Review of Literature ..........106Ravinder Singh, Gurpreet Singh, Harinder Singh, Sehijpal Singh

Conventional And Smart Teaching Engineering Methods ...........112Gurinder Kaur Sodhi, Kamalkant Sharma, Mandeep Singh, Jaspreet Singh

Research News

Gentle Rehabilitation of the Building ..........116Dr. (Er.) Aman Jain

Effect of rubbing and cell thickness on the Electro-optic properties of room temperatureferroelectric liquid crystal mixture

* 1 2 3Neeraj , Pankaj Kumar , K. K. Raina1University School of Engineering, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh-147301, India

2Department of Applied Science, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Patiala-140401, India3 DIT University, , IndiaDehradun, Uttarakhand- 248009

*Email addresses :[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Rubbed polyimide films have been widely used as liquid crystal alignment films for liquidcrystal displays (LCDs) as proper alignment reduces the defects and favor the enhancement ofelectro-optic properties of ferroelectric liquid crystals. We investigated the effect of rubbing andcell thickness on the physical properties of a room temperature ferroelectric liquid crystal (FLC)mixture ZLI-3651 by performing the electro optic and dielectric studies. The cells thicknesses of5µm with parallel rubbing and 10 µm with both parallel and anti parallel rubbing were used inthe experiment We found that parallel rubbed 5um cell shows higher polarization value (Ps

2 2~34.21 nC/cm ) than the parallel rubbed 10um cell (Ps ~22.15 nC/cm ) whereas without rubbing

210 um thickness cell showed the value of Ps ~18.9 nC/cm .

INTRODUCTION

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are widely

used in displays for computers, television

sets, calculators, cameras and other such

devices. Here pictures are displayed by

controlling light which is done by tuning the

molecular orientation of the liquid crystals

using applied voltage. Initial orientations of

liquid crystals (orientation when no voltage

is applied) are controlled by polymer films

ca l l ed l iqu id c rys ta l a l ignment f i lms .

Rubbed polyimide films are widely used for

this purpose. The discovery of ferroelectric

liquid crystals (FLCs) by Meyer (1975) and

detailed study by Clark (1981) broadens the

research area of liquid crystals because of

the tremendous applications in fast electro-

optic devices [Meyer et al. 1975; Clark and

Largewall 19811-2]. However, formation of

zigzag lines in FLCs results in their poor

electro-optic performance and hence is an

obstacle for their use in display applications.

These zigzag lines are optical appearance of

defects within domain walls that separate the

chevrons of opposite bending directions. By

u s i n g p r o p e r a l i g n m e n t t e c h n i q u e a n d

applying a low frequency bias field, these

z i g z a g d e f e c t s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d o r

eliminated which definitely influence the

elec t ro opt ic proper t ies of FLCs. Thus

alignment of liquid crystal director plays an

important role in the function of liquid

crystal displays. In the last years, a number

of procedures such as Langmuir Blodgett

films, lithography micro patterned polymers,

1

January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015

January to May,2015

2

nano patterned surfaces using an atomic

fo rce mic roscope o r i on beam e t ch ing

surfaces, SiOx films, mechanically rubbed

polymer layers and photo a l igned l ight

sensitive polymers etc have been employed

to align the surfaces of conducting glass

substrates. We used the easiest and common

mechanical rubbing technique (Williams and

Davis 1986; Frunza et al. 2005; Yang et al.

2007; Stephanie et al. 2008) of polymer

layers in our s tudies [3-6] . I t produces

grooves on polyimide surface and breaks the

original uniformity in surface topography of

polyimide thin film and cause a preferential

d i r e c t i o n w h i c h i s p a r a l l e l t o r u b b i n g

direction on the surface. The change in

s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y c h a n g e s t h e o t h e r

chemicophysical properties at the polymer surface.

We h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e e l e c t r o - o p t i c

p r o p e r t i e s o f a r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e

ferroelectric liquid crystal by constructing

10 µm thickness cells with parallel and anti

parallel alignment. In parallel rubbed FLC

c e l l s b o t h t h e r u b b i n g d i r e c t i o n s o f

alignment films on two substrates are same

whereas in an t i pa ra l l e l rubbed ce l l s ,

rubbing directions of alignment films are

opposi te . Also we have used a planer

aligned parallel rubbing 5 µm thickness cell

t o s h o w t h a t h o w c e l l t h i c k n e s s

i n f l u e n c e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f F L C s .

T h e e l e c t r o o p t i c s t u d i e s p r o v i d e

information of important physical properties

o f f e r r o e l e c t r i c l i q u i d c r y s t a l s l i k e

spontaneous polarization, response time and

rotational viscosity etc. which decided the

use of these materials in various display

devices. Different research groups have used

d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s t o m e a s u r e t h e s e

properties like pyro-electric method, Sawyer

To w e r m e t h o d , d i e l e c t r i c m e t h o d a n d

c u r r e n t r e v e r s a l m e t h o d . We m a d e

measurements of dynamics of helix winding

and unwinding by most widely used current

reversal technique.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present s tudy we have used the

mechanical rubbed polymer technique to

align the surfaces. A uniform coating of

polyimide (nylon/ m-cresol/ methanol) was

done using spin coating unit at a speed of

1400 rotations per minute on the ITO coated

glass substrates. Such coated substrates wereo

baked in the oven at 130 C for one hour.

Then rubbing was done in one direction

using a nylon cloth (Raina et al . 1998;

Baawa et al . 1987) on these polyamide

coated substrates [7-8]. The parallel rubbing

c e l l w a s c o n s t r u c t e d b y p u t t i n g t w o

subs t ra tes toge ther in such a way tha t

rubbing directions on each polymer surface

orient in the same direction. However anti

parallel rubbing cells were constructed by

putting these polymer surfaces orienting in

the opposite direction. The cell gap was

considered 10µm. A parallel aligned cell of

5 µm thickness was also prepared. A room

temperature short pitch ferroelectric liquid

crystal mixture ZLI-3651 FLC was filled

using capil lary action in two polyimide

r u b b e d I TO c o a t e d g l a s s p l a t e s a t i t s

isotropic temperature. The alignment and textures of the FLC material were studied by

oslow cooling at a rate of 0.1 C/min. in the

presence of an electric field at 50Hz using

t h e r m a l o p t i c a l p o l a r i z i n g m i c r o s c o p e

(OLYMPUS model BX-51P) interfaced to

IJSTD vol. 1: 2015

3

tempera ture cont ro l ler model LINKAM-

T P 9 4 a n d T H M S 6 0 0 c o u p l e d t o h o to

s t a g e a t a n a c c u r a c y o f ± 0 . 1 C .

The triangular and square wave pulses (Ffig.

3) were applied to the cells through function

generator. The frequency of the external

voltage must be lower than the inverse of the

relaxation time for the director depending on

sample thickness, defects, anchoring energy

e t c . I n p o l a r i z a t i o n c u r r e n t r e v e r s a l

technique (Kundu et al. 2003), voltage is

h igh enough to unwind comple te ly the

helical structure of FLC [9]. The voltage and

current pulses were obtained on a Digital

S t o r a g e O s c i l l o s c o p e ( T E K T R O N I X

TDS210 having 10 MHz bandwidth) across

1M standard resistor. For data acquisition

t h e w h o l e s e t u p w a s i n t e r f a c e d w i t h

computer and analysis was done using Wave

Star software.

Fe r roe l ec t r i c l i qu id c rys t a l s a r e ch i r a l

smectic C phases where the director of each

planer layer is tilted from the layer normal z

by a fixed angle, called tilt angle θ as shown

in fig.1. The projection of the director in the

smectic plane and x-axis give the azimuthal

a n g l e . W h e n t h e m o l e c u l e i s c h i r a l ,

successive smectic C layers show a gradual

change in the direction of tilt , such that the

director processes about the z-axis from

layer to layer, always lying on the surface of

a hypothetical cone of angle 2θ. Chirality

causes helical structure in the chiral smectic

C meso phase with pitch being the distance

along the z-axis and spontaneous molecular

polarization vector, which is perpendicular

to the molecule and contained in the layer

plane. Thus all possible directions for the

v e c t o r a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e o f

intersection of cone with the plane.

Theoretical considerations

y

?

φ

x

P: Spontaneous

Polarization

Molecule

z: Layer normal

c-

Director

Fig.1 Projection of molecule in SmC* phase


4

Polarization switching measurements

The polarization study of SmC* phase is based

on the equation 1و

2( ) ( )

S

dK P E t S in

d t Z

Where φ, and K are the azimuthal angle,

the rotational viscosity and mean elastic

constant respect ively. P and E are theS

magnitude of spontaneous polarization of

SmC* phase and amp l i t ude o f app l i ed

electric field. Switching time between twot

stable states of spontaneous polarization is

given by the solution of this equation in

which polar iza t ion swi tch ing impar t s a

current peak in the overall current response

and is a direct manifestation of spontaneous

polar iza t ion and response t ime. On the

application of the symmetric triangular or

squa re wave f i e ld (Ahu ja e t a l . 2000 ;

Sumana and Raina 2005), the dipoles get

reoriented between two stable polarization

states i .e. UP and DOWN [10, 11] in the

SmC* and total current response across the

standard resister (R) is given by

I(t) = I + I + I = C R P

dt

dPa

dt

tdVC

R

tV ss

)()(

(2)

Where I I and I are capacitive term, I thec , R P c

ionic conduct ion term and polar izat ion

current term in the form of polarizing hump,

r e s p e c t i v e l y . C = i s t h e c e l l

capacity, R, d , and a are the resistance,s s

thickness and area of the cell respectively.V

(t) is the voltage across the cell. The area

under the polarization hump directly gives

the measure of the spontaneous polarization

in the sample on the application of field. If

A is the area of the sample and area underS

the curve (V × t) is A (V × t) then

∏

sa

d

a.

S

SRA

tVAP

(3)

Ic

Ip

IR

I

V

Ic

Ip

IR

I

V

i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

(a) (b)

Fig.2 Schematic representation of responses for (a) triangular and (b) square waveforms


5

The Fig.3 (a, b) shows the schematic representation of these responses for square and triangular

waveforms. The behavior of polarization reversal current shows that the polarization peak

appears far away from the time scale from square pulse edge of the applied wave. The delay in

t i m e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e

response time of switching is written as , where η, P and E are the torsional viscosity,

polarization and applied electric field respectively.EP

R.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

FLC morphology

Th e o p t i c a l t ex tu r e s o f F LC ZLI - 3 6 5 1

sandwiched between various cells have been

investigated under crossed polarizers from

its isotropic state to room temperature at theo

rate of 0.1 C/min. Since the helical pitch

(1.5μm) is smaller than the thickness of the

s a m p l e c e l l a s h o r t p i t c h g e o m e t r y i s

observed. In short pitch FLC cells, the pitch

of the liquid crystal director is less than the

c e l l g a p . M o r e o v e r , h e r e t h e s u r f a c e

anchoring is kept weak so that the helix is

retained within cel l boundaries and the

bookshe l f s t ruc ture i s genera ted where

smectic planes are oriented perpendicular to

glass plates. The transition temperature of

the sample was measured using thermal

optical polarization microscopy and further

c o n f i r m e d b y d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a n n i n g

calorimeter (DSC L63, LINSEIS). Fig.4

shows the DSC graph for ZLI 3651 FLC

material. The phase sequence of the material

can be obta ined by ident i fy ing var ious

phases of LCs as shown below:

60oC 75oC 86oC

SmC* SmA Cholesteric Isotropic

Fig. 3 DSC graph of the phase sequence for ZLI 3651 sample


6

a 85oC c 83

oC

d 75oC e 65oC f 60

oC

g 55

oC h 40oC i 30oC

87oC

Fig. 4 (a) Microscopic textures of ZLI 3651 obtained during cooling below isotropic temperature in 5 µm thickness cell shows (a) Isotropic phase (b) & (c) nucleation growth (d) C h o l e s t e r i c p h a s e ( e ) h a i r p i n d e f e c t s ( f ) S m A p h a s e ( g ) S m C * p h a s e ( h ) f o r m a t i o n o f d o m a i n s a n d ( i ) m i c r o s c o p i c t e x t u r e a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e .

On heating LC material to its isotropic

temperature, it was found that isotropic

op h a s e a p p e a r e d d a r k a b o v e 8 6 C . O n

cooling further cholesteric phase appeared at

o o86 C. Then appeared SmA phase at 75 C

a n d S m C * p h a s e w a s o b s e r v e d a t a

otemperature 60 C. The various microscopic

textures obtained at a magnification of 10X

a r e s h o w n i n F f i g . 4 a n d F f i g . 5 .

Fig. 4(a) shows the microscopic textures

appeared dark of an isotropic phase above

t h e t r a n s i t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e i n a 5 µ m

othickness cell . Nucleation started at 86 C

and i t grows as the temperature is further

decreased as shown in f ig.4 (b) and fig.4©

respectively. Fig 4(d) shows the cholesteric

phase obtained on further cooling. Hair pin

defects were observed as shown in f ig. 4(e)

in SmA phase. Fig. 4(f) show SmC* phase.

A domain formation was observed in f ig.

4(h). Fig. 4(i) shows micro texture of SmC*

ophase at 30 C. The various LC phases are


7

also observed in 10 µm thickness cell fromits isotropic temperature in cooling as shown

in f ig . 5 , which are more c lear ly v is ib le ascompared to 5 µm cel l .

a 85oC b 83oC c 79oC

d 66oC e 55

oC f 30

oC

Fig.5 Micrographs of FLC in 10 µm cell with anti paral lel rubbing at different temperature showing (a) Formation of nucleat ion (b) nematic phase (c) cholesteric phase (d) Sm A phase (e) focal conic texture (f) SmC* phase

Measurement of switching properties

(a) Spontaneous polarization PS

A triangular waveform of frequency 50 Hz

at different voltages (20V, 25V & 30V) was

applied to the sample. The external electric

f i e ld o r i en t s and r eo r i en t s d ipo le s and

imparts a charge impulse contributing to the

polarizing reversal peak. The oscillograph

traces of triangular wave output for 5 um

cell is shown in the Fig.6. The hump in the

output curve appears due to helix winding

and unwinding near the threshold point .

Since a short pitch mode is present in the

FLC cell , thus helix is present in the bulk

sample and on applying the electric field,

deformation of the helix results and at a

critical value of field, the unwinding of thefield takes place. This critical field (Bersneve t a l . 1989) to unwind the helix structure is [12],

S

oC

P

kqE

16

22 (4)

where k is constant and q is the hel ix pi tch. o

By changing the sign of voltage, Ps s tate

changes between two states namely UP and

DOWN. This dipole orientat ion in result

p r o d u c e s a h u m p w h i c h d i r e c t l y i s a

m e a s u r e o f t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n .

Oscil lograph traces in f ig.6 shows that area

under the polarizat ion peak decreases with

increasing temperature. The two peaks seen

oin 5 um cell at 50 C are due to bulk


8

switching (BS) and surface switching (SS)

phenomenon which indicates that ini t ia l ly

bulk and then surface switching takes place

due to elast ic coupling. The s ingle peak at

o3 0 C i s d u e t o h e l i x u n w i n d i n g w h i c h

c o r r e s p o n d s t o r e o r i e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n U P

a n d D O W N p o l a r i z a t i o n s t a t e s .

(c) (d)

BS

SS

o oFig. 6 Variation of Spontaneous polarization P at different temperatures (a) 30 C (b) 40 CS

o o (c) 45 C (d) 50 C at 30V in 5um thickness cell

Oscillograph traces in fig.6 shows that area

under the polarization peak decreases with

increasing temperature. The two peaks seen

oi n 5 u m c e l l a t 5 0 C a r e d u e t o b u l k

switching (BS) and surface switching (SS)

phenomenon which indicates that initially

bulk and then surface switching takes place

due to elastic coupling. The single peak at

o30 C i s due to he l ix unwind ing wh ich

c o r r e s p o n d s t o r e o r i e n t a t i o n b e t w e e n

U P a n d D O W N p o l a r i z a t i o n s t a t e s .

The variation of spontaneous polarization Ps

for various sample cells with temperature is

shown in the fig.7 (a-d). We observed that

the value of Ps decreases with increase in

t e m p e r a t u r e d u e t o t h e w e a k P - E

(polarization-electric field) coupling and P-

Ө (polarization-tilt angle) coupling in the FLC.

A comparison of spontaneous polarization

measu remen t s shows tha t FLC mix tu re

para l l e l rubbed 5um ce l l shows h igher

polarization value than the parallel rubbed

10um cell. The 5 um thickness cell posses

2Ps ~34.21 nC/cm at a constant applied

v o l t a g e 3 0 V a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a s

compared to 10 um thickness cell where Ps

2~22.15 nC/cm . However 10 um thickness

cell with anti parallel rubbing has Ps ~ 21.98

2 nC/cm whereas without rubbing 10 um


9

thickness cell showed the value of Ps ~18.92nC/cm . Since Ps is an alignment dependent

property, the higher value of Ps in the

mechanically rubbed cells is due to the

alignment induced by the rubbing the glass

substrates. Thus mechanical rubbing reduces

the zigzag defects by inducing the alignment

of LCs and hence enhance the value of Ps.

Also the typical influence of bias voltage on

the different sample cells is shown in fig.8.

It was found that from the observations, the

Ps increases sharply with increase in bias

voltage at a particular temperature.

30 35 40 45 50 55

10

15

20

25

30

35 5m Parallel Rubbing(a)

P(n

C/c

m2)

Temperature (0C)

20V 25V

30V

30 35 40 45 50 55

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

(b) 10m Parallel Rubbing

P(n

C/c

m2)

Temperature (0C)

20 V 25 V

30 V

30 35 40 45 50 55

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

(c) 10 m Antiparallel Rubbing

P(n

C/c

m2)

Temperature (oC)

20 V

25 V

30 V

30 35 40 45 50 55

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

(d) 10m Without Rubbing

Ps

(nC

/cm

2)

Temperature (0C)

20 V 25 V

30 V

Fig. 7 Variation of spontaneous polarization Ps with temperature for (a) 5 um cell (b) 10um cellswith (c) parallel rubbing (d) anti parallel rubbing

ھو 22 24 26 28 30

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

38

40

30 oC

P(n

C/c

m2 )

Voltage (volts)

5 um

10 um parallel rubbing 10 um antiparal lel rubbing 10 um without rubbing


10

oFig.8 Variation of Ps with voltage at 30 C for various cells (b) Response time ( )S

30 35 40 45 50 55

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8 5 um

10 um parallel rubbing

10 um antiparallel rubbing

10 um without rubbing

(b) 30 V

s(m

sec

)T (

oC)

20 22 24 26 28 30

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

(a) 55 oC

s(m

Se

c)

Voltage (volts)

5 um

10 um parallel rubbing

10 um antiparallel rubbing

10 um without rubbing

Fig.9 Variation of response time ( ) (a) as a function of applied voltages (b) as a function ofS

temperature, for 5 um and 10 um thickness cell with parallel, anti parallel and without rubbing

The var ia t ion of response t ime as aS

function of bias voltage and temperature is

shown in the fig.9 (a,b) for the various cells

o f d i f f e r e n t s u r f a c e t r e a t m e n t s .

M e a s u r e m e n t s o f t i m e w e r e d o n e b y

applying a symmetric square wave to the

FLC mixture ZLI-3651. Observations have

shown that decreases with increase in the

s t r e n g t h o f b i a s v o l t a g e a t p a r t i c u l a r

tempera ture . Swi tching in mechanica l ly

rubbed sample cells was found to be faster

than the without rubbing cell. It was also

observed that parallel rubbed 5um thickness

FLC sample cell has sharp response time as

compared to parallel rubbed 10 um thickness

cell. The response of anti parallel rubbed

cel l i s s l ight ly s lower than para l le l rubbedcel l .

CONCLUSIONS

ZLI-3651 has short pi tch geometry (~1.5

um) shows var ious phases i .e . SmC*, SmA,

cholesterol and nematic phases a t d i fferent

temperatures .

Rubbing of sample cel ls enhances the Ps

value of the FLC. The 10µm paral lel and

anti paral lel rubbed cel ls posses more Ps

value as compared to without rubbed 10 um

cell . Also P increases as the cel l thicknesss

decreases.

Switching is faster in 5um cel l as compared

to 10 um cel ls . Moreover paral lel and ant i


11

p a r a l l e l r u b b e d c e l l s s h o w f a s t r e s p o n s e st h a n w i t h o u t r u b b e d c e l l .

REFERENCES

A h u j a J a s j i t K , , R a i n a K K ( 2 0 0 0 ) “Polarization Switching and Dielectric Relaxations in Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals.” Jpn J Appl Phys. Vol. 39:, Page 4076-4081.

Baawa SS, Biradar A M, Chandra S (1987) “Molecular reorientation processes and dynamics of polarization reversal in thin surface stabilized ferroelectric liquid c ry s t a l DBAMBC.” Fe r roe l ec t r i c s , Vol.76:, Page 69-80.

Bersnev LA, Chigrinov VG, Drgachev DI,

Poshideev EP, Funfschilling J, Schadt M

(1989) “Deformed helix ferroelectric

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P a g e 3 0 9 - 3 1 9 .

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Frunza L (2005) “Peculiar orientation of

nema t i c l i qu id c rys t a l s on rubbed

p o l y v i n y l i m i d a z o l e . ” , J o u r n a l o f

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Vol.7:, Page 2149-2158.

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“Dielectric relaxation behavior of a

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(1975) ”Ferroelectric Liquid Crystala.”, J

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R a i n a K K , J a s j i t K , A h u j a ( 1 9 9 8 )

”Dielectric Relaxations in a Short Pitch

Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal.” Molecular

C r y s t a l s L i q u i d C r y s t a l s ,

Vol.325: , Page157-171.

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(2008), “Polar and Azimuthal Alignment

o f a N e m a t i c L i q u i d C r y s t a l b y

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Rubbing.” Langmuir, Vol .24: , Page

9790-9794.

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composite thin films.” Current Applied

Physics Vol.5:, Page 277-284

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chiral smectic liquid crystals.”, J Phys D:

Appl Physics, Vol.19:, Page L37.

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Vol.34:, Page 1433-1441


12

Environmental Assessment of Hydrological and Microbiological Characteristics ofMunicipal Wastewater at Sewage Treatment Plant, Lakkar Ghat, Rishikesh

(Uttarakhand) India.

*Sachin Srivastava, Dhiraj Sehgal, Piyusha Sharma

Department of Agriculture Science, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi, Gobindgarh, Distt:Fatehgarh Sahib-147301 (Punjab), INDIA

*E-mail:[email protected]

ABSTRACTT h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s c o n d u c t e d t o m o n i t o r t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l a n dmicrobiological characteristics of Sewage Wastewater (SWW) at treatment plant, Rishikesh,installed under Ganga Action Plan (GAP)/National River Action Plan (NRAP) to control thepollution of river Ganga. In the present study, a significant (p<0.001) decrease was observedin the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters viz. Total Solids (TS) (-76.12%),Total Suspended Solids (TSS) (-89.21%), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) (-67.66%), ElectricalConductivity (EC) (- 89.43%), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (-87.31%), Chemical

-Oxygen Demand (COD) (-74.74%), Chlorides (Cl ) (-49.46%), alkalinity (-88.70%),3 -hardness(-38.55%), Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) (-67.44%), phosphate (PO ) (-86.61%),4

2 -sulphate (SO ) (-84.93%), Most Probable Number (MPN) (66.14%) and Standard Plate4

Count (SPC) (60.34%) after treatment. The maximum increase in DO (+215.17%) wasrecorded in finally treated (outlet) wastewater. Thus the treatment plant had a significant rolein the control of pollution loads of wastewater installed under GAP/ NRAP at Rishikesh city.

Keywords: Oxidation pond, Sewage waste water, Microbiological characterstics

INTRODUCTION

Humans are currently confronted with oneof the greatest challenges in i ts history,thus how to adequate ly use i t s l imi tedf r e s h w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . D u r i n g t h e p a s tdecades, rapid industrial developments andUrbanisation in different countries havebeen putt ing an increasing pressure on thewater resource requirement. The demandfor quali ty water resources in the industrialand urban sectors will be difficult to meeti n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e b e c a u s e o fdwindling supply. The imbalance in thedemand and supply of water resources willbecome a common major issue confrontingmany countries around the world as well inthe next few decades. Throughout the lastdecade municipal wastewater or sewage reuse has emerged as an important andviable means of supplementing dwindlingwater supplies in a large number of regionsthroughout the world (Webera et al . 2005).

Sewage i s runn ing was t e wa te r t ha t i s

dispose off from homes and shops which is

n o r m a l l y t r a n s p o r t e d i n f o r m o f s m a l l

l iquid with suspension of small solid in

large pipes called sewers. The waste water

may either be directed to a specific pace to

be recycled or be disposed off far away

from people as i t can lead to spread of

d i seases . Sewage i s a complex mix ture

con t a in ing nu t r i en t s , su spended so l i d s ,

pathogens, oxygen's dissolving substances

a n d o t h e r c o n t a m i n a n t s a n d e a c h h a s

different environmental impact (Ladan 2014).

Sewage d i sposa l in na tura l wa te rs i s a

common p rac t i ce among many na t i ons .

L a r g e i n p u t s o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d

n u t r i e n t s f r o m r a w s e w a g e t o a w e a k

h y d r o d y n a m i c e n v i r o n m e n t p o s e s

environmental and health problems from

deterioration of water quality (Longe and

Ogundipe 2010).


13

Urban centres are discharging waste waterinto the water bodies and for i r r igat ion inthe agricul ture f ie lds . The major sources oforganic pol lut ion in f resh water bodies ares e w a g e . S e w a g e i n c l u d e s d o m e s t i c ,hospi ta l and small scale industr ia l wastesoperat ing under municipal area. In India ,a l l t h e c i t i e s a n d t o w n s d i d n o t h a v esewage t rea tment fac i l i t ies . Disposal ofwaste water is one of the major problemsfor eco-fr iendly environment (Dash 2012) .M a n a g e m e n t o f w a s t e w a t e r i nmetropol i tan ci t ies is a diff icul t task. Theunsafe disposal of waste water generatespol lut ion of water as wel l as terrestr ia l . I tcauses var ious heal th problems, epidemicsdue to serving the contaminated water. Byadding i t eutrophicates the water bodies ,causing the mortal i ty of aquat ic biologicalr e s o u r c e s . T h u s , t h e r o l e o f t r e a t m e n tp l a n t s i s i n t h e s u s t a i n a b l e u s e o fwastewater as they make the water usablefor var ious purposes (Jamrah et a l . 2006a n d 2 0 0 8 ; K u m a r a n d C h o p r a 2 0 1 0 ;Kumar and Chopra 2012) .Water supply and sewerage is a commonlyused phrase. However, in many developingc o u n t r i e s , “ w a t e r s u p p l y ” h a s h i g h e rpriori ty over “sewage treatment”. Largenumber o f t r e a tmen t p roce s s ha s beenapplied by different t reatment plants . Oneof them is oxidation pond process, whichp r o v i d e s v e r y e c o n o m i c a l s e c o n d a r ytreatment process. Surface oxidation ponds( O P s ) a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r s m a l lcommuni t ies sewage t rea tment purpose .Inside OPs, heterotrophic bacteria degradeorganic matter as minerals . Such materialssupport the growth of algae in the Ops(Esa et al . 2013).

(a) Aerobic zone end products

Amino acids + Ammonia + O 2

Nitrites + Nitrates (1)

Organic compounds + O CO + H O 2 2 2

(2)

The fol lowing equat ions are involved in

OPs to get the end product through aerobic

and anaerobic processes .

Co + Light + H O 2 2

C H6 1 2

O + O + A l g a e ( p h o t o s y n t h e s i s ) ( 3 )6 2

b ) A n a e r o b i c z o n e e n d p r o d u c t sO r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s = O r g a n i c a c i d s +A l c o h o l s ( a c i d f e r m e n t a t i o n ) ( 4 )O r g a n i c a c i d s + A l c o h o l s = C H + C o4 2

( m e t h a n e f e r m e n t a t i o n )

Rishikesh, surrounded by virgin of forests

at the toe of the Himalayas, is the first

town on river Ganga taken up under the

Ganga Action Plan Phase-I for pollution

a b a t e m e n t o f t h e r i v e r . H u n d r e d s o f

ashrams, temples, residences, hotels and

other commercial establishments dot the

banks. This immense human activity, in a

narrow band along the length of the town

on bo th the banks , gene ra t e s nea r ly 6

million litres of sewage per day into the

pristine Ganga before it emerges into the plains.

K e e p i n g t h e a b o v e v i e w t h e p r e s e n t

investigation was conducted to monitor the

p h y s i c - c h e m i c a l a n d m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l

charac ter i s t ics of munic ipa l was tewater

before and af ter t rea tment a t t rea tment

p l a n t i n s t a l l e d u n d e r G A P / N R A P a t

Rishikesh (Uttarakhand) India.

T h e O P s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d t o t r e a tw a s t e w a t e r d u e t o i t i s c o s t e f f e c t i v e a n dr e q u i r e s m i n i m u m m a n a g e m e n t ,a n d m a i n t e n a n c e .


M u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r c o l l e c t i o n a n danalysis: Sewage Pumping Station (SPS)is si tuated at south east corner of Rishikeshv e r y c l o s e t o n a t i o n a l h i g h w a y. T h eMunic ipa l Was tewate r (MWW) sampleswere collected from municipal treatmentplant installed under GAP at Lakkar ghatR i s h i k e s h ( 3 0 . 1 0 3 3 6 8 ° N a n d78.294754°E). The total installed capacityof the treatment plant was 6 MLD of waterper day collected in four facultative ponds.The SWW was col lected f rom differentresidential as well as industrial vicinity ofRishikesh city by Main Pumping Station(MPS) Lakkar ghat Rishikesh followed byI n t e r m e d i a t e P u m p i n g S t a t i o n ( I P S - 1 )


14

Muni Ki re t i , ( IPS-2) Bangal i Bas t i and( I P S - 4 ) M a y a k u n d S e w a g e P u m p i n gSta t ions (SPSs) . The SWW samples werecol lec ted f rom in le t , Oxidat ion ponds ando u t l e t o f t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t . The samples brought to the labora tory wasana lyzed for var ious phys ico-chemica l ,m ic rob io log i ca l and heavy me ta l s v i z .t e m p e r a t u r e , t o t a l s o l i d ( T S ) , t o t a lsuspended so l ids (TSS) , pH, E lec t r i ca lC o n d u c t i v i t y ( E C ) , D i s s o l v e d O x y g e n( D O ) , B i o c h e m i c a l O x y g e n D e m a n d( B O D ) , C h e m i c a l O x y g e n D e m a n d

-( C O D ) , C h l o r i d e s ( C l ) , a l k a l i n i t y ,hardness , to ta l Kje ldahl Ni t rogen (TKN),

3 - 2 -Phospha te (PO ) and su lpha te (So ) ,4 4

S tan d a r d P l a t e Co u n t ( S P C) an d M o s tP r o b a b l e N u m b e r ( M P N ) f o l l o w i n gs t a n d a r d m e t h o d s ( A P H A 2 0 0 5 ) .E f f i c i e n c y o f t h e e f f l u e n t t re a t m e n tp l a n t s : Wa s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t su s u a l l y i n c l u d e a s e r i e s o f p h y s i c a l ,chemical and b io logica l processes . Theo v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s o f a w a s t e w a t e rt rea tment p lant a re to separa te the wastesf rom the water for d isposal e lsewhere andt o p r o d u c e a n e f f l u e n t w h i c h c a n b ed i s c h a rg e d t o a r e c e i v i n g w a t e r b o d ywithout caus ing pol lu t ion . The in le t andout le t s t reams of a l l the four indus t r ia luni t s were compared to have an idea aboutthe eff ic iency of the i r e ff luent t rea tmentp lan ts (ETPs) . The percen tage removaleff ic iency was ca lcula ted fo l lowing thes tandard method (Hurs t 1997) :

Ci = Concentration of waste material in influent

Ce = Concentration of waste material in effluent

Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed

f o r o n e w a y A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e

(ANOVA) for determining the difference

b e t w e e n S W W s a m p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

before and after treatment collected from

inlet, PST, SST and Outlet of the treatment

plant. The mean and standard deviation

Where:

w e r e a l s o c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e h e l p o fMS Excel , SPSS12.0 and Sigma plot , 2000.


Sewage was tewater character i s t i c s : TheMean±SD va lues o f phys ico -chemica l andmic rob io log ica l pa ramete r s v i z . TS , TSS ,T D S , E C , p H , D O , B O D , C O D , C l - ,

3 - 2 -a lka l in i t y, ha rdnes s , TKN, PO , So ,4 4

MPN and SPC o f SWW are p resen ted inTab le 1 and F ig .1 .The resul ts in the present s tudy revealed

that the untreated SWW has high inorganic

and organic pol lut ion load consis t ing of- 1 - 1TS (820 .00 mgl ) , TSS (475 .00 mgl ) ,

- 1 - 1TDS (346.00 mgl ) , EC (2.84 dSm ), pH- 1(7 .65) , BOD (194.00 mgl ) , COD (377.30

- 1 - - 1m g l ) , C l , ( 9 5 . 0 3 m g l ) , a l k a l i n i t y- 1 - 1(259.33 mgl ) , hardness (387.26 mgl ) ,

- 1 3 - - 1TKN (89.99 mgl ) , PO , (129.42 mgl ) ,42 - - 1S O , ( 3 4 1 . 3 9 m g l ) , M P N ( 1 2 0 . 2 64

- 1 - 1MPN100 mL ) and SPC (81.23 SPC mL )- 1and lower DO (1.12 mL ). This was in

conformity with Shivaraju (2011); Kumar

and Chopra (2012) who reported high level

contaminat ion of organic , inorganic and

b a c t e r i a l p o l l u t a n t s .

Joel e t a l . (2009) reported higher levels of

B O D ( 2 4 0 m g / l ) , T S S ( 1 1 5 m g / l ) , D O

(0.18mg/l) and MPN (350 cfu/100ml) in

the domes t i c sewage wa te r o f Niger ia .

K u s h w a h e t a l . ( 2 0 1 1 ) r e p o r t e d p H

( 8 . 4 3 / 8 . 6 2 ) , D O ( 3 . 6 / 4 . 4 m g / l ) ,

B O D ( 6 2 . 6 / 7 2 . 4 m g / l ) a n d C O D

(164.6/149.2 mg/l ) of sewage waste water

f r o m B a d w a i / K o t r a a r e a s e w a g e

treatment p lant a t Bhopal , India . Kumar

and Chopra (2012) reported higher values

of physico-chemical and microbiological- 1parameters viz . TSS 1824.42±8.46 mg L ,- 1EC2.84, pH (8.39) , DO 2.42±1.14 mg L ,

- 1BOD (620.27 mg L ) , COD (1420.54 mg- 1 - - 1L ), Cl (346.58 mg L ) , a lkal ini ty(254.33

- 1 - 1m g L ) , h a r d n e s s ( 3 8 2 . 2 6 m g L ) ,- 1 3 -TKN(84.99 mg L ) , PO (124.42 mg L4

- 1 2 - - 1) , S O ( 1 9 6 . 9 1 m g L ) , M P N4

( 2 8 . 3 6 × 1 0 8 M P N / 1 0 0 m l ) a n d S P C

(17.42×106 SPC/ml) of MWW treatment

plant a t Haridwar.


15

In the recent s tudies , Sir ianuntapiboon etal . (2006) reported BOD (118.00 mg L-1) ,COD (173.00 mg L-1) and pH (7.1±0.3) ,TKN (38.40 mg L-1) and TP (12.00 mg L-1) in municipal wastewater in Bangkok,Thai land. The 92.00% removal of BOD,91.00% COD, 90.00% TKN and 95.00%p h o s p h o r u s w e r e o b s e r v e d b y u s i n gconstructed wetlands for domest ic water.All natural waters contain some dissolveds o l i d s d u e t o t h e d i s s o l u t i o n a n dweathering of rock and soi l . Suspendedsol ids are determined by f i l ter ing a knownvolume of water and weighing the residue.Waters with high TSS are unpalatable andp o t e n t i a l l y u n h e a l t h y .

-In the present s tudy, the TS (191.00 mg L1 - 1) , TDS (153.6 mg L ) and (TSS 37.30 mg

- 1L ) o f the t r ea ted SWW (ou t le t ) werer e c o r d e d t o b e d e c r e a s e d f r o m i n i t i a l( I n l e t ) l e v e l . I t w a s f o u n d t o b es i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) d i f f e r e n t f r o minlet , PST and SST. Jamrah et a l . (2008)reported 84 and 100% removal eff iciencyof TSS in a set t l ing tank instal led in atreatment plant . Removal levels of TSSw e r e f o u n d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h eanox ic good se t t l i ng cha rac te r i s t i c s o fs l u d g e w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h et r e a t m e n t a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f s l u d g ebulking or foaming was absent . Salwa andElla (2014) reported that TSS was reducedby 46.67% at the out let and l i t t le reduct ionwas also observed in TDS by 3.57% as i twas only in permissible l imit of Emtdad ElUmum drain in Eygpt using constructedw e t l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s .E C a n d p H : EC of water is a useful and easy indicatoro f i t s s a l i n i t y o r t o t a l s a l t c o n t e n t .Wastewater eff luents of ten contain highamounts of dissolved sal ts f rom domest icsewage. Sal ts such as sodium chloride andp o t a s s i u m s u l p h a t e p a s s t h r o u g hc o n v e n t i o n a l w a t e r a n d w a s t e w a t e rt r e a t m e n t u n a f f e c t e d . H i g h s a l tconcentrat ions in waste eff luents however,can increase the sal ini ty of the receivingw a t e r , w h i c h m a y r e s u l t i n a d v e r s eecological effects on aquat ic biota . The pH

of water body determines the chemicalspecies of many metals and thereby altersthe availabil i ty and toxicity in their aquaticenvironment (Ogunfowokan et a l . 2005;K u m a r a n d C h o p r a 2 0 1 2 ) .D O , B O D a n d C O D : D O i s t h e m o s timportant pollution assessment parameterof the receiving water bodies. Stabil izationo f o r g a n i c m a t t e r , w h e n d i s c h a r g e duntreated or partially treated in receivingwaters, leads to depletion of their DO. DOi s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r u s e d f o r w a t e rq u a l i t y c o n t r o l . T h e e f f e c t o f w a s t edischarge on a sur face water source i slargely determined by the oxygen balance,b o t h t h e B O D a n d C O D t e s t s a r e ameasure of the relative oxygen-depletioneffect of a waste contaminant. Both haveb e e n w i d e l y a d o p t e d a s a m e a s u r e o fpollution effect . The BOD test measurest h e o x y g e n d e m a n d o f b i o d e g r a d a b l epollutants whereas the COD test measurest h e o x y g e n d e m a n d o f o x i d i z a b l epollutants. The COD is a determinant oft h e l e v e l o r g a n i c m a t t e r a n d c a r b o n .In the present s tudy, DO was increased

- 1maximum (+215 .17%) i . e . 3 .53 mg L

- 1from its init ial level 1.12 mg L followed- 1 - 1by 2.69 mg L with PST and 3.08 mg L

w i t h S S T. T h e m a x i m u m r e d u c t i o n i nBOD (-87.31%) and COD (-74.74%) wasrecorded with outlet samples of the treatedS W W a s c o m p a r e d t o i n l e t s a m p l e s .O l u t i o l a e t a l . ( 2 0 1 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t concentration of DO in sewage oxidationp o n d s A a n d B o f O b a f e m i Aw o l o w oUniversity, Nigeria increased from (8.1 to13.9 mg/l) respectively, across the pond tot h e e f f l u e n t . M a h a p a t r a e t a l . ( 2 0 1 3 )reported that algae-based sewage treatmentp l a n t s l o c a t e d i n K a r n a t a k a w i t h ar e s i d e n c e t i m e o f 1 4 . 3 d a y s r e m o v e d( C O D ) ( 6 0 % ) a n d ( B O D ) ( 8 2 % ) a ssewage travels from the inlet to the outlet .T h e D O w a s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y(p<0.01) in finally treated (outlet) SWW incomparison to inlet , PST and SST. TheB O D a n d C O D w e r e d e c r e a s e dsignificantly (p<0.001) in treated SWW ininlet , PST and SST.


16

- 2 -Cl and SO : Chloride may affect aquatic4

organisms and water quali ty i f chloridespersis t and bio-accumulate. Contr ibute tothe r e l ease o f me ta l s f rom s t r eam bed

sediments ; induce metal toxic i ty in f isha n d p l a n t s r e s u l t i n g i n d e a t h d u e t o

- 2 -asphyxiat ion. Cl and SO occur as anions42 -

i n g r o u n d w a t e r . T h e a m o u n t o f S o 4

d i scha rged f rom an th ropogen ic sou rcesinto aquat ic systems can be s ignif icant .

2 -Indeed, anthropogenic sources of SO can4

account for 20 to over 90 percent of thesu lphur found in some su r f ace wa te r s .Major anthropogenic sources of sulphatei n c l u d e i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s , m i n ewastes, smelt ing and the burning of fossi lfue ls , agr icul tura l runoff , and domest ics e w a g e . N a t u r a l s o u r c e s a s w e l l a sa n t h r o p o g e n i c s o u r c e s a n d s e r v e a si n d i c a t o r s o f w a t e r p o l l u t i o n ( D a v i e s2007). In the present s tudy the maximum

- 2 -reduct ion in Cl ( -49.46%) and SO (-4

84.93 %) was recorded in SWW of outleto f s e w a g e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t i n c o m p a r i s o n t o i n l e t , P S T a n d S S T.

Alkalinity and hardness: Alkalini ty is thec a p a c i t y t o n e u t r a l i z e a c i d s a n d t h ea lka l in i ty o f na tu ra l wa te r i s r e su l t ingmainly from the sal ts of weak acids. Thecarbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxide arethe dominant source of natural alkal ini ty.Reactions of carbon dioxide with calciumo r m a g n e s i u m c a r b o n a t e c r e a t ec o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t s o f b i c a r b o n a t e s .Organic ac ids such as humic ac id a l soform sal ts that increase alkal ini ty. Alkalinew a t e r s a r e u n p a l a t a b l e a n d c a n c a u s egastrointest inal discomfort . The maximumr e d u c t i o n i n a l k a l i n i t y ( - 8 8 . 7 0 % ) a n dh a r d n e s s ( - 3 8 . 5 5 % ) o f M W W w e r eobserved in the outlet samples of STP aftertreatment in comparison to in inlet . Kumare t a l . ( 2 0 1 2 ) r e p o r t e d r e d u c t i o n i nalkal ini ty (47.90 %) and hardness(45.07%) at Kotra Waste Water Treatment Plantbased on was t e s t ab i l i za t i on t echn iqueu s i n g a n a e r o b i c a n d f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d ss i t u a t e d i n B h o p a l , M . P. , I n d i a . T h ereduction in alkal ini ty and hardness were

f o u n d t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 )di fferent in out le t samples of SWW inc o m p a r i s o n t o i n l e t , P S T , S S T .

2 -T K N a n d P O : N u t r i e n t s s u c h a s4

phosphorous and nitrogen are essential fort h e g r o w t h o f a l g a e a n d o t h e r p l a n t s .A q u a t i c l i f e i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e s ephotosynthesizes which usually occur inlow leve l s in su r face wa te r. Excess iveconcentrations of nutrients, however, canover s t imula te aqua t i c p lan t and a lgaeg r o w t h . D u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t u d ymaximum removal eff iciency of TKN (-

2 -67 .44%) and PO were recorded a f te r4

f inal treatment in outlet samples of STP ascompared to inlet fol lowed by PST and

2 -S S T . T h e T K N a n d P O a n d w e r e4

decreased to be significantly (p<0.001) inf i n a l l y t r e a t e d ( o u t l e t ) S W W i ncompar ison to in le t , PST, SST. Beyenea n d R e d a i e ( 2 0 11 ) r e p o r t e d m a x i m u mr e d u c t i o n i n T K N ( 5 4 . 5 9 % ) a n d C l -(10.58%) after treatment of sewage waterin oxidation pond of Hawassa Universi tyR e f e r r a l H o s p i t a l , s o u t h e r n E t h i o p i a .M a h a p a t r a e t a l . ( 2 0 1 3 ) r e p o r t e d 3 6 %removal of TKN in algae based sewaget r e a t m e n t p l a n t c o n s t r u c t e d w i t hfacultat ive ponds at Mysore, India. Bandiand Dandigi (2014) reported s ignif icant

2 -removal of PO (67.00 %) from domestic4

w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t ( b a s e d o nstabi l izat ion ponds) in Shahabad, India. M P N a n d S P C : B a c t e r i a l p a r a m e t e r s ,such as Fecal Coliform (FC) which serveas indicators of fecal pollution are alsovery important when human health is the prime concern. Coliform group of bacteriai n c l u d e g e n e r a E s c h e r i c h i a a n dAerobacter. Coliform bacteria have beenu s e d f o r m a n y y e a r s t o d e t e r m i n e t h equa l i ty and sa fe ty o f wa te r fo r humanconsumption. Coliform bacteria are foundi n i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t o f h u m a n b e i n g s .E s c h e r i c h i a c o l i a n d o t h e r g r o u p s o fcoliforms may be present where there hasbeen faecal contamination originating fromwarm-blooded animals . I t causes heal thhazards to the human beings. The presence of these bacteria in drinking water may


17

indicate contaminat ion resul t ing f rom af a i l u r e i n t h e d i s i n f e c t i o n p r o c e s s(Wohlsen et a l . 2006; Krishnan et a l . 2007;K u m a r a n d C h o p r a 2 0 1 2 ) .D u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y m a x i m u mr e m o v a l o f M P N ( 5 4 . 9 9 % ) a n d S P C( 6 0 . 3 4 % ) w a s r e c o r d e d w i t h t r e a t e dwastewater a t out le t of STP as comparedto inle t fol lowed by PST and SST. Esa e ta l . (2013) reported MPN value in inf luento f S T P a t U n i v e r s i t i S a i n s M a l a y s i a(USM), Malaysia was ranged from 47000t o 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 i n d e x / 1 0 0 m L , w h i l e i neff luent , i t was ranged from 230 to 380000index/100mL. The removal of bacter ia wasreal ly impressive because the percentageo f r e m o v a l w a s i n b e t w e e n 5 . 7 1 t o9 9 . 9 0 % . T h e M P N a n d S P C w e r edecreased s ignif icant ly (p<0.001) in out le ti n c o m p a r i s o n t o i n l e t , P S T , S S Twastewater.

CONCLUSION

The p re sen t s tudy was conc luded tha t t het r e a t m e n t p l a n t i n s t a l l e d u n d e r G a n g aAc t ion P lan (GAP) /Na t iona l R ive r Ac t ionP lan (NRAP) i s work ing ex tens ive ly. Thes i g n i f i c a n t ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) r e d u c t i o n w a sobse rved in t he phys i co -chemica l and

mic rob io log ica l cha rac te r i s t i c s v i z . TS ,-T D S , T S S , E C , p H , B O D , C O D , C l ,

3 - 2 -a l k a l i n i t y, h a r d n e s s , T K N , P O , S o ,4 4

M P N a n d S P C o f t r e a t e d S W W. T h ev a r i o u s s t e p s O P i n t h e t r e a t m e n t ,s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) i n c r e a s e d t h ed isso lved oxygen in f ina l ly t rea ted SWWi n c o m p a r i s o n t o u n t r e a t e d S W W .Reduct ions were observed to be min imumin OP-I and maximum in OP-I I . The twoponds toge ther could produce e ff luen ts o fm o s t l y a c c e p t a b l e q u a l i t y a n d i t i sobserved tha t more sur face a rea has beenp r o v i d e d f o r a l l t h e t w o p o n d s . T h esecond pond i s p roved to per form wel l inremoval o f cer ta in parameters , where asthe f i r s t p roved to be min imum in removal .I t i s n o t i c e d t h a t t h e c o m b i n e dper formance of a l l the two ponds in se r iesi s p roved to be admirab le , p roduc ing theaccep tab le e ff luen t qua l i t y su i t ab le fo rd isposa l fo r on to land or o ther ac t iv i t i es .Thus i t i s he lpfu l in the cont ro l o f thepol lu t ion of r iver Ganga and there i s a l soneed for another t rea tment p lan t due togenera t ion of more SWW in Rish ikesh c i tya s i t h a s t o u r i s t a s w e l l a s r e l i g i o u s impor tance .

Fig. 1 Microbilogical Characteristics of MSW before and after treatment at STP Lakkar ghat,

Rishikesh, Uttarakhand.


18

Table 1. Physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of municipal sewage water

before and after at treatment plant Lakkar ghat, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand.

Parameters Treatment Stages CD F-calculated

Inlet PST (OP-I) SST (OP-II) Outlet TS mgl-1 820.00±12.24 520.01±7.24a

(-36.58%) 223.12±6.25ab

(-45.58%) 191.00±5.35abc

(-76.12%) 14.57 1665.91***

TDS mgl-1 475.00±11.0 254.17±6.32a (-46.49%)

196.21±5.21ab

(-58.69%) 153.6ab±4.98abc

(-67.66%) 31.35 58.09***

TSS mgl-1 346.00±1.41 157.21±1.52a (-54.56%)

98.54±2.36ab

(-71.52%) 37.30±2.02abc

(-89.21%) 13.57 356.32***

EC dsm-1

2.84±0.21 1.47±0.43a

(-48.23%) 0.97±0.55

ab

(-65.84%) 0.30±0.19

abc

- (89.43%) 0.18 138.91***

pH 8.25±0.02 7.50±0.06a (-1.96%)

7.45±0.10ab (-9.69%)

7.22±0.05ab (-12.48%)

0.03 40.36***

DO mgl-1 1.12±0.33 2.69±0.47a (+140.17%)

3.08±0.54ab (-175.00%)

3.53±0.24ab (+215.17%)

0.14 244.53***

BOD mgl-1 194.00±11.17 76.24±5.03a (-60.70%)

56.21±4.02ab

(-71.02%)

24.6±2.03ab

(-87.31%)

8.51 300.38***

COD mgl-1

377.30±11.5 210.23±7.49a (-44.28%)

135.64±5.39ab (-64.04%)

95.30±3.94ab (-74.74%)

16.62 332.38***

Cl- mgl-1 95.03±0.02 70.87±0.05a (-25.42%)

67.41±0.15ab (-71.02%)

48.02±0.06ab (-49.46%)

4.24 99.69***

Alkalinity 259.33±8.85 135.25±5.56a (-47.84%)

75.49±6.02ab (-70.89%)

29.34±3.39ab (-88.70%)

9.17 475.15***

Hardness mgl-

1 387.26±7.23 302.71±5.47a

(-21.83%) 288.31±4.67ab

(-25.55%) 237.94±3.84ab

(-38.55%) 7.37 375.11***

TKN mgl-1 89.99±10.92 70.41±7.65a

(-21.75%) 50.14±6.62ab

(-25.55%) 29.30±6.06ab (-67.44%)

4.21 185.06***

PO43- mgl-1 129.42±5.52 72.25±3.22a

(-44.17%) 53.64±2.69ab

(-58.55%) 17.24±1.22ab (-86.61%)

3.52 800.13***

SO42- mgl-1 341.39±6.09 194.36±5.02a

(-43.06%) 102.85±4.65ab

(-69.87%) 51.42±3.12ab (-84.93%)

5.47 2274.32***


19

Mean±SD of four values; Significant F -***p-0.01%, **p-0.1% level;% decrease in comparison toinlet given in parenthesis; a, b: Significantly different to the inlet and OP values.

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Effect of Storage and Packaging Material on Quality Parameters of Garlic Flakes

* 1,2 1 1Jaspreet Singh Grewal , Mohammed Shafiq Alam , Shweta Goyal

1Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141004, India2Department of Food Technology, Desh Bhagat University,

Mandi Gobindgarh-147301, India

*Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Studies were carried out to evaluate the effect of storage period and different packagingmaterial on the quality of garlic flakes dried by convective-cum-microwave (CCM) andfluidized-cum-microwave (FCM) hybrid drying. Garlic flakes were packaged and stored inhigh density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE) and laminatedaluminium foil for 3 months under ambient conditions. Samples were investigated to observefor change in rehydration ratio, colour, physiological loss in weight % and overallacceptability. Among the hybrid drying techniques adopted, the garlic flakes developed underoptimized condition of fluidized bed-cum-microwave was found better in terms of shelf lifeand quality attributes. The aluminium packaging was adjudged to be the best in retaining thequality of dried garlic flakes up to 3 months of storage. Overall, it can be concluded that thefluidized bed cum microwave dried garlic flakes packed in Aluminium package were thebest, and can be stored safely up to 3 months.

Key Words: Garlic flakes, colour, storage, quality, packaging.

INTRODUCTION

Garl ic (All ium sat ivum L.) is abulbous perennial plant of the l i ly familyl i l l i a c e a e . I t i s a r i c h s o u r c e o fcarbohydrates , proteins and phosphorous.The fresh peeled garl ic cloves contains 60-6 5 % ( w. b . ) m o i s t u r e , 6 . 3 0 % p r o t e i n ,0.10% fat , 1% mineral matter, 0 .80% fiber,29% carbohydrates , 0 .03% calcium, 0.31%phosphorous, 0.001% iron, 0.40 mg/100gnicotinic acid and 13 mg/100g vi tamin C(Brondnitz et al . 1971).These variet ies ofgar l ic are grown worldwide-Hard neck,Soft neck and Creole. Hard neck variet ieshave fewer cloves and have l i t t le or nop a p e r y o u t e r w r a p p e r p r o t e c t i n g t h ec l o v e s . S o f t n e c k v a r i e t i e s a r e w h i t e ,papery skins and mult iple cloves that areeasi ly separated. There are two types ofsoft neck variet ies: ar t ichoke and si lverskin. Creole variety has eight to twelvecloves per bulb arranged in a circular

configurat ion. Garl ic has been used ' t imememor ia l , fo r t he t r ea tmen t o f a w idev a r i e t y o f a i l m e n t s , i n c l u d i n gh y p e r t e n s i o n , h e a d a c h e , b i t e s w o r m s ,t u m o u r s e t c . I n h i s t o r y, H i p p o c r a t e s ,A r i s t o t l e a n d P l i n y c i t e d n u m e r o u stherapeutic uses for garl ic . Although garl ichas been reported to have wide range ofp h a r m a c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s ; b u t i t ' s m o s timportant cl inical uses are in the area ofcuring infections, prevention of cancer andcardiovascular disease (Lau1 et al . 1990). P r e s e n t l y c o n v e c t i v e , f l u i d i z e d b e dand sun drying of garl ic is in pract ice,which damage the sensory characterist icsa n d n u t r i t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s d u e t o t h esurface case hardening and the long dryingd u r a t i o n . M a i n d i s a d v a n t a g e s o fc o n v e c t i v e d r y i n g a r e l o n g d r y i n gduration, damage to sensory characterist icsand nut r i t iona l proper t ies of foods andsolute migrat ion from interior of the foodto the surface causing case hardening.


21

22

S e v e r e s h r i n k a g e d u r i n g d r y i n g a l s o

reduces the rehydra t ion capaci ty of the

dehydra ted products . F lu id ized bed drying

of gar l ic c loves has a lso been t r ied but i t

was not e ffec t ive in reducing the dry ing

t ime and energy consumpt ion apprec iably

i n c o m p a r i s o n t o c o n v e c t i v e d r y i n g

p r o c e s s ( M c M i n n a n d M a g e e 1 9 9 9 ) .

Microwave drying i s regarded as

f o u r t h g e n e r a t i o n d r y i n g t e c h n o l o g y.

Microwave waves can penet ra te d i rec t ly

in to the mater ia l ; hea t ing i s volumetr ic

( f rom ins ide out ) and provides fas t and

u n i f o r m h e a t i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e

product . The quick energy absorpt ion by

w a t e r m o l e c u l e s c a u s e s r a p i d w a t e r

evapora t ion , c rea t ing an outward f lux of

r a p i d l y e s c a p i n g v a p o u r. M i c r o w a v e s

penet ra te the food f rom a l l d i rec t ion . This

fac i l i ta tes s team escape and speed up the

heat ing process (Khra isheh e t a l . 1997;

Prabhanjan 1995) . Microwave processes

offer a lot of advantages such as less s tar t

up t ime, faster heat ing, energy eff iciency

(most of the e lec t romagnet ic energy i s

converted to heat) , space savings, precise

process con t ro l and food p roduc t wi th

bet ter nutr i t ional qual i ty. Thus, to develop

h i g h q u a l i t y d r i e d g a r l i c f l a k e s w i t h

m i n i m u m d r y i n g e x p o s u r e t i m e , t h e

optimum drying process condit ions for the

s e l e c t e d h y b r i d d r y i n g t e c h n i q u e s

( m i c r o w a v e a s s i s t e d c o n v e c t i v e a n d

microwave assis ted f luidized drying) and

storage s tabi l i ty of dr ied product need to

be s tudied, which could be a s ignif icant

contr ibut ion to the garl ic drying industry.

K e e p i n g i n v i e w t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s e d

aspects , the present invest igated had been

conducted to s tudy s torage behavior of

garl ic f lakes packed in different packaging

material . MATERIAL AND METHODS

Selection of garlic

F r e s h g a r l i c w a s p r o c u r e d f r o m l o c a lmarke t , Ludhiana ( India) . The gar l ic bu lbsw e r e s o r t e d w i t h h a n d f o r i t s s i z euni formi ty and were pee led manual ly wi tht h e h e l p o f k n i v e s a n d t h e n s l i c e duni formly (Avg. s ize 3mm) wi th the he lp

Experimental design for study of dryingcharacteristics of garlic slices

T h e e x p e r i m e n t s t o s t u d y d r y i n gcharacter is t ics of gar l ic s l ices , for both thehybrid drying techniques i .e . convect ive-c u m - m i c r o w a v e ( C C M ) a n d f l u i d i z e d -c u m - m i c r o w a v e ( F C M ) d r y i n g , w e r eplanned as complete ly randomized design(CRD). The range of process parameters

Exper imenta l s e t up for convec t ive t ray dry ingThe mechanical drying of gar l ic s l ices wasconducted in a Kilburn make laboratorytray dryer which could a t ta in maximumt e m p e r a t u r e o f 2 0 0 º C . T h e d r i e r h a selectr ic heaters ver t ical ly f i t ted at the inlet

E x p e r i m e n t a l s e t u p f o r f l u i d i z e d b e dd r y i n gThe experimental set up for fluidized bed

of garlic slicer. The colour and moisturecontent (222.58 ±1 % db) of fresh garlics l i c e s w e r e n o t e d b e f o r e s t a r t e dexperiment. The samples were pretreatedwith different concentrations of KMS asper the procedure reported by Abano et al. (2011).

selected for the study of dryingcharacterist ics was:KMS Concentration: 0.1% to 0.5%

° °Process temperature: 55 C to 75 CMicrowave power level: 810 W to 1350 W Twenty seven experiments for the study ofdrying characterist ics of garl ic sl ices(CCM & FCM) were selected and eachexperiment has three replicates.

of the dryer to heat f resh a i r. A cent r i fugal

b lower c i rcula tes a i r ins ide the dryer wi th

a maximum ai r ve loc i ty of 0 .8m/s in the

drying chamber. The b lower i s powered by

0.25HP, three-phase 440V e lec t r ic motor

wi th a d i rec t onl ine s tar ter.

d r y i n g o f g a r l i c s l i c e s c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e

b a s i c p a r t s :


23

F i g . 2 . 1 C i r c u i t d i a g r a m f o r f l u i d i z e d b e dd r y i n g a s y s t e m f o r p r o v i s i o n o f a i r , as e c t i o n f o r h e a t i n g t h e a i r a n d a d r y i n g

Experimental set up for microwavedrying

T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t u p f o rm i c r o w a v e d r y i n g o f g a r l i c s l i c e s b ymicrowave d rye r (Power range 0 -1350 Wand f requency 2450 MHz) . I t cons i s t s o f ah igh vo l t age power source , t r ans fo rmerand a cook ing chamber. Bas i ca l ly, t het rans fo rmer passes the energy to the

Determination of quality parameters

The dr ied samples were evaluatedfor rehydrat ion rat io , colour, physiologicalloss in weight % and overal l acceptabi l i tyand the procedure adopted are ment ionedbelow:R e h y d r a t i o n r a t i o : R e h y d r a t i o n r a t i o(RR) was eva lua ted by soak ing knownw e i g h t ( 5 - 1 0 g ) o f e a c h s a m p l e i ns u f f i c i e n t v o l u m e o f w a t e r i n a g l a s sbeaker (approximately 30 t imes the weightof sample) at 95°C for 20 minutes. Aftersoaking, the excess water was removedwith the help of f i l ter paper and sampleswere weighed. In order to minimize theleaching losses, water bath was used form a i n t a i n i n g t h e d e f i n e d t e m p e r a t u r e(Rangana 1986). Rehydrat ion rat io (RR) ofthe samples was computed as fol lows:

Rehydration ratio, RR =W / W ( 1)r d

Where,

W = Drained weight of rehydratedr

sample, g

W = Weight of dried sample usedd

for rehydration, g

Colour: Colour is one of the important parameters,

which is an indicative of the

chamber. A 0 .75 KW, 3 phase e l ec t r i cmoto r con t ro l l ed by a s imple gene ra l -purpose AC Drive (Model: VFD007L21A,Delta electronics , Inc. Taiwan) was usedt o d r i v e t h e b l o w e r. A i r f l o w c a n b econtrol led by varying the frequency of ACsupply to motor. Circui t diagram (Fig. 2 .1)o f A C D r i v e , P I D 5 1 8 t e m p e r a t u r econtrol ler, temperature sensor, heaters andcontactors . magnetron which converts high voltageelectr ic energy to microwave radiat ions.T h e m a g n e t r o n u s u a l l y c o n t r o l s t h edirection of the microwaves with the helpof microcontroller.

The f ina l mois ture content of th inlayer dry ing 63 .0 (±1) % db was the in i t ia lmois ture content for microwave drying . Inm i c r o w a v e d r y i n g , t h e f i n a l m o i s t u r econtent of product i s 6 (±1) % db.

c o m m e r c i a l v a l u e o f t h e p r o d u c t . T h ebas ic purpose was to ge t an idea of thecompara t ive change in co lour of f resh ,dr ied and rehydra ted mater ia l . Colour wasdetermined us ing Hunter Lab Miniscan XEPlus Colour imeter (Hunter 1975) .Colour change ΔE =

ΔL+Δa+Δb2 22 (2)

W h e r e Δ L , Δ a a n d Δ b a r e d e v i a t i o n s f r o mL , a a n d b v a l u e s o f f r e s h s a m p l e .

ΔL = L dr ied sample – L f resh sample ; +Δ L m e a n s s a m p l e i s l i g h t e r t h a n f r e s h , -Δ L m e a n s s a m p l e i s d a r k e r t h a n f r e s h .Δa = a d r i ed s amp le - a f r e sh s amp le , + Δameans sample i s redder than s tandard , - Δam e a n s s a m p l e i s g r e e n e r t h a n s t a n d a r DΔb = b dr ied sample –b f resh sample , + Δbmeans sample i s ye l lower than s tandard , -Δb means sample i s b luer than s tandard .

O v e r a l l a c c e p t a b i l i t y : O r g a n o l e p t i c

q u a l i t y o f d e v e l o p e d p r o d u c t w a s

c o n d u c t e d o n a 9 - p o i n t h e d o n i c s c a l e .

Semi- t ra ined pane ls of ten judges were

se lec ted for the eva lua t ion . The samples

were eva lua ted on the bas i s o f appearance

( c o l o u r ) , t e x t u r e , o d o u r a n d o v e r a l l

acceptab i l i ty. Overa l l acceptab i l i ty (OA)

was eva lua ted as an average of appearance


24

( c o l o u r ) , o d o u r a n d t e x t u r a l s c o r e a n d i se x p r e s s e d i n p e r c e n t . T h e a v e r a g e s c o r e s

of all the panellists for differene characteristicswere averaged.

Experimental des ign for opt imizat ion ofhybrid drying process parameters fordried gar l ic s l i ces

For the opt imiza t ion of hybr idd r y i n g p r o c e s s f o r g a r l i c s l i c e s , t h eexper imental p lan was chosen f rom thefamily of three level designs, as suggestedby Box and Behnken (1960). The design isa three-level incomplete factorial designfor the est imation of the parameters in asecond-order model . The process variablesfor development of dried garl ic f lakes wereoptimized by response surface

Storage of garlic flakes

Dried garlic flakes developed underoptimized process conditions of CCM andFCM under optimized process parameterswere packed in three different packagingmaterials (Aluminium, HDPE and LDPE)and were stored under ambient conditions(18˚C to 35˚C temperature, 45 to 55 %RH) for 3 months (Fig.2.2). The qualityparameters v iz . rehydra t ion ra t io (RR) ,colour (L-value), physiological loss in

methodology (RSM). In order to optimize

the process variables, only those responses

were selected for optimizat ion, which were

found to have non-signif icant lack of f i t .

The three dimensional plots and contour

p l o t s ( g r a p h i c a l m e t h o d ) w e r e d r a w n

according to the f i t ted model and f ixed

v a r i a b l e . T o l o c a l i z e a n o p t i m u m

condit ion, the superposi t ion technique was

employed fo r op t imiza t ion o f d i ffe ren t

p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s b y r e s p o n s e s u r f a c e

methodology.

weight % (PLW) and overall acceptabil i ty(OA) were evaluated at regular interval of15 days. The stat is t ical analysis of the dataw a s d o n e b y u n i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o fvariance (UNI-ANOVA) in general l inearmodel using Stat ist ical Package for SocialScience (SPSS, vers ion 11 .1) . Analys iswas done cons ider ing the main e ffec tsinteractions and test ing those at 5 % levelof significance.

LDPE) (Aluminium) (HDPE)

Fig 2.2 Dried garlic flakes in different packaging materials

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The optimum operat ing condit ions

for thin layer convect ive-cum-microwave

drying of garl ic s l ices were 0.5 % KMS,

59.41ºC and 810 W and for thin layer

f lu id ized-cum-microwave dry ing of gar l ic

s l i c e s w e r e 0 . 1 0 % K M S , 6 3 . 9 2 º C

tempera ture and 810 W, which i s fu r ther

p a c k e d i n d i f f e r e n t p a c k a g e s f o r 3

months .


25

Physicochemical properties of dried garlicflakes under storageEffect of storage process parameters on rehydrationratio The rehydrat ion rat io of the s toredproduc t dec reased wi th the inc rease instorage per iod (Fig. 3 .1) . Ini t ia l ly the FCMproduct has comparat ively low rehydrat ionr a t i o t h a n C C M d r i e d p a c k e d s a m p l e s( T a b l e 3 . 1 a n d 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a x i m u mvariat ion (2.875 to 2 .42) in rehydrat ionrat io with s torage per iod was observed inC C M d r i e d H D P E p a c k e d s a m p l e s a n d( 2 . 6 1 . t o 2 . 4 2 ) f o r F C M d r i e d , H D P Eand LDPE packed samples . The minimum

var ia t ion (2 .875 to 2 .45) in rehydrat ionra t io was observed in ra t io CCM dr ied ,packed samples and (2 .61 to 2 .43) FCMdried, a luminium packed samples (Table3.1& 3.2) . The univar ia te ANOVA alsoc o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h es torage per iod and packaging mater ia l hass ignif icant effec t on rehydrat ion ra t io a t 5% l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ( Ta b l e 3 . 3 ) .O v e r a l l t h e m i n i m u m v a r i a t i o n i nrehydrat ion ra t io wi th s torage per iod wasobserved for a luminium packed samplesthroughout s torage per iod i r respect ive ofthe hybr id drying adopted for the sampleprepara t ion.

Fig: 3.1 Variation in rehydration ratio withstorage period

Table 3.1 Quality attributes for garlic slices (CCM) packed in a)Aluminium, b)HDPE & c) LDPE bags with storage period (convective-cum-microwave)

Packaging material

ALUMINIUM

Storage period (Days)

RR COLOUR(BR)

Before rehydration

COLOUR (AR) After

rehydration

OA

PLW

(%) 0 2.88 67.41 68.83 7.0

15 2.85 63.03 64.29 6.6 0

30 2.65 61.09 61.43 6.6 0

45 2.50 56.42 61.54 6.3 0

60 2.49 55.36 61.23 6.0 0

75 2.48 55.23 60.45 6.0 0

90 2.45 54.89 60.06 6.0 0


26

Packaging material

Aluminum Storage period (Days)

RR COLOUR(BR)

Before rehydration

COLOUR(AR) After

rehydration OA PLW

(%)

0 2.61 67.27 69.26 7.3

15 2.55 65.93 69.03 7.0 0

30 2.53 64.46 65.26 6.6 0

45 2.51 62.27 63.03 6.3 0

60 2.46 61.58 62.43 6.3 0

75 2.45 61.42 61.94 6.0 0

90 2.43 60.31 61.04 6.0 0

Packaging material

LDPE Storage period (Days)

RR COLOUR(BR)

Before rehydration

COLOUR (AR) After

rehydration

OA

PLW

(%)

0 2.88 67.41 68.83 7.0

15 2.55 64.85 65.01 6.6 0

30 2.52 63.01 64.89 6.6 0

45 2.51 62.12 63.12 6.3 0

60 2.48 60.35 62.35 6.3 0

75 2.45 59.68 61.23 6.0 0

90 2.43 59.12 61.03 6.0 0

Packaging material HDPE Storage

period (Days)

RR COLOUR(BR)

Before rehydration

COLOUR (AR) Af ter

rehydration OA

PLW (%)

0 2.88 67.41 68.83 7.0

15 2.55 65.47 66.11 6.6 0

30 2.45 61.79 62.29 6.6 0

45 2.43 58.32 59.87 6.3 0

60 2.43 57.36 58.64 6.3 0

75 2.42 57.25 58.24 6.0 0

90 2.42 54.65 58.13 6.0 0

Table 3.2 Quality attributes for garlic sl ices (FCM) packed in Aluminium, HDPE &LDPE bags with storage period (fluidized bed-cum-microwave)


27

Packaging material

HDPE Storage period (Days)

RR COLOUR(BR)

Before rehydration

COLOUR(AR) After

rehydration OA PLW

(%)

0 2.61 67.27 69.26 7.3

15 2.55 67.13 69.15 7.0 0

30 2.53 65.89 66.75 6.6 0

45 2.50 62.98 63.06 6.6 0

60 2.48 62.46 62.78 6.0 0

75 2.45 61.78 62.12 6.0 0

90 2.42 60.45 61.45 6.0 0

Packaging material

LDPE Storage period (Days)

RR COLOUR(BR)

Before rehydration

COLOUR (AR) After

rehydration OA

PLW (%)

0 2.61 67.27 68.29 7.3

15 2.55 67.12 68.26 7.0 0

30 2.52 66.15 67.12 7.0 0

45 2.48 65.21 66.47 6.6 0

60 2.48 64.46 65.23 6.0 0

75 2.45 62.35 63.12 6.0 0

90 2.42 59.12 61.81 5.6 0

Effect of storage throughout storage periodin colour L-value

The colour (L-value) of the storedproduc t dec reased wi th the inc rease instorage period (Fig. 3.2). Initially the CCMproduct has comparatively low Colour (L-va lue) than FCM dr ied packed samples( T a b l e 3 . 1 a n d 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a x i m u mvariat ion (67.41 to 54.65) in colour (L-value) with storage period was observed inCCM dr ied , HDPE packed samples and(67.41 to 54 .65) for FCM dr ied , LDPEpacked samples . The minimum variat ion(67.41 to 59.12) in colour (L-value) waso b s e r v e d i n r a t i o C C M d r i e d , p a c k e dsamples and (67.27 to 60.31) FCM dried,a lumin ium packed samples (Table 3 .1&3 . 2 ) . T h e u n i v a r i a t e A N O VA a l s oc o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h esignificant of storage period and packagingmaterial has significant effect on colour

The colour (L-value) of the stored productdec reased wi th the inc rease in s to ragep e r i o d ( F i g . 3 . 2 ) . I n i t i a l l y t h e C C Mproduct has comparatively low Colour (L-value) than FCM dr ied packed samples( Ta b l e 3 . 1 a n d 3 . 2 ) . T h e m a x i m u mvariat ion (67.41 to 54.65) in colour (L-value) with storage period was observed inCCM dr ied , HDPE packed samples and(67.41 to 54.65) for FCM dr ied, LDPEpacked samples. The minimum variat ion(67.41 to 59.12) in colour (L-value) waso b s e r v e d i n r a t i o C C M d r i e d , p a c k e dsamples and (67.27 to 60.31) FCM dried,a luminium packed samples (Table 3 .1&3 . 2 ) . T h e u n i v a r i a t e A N O VA a l s oc o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h esignif icant of s torage period and packagingmaterial has signif icant effect on colour61.81) FCM dried, LDPE packed samples(Table 3.1& 3.2). The univariate ANOVA


28

also corroborated the results showing the

significant of storage period and packaging

material has significant effect on colour

(L-va lue) a t 5 % leve l o f s ign i f icance

(Table 3.5). Overall the minimum

va r i a t ion in co lou r (L -va lue ) w i th s to ragepe r iod was obse rved fo r LDPE packeds a m p l e s t h r o u g h o u t s t o r a g e p e r i o di r r e spec t ive o f t he hybr id d ry ing adop tedfo r t he sample p repa ra t ion .

Fig: 3.3 Variation in Colour(ARR) withstorage period

Fig: 3.2 Variation in Colour withstorage period

Effect of storage throughout storage periodin overall acceptability

The overa l l acceptabi l i ty of the

s tored product decreased wi th the increase

in s torage per iod (F ig . 3 .4) . In i t ia l ly the

C C M p r o d u c t h a s c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o w

o v e r a l l a c c e p t a b i l i t y t h a n F C M d r i e d

packed samples (Table 3 .1 and 3 .2) . The

s a m e v a r i a t i o n ( 7 . 0 t o 6 . 0 ) i n o v e r a l l

a c c e p t a b i l i t y w i t h s t o r a g e p e r i o d w a s

o b s e r v e d i n C C M d r i e d , A l u m i n u m ,

HDPE & LDPE packed samples and (7 .3

Fig: 3.4 Variation in overall acceptablitywith storage period

t o 6 ) f o r F C M d r i e d , L D P E p a c k e d

s a m p l e s . T h e u n i v a r i a t e A N O VA a l s o

c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h e

significant of storage period and packaging

material has significant effect on overall

acceptabil i ty at 5 % level of significance

( T a b l e 3 . 6 ) . O v e r a l l t h e m i n i m u m

var i a t i on i n ove ra l l a ccep t ab i l i t y w i th

s torage per iod was observed for LDPE

packed samples throughout storage period

irrespective of the hybrid drying adopted

for the sample preparation.

I t was observed that the no weight

l o s s ( Ta b l e 3 . 1 & 3 . 2 ) f o r a l l s a m p l e s

irrespective of storage period; that s tored

at room temperature in Al, HDPE & LDPE

p a c k a g i n g m a t e r i a l s f o r b o t h C C M &

FCM respectively.

Effect of storage conditions physiologicalon weight loss


29

CONCLUSION

I t can be conc luded f rom thepresent s tudy tha t for the gar l ic f lakes

0stored under ambient condition (18 -35 C,45-55% RH) fo r 3 months , the qua l i typarameters i .e . rehydrat ion rat io, colour(L-value) and overall acceptabil i ty reducedw i t h s t o r a g e p e r i o d i r r e s p e c t i v e o fp a c k a g i n g m a t e r i a l u s e d . A m o n g t h eh y b r i d d r y i n g t e c h n i q u e s a d o p t e d , t h egarlic f lakes developed under optimized

c o n d i t i o n o f f l u i d i z e d b e d - c u m -

microwave was found better in terms of

shelf l i fe and quali ty at tr ibutes. Among the

s e l e c t e d p a c k a g i n g m a t e r i a l s , t h e

a l u m i n i u m p a c k a g i n g p r o v e d b e s t i n

retaining the quali ty of dried garl ic f lakes.

Overall , i t can be said that garl ic f lakes

made by f lu id ized bed cum microwave

t echn ique and packaged i n A lumin ium

packs can be stored safely up to 3 months.

REFERENCES:

A b a n o E E , Q u W ( 2 0 1 1 ) E f f e c t s o f P r e -

t r e a t m e n t s o n t h e D r y i n g

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d C h e m i c a l

C o m p o s i t i o n o f G a r l i c S l i c e s i n a

C o n v e c t i v e H o t A i r D r y e r . J A g r i c F d

Te c h n o l . 5 : 5 0 - 5 8 .

B o x G E , B e h n k e n D W ( 1 9 6 0 ) S o m e n e w t h r e e l e v e l s d e s i g n s f o r t h e s t u d y o f q u a n t i t a t i v e v a r i a b l e s . Te c h n o m e t r i c s . 2 : 4 5 5 - 4 7 5 .B r o n d n i t z M H , P a s c a l e J U , Va n D L ( 1 9 7 1 ) F l a v o u r c o m p o n e n t o f g a r l i c e x t r a c t . J A g r i c F d C h e m . 1 9 : 2 7 3 - 2 7 5 .

Hunter S (1975) The measurement of appearance. J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , N e w York. pp 304-305.

K h r a i s h e h M A M , C o o p e r T J R , M a g e e T R A ( 1 9 9 7 ) S h r i n k a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o t a t o e s d e h y d r a t e d u n d e r c o m b i n e d m i c r o w a v e a n d c o n v e c t i v e a i r c o n d i t i o n s . D r y i n g Te c h n o l I n t . 1 5 : 1 0 0 3 - 1 0 2 2 .

Laul HS, Padma MS, Tosk JM (1990) Allium sativum (Garlic) and cancer prevention . J Nutr Res. 10 :937-948.

McMinn WMA, Magee TRA (1999) Principles, m e t h o d s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o n v e c t i v e d r y i n g o f f o o d s t u f f s . F d Bioprod Proc. 77:175-193.

Prabhanjan DG, Ramaswamy HS, Raghavan

G S V ( 1 9 9 5 ) M i c r o w a v e - a s s i s t e d

c o n v e c t i v e a i r d r y i n g o f t h i n l a y e r

carrots. J Fd Engg. 25 :283-293.

Ranganna S (1986) Handbook of analysis and quality control for fruits and vegetable

n d p r o d u c t s . 2 e d i t i o n , p p 1 7 1 - 7 4 . T a t a M c G r a w H i l l p u b l i s h i n g company Ltd. New Delhi, India.


30

Osmotic dehydration of Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) Cubes

* 1 1,2 1Sangeeta , Maya Rathod , Bahadur Singh Hathan

1Department of Food Engineering and Technology,Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, (SLIET),

Sangrur, Punjab, India, 1481062 Department of Food Technology,Desh Bhagat University,

Mandi Gobindgarh,Punjab*E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Osmotic dehydration of elephant foot yam was done in different concentration of sucrosesolution at different temperature for regular interval of time. The osmotic solution

0 0concentrations used were 40, 50, 60 Bx, osmotic solution temperatures were 35, 45, 55 C andthe process duration varied from 0 to 240 min. The fruit to solution ratio was kept constanti.e. 1:5 (w/w) during all the experiments. The experimental data of water loss and solute gainwas fitted to different empirical kinetic models viz. Peleg, Penetration, Magee, and Azuara toknow the best fitted model to the experimental data. Out of all the applied models, Mageemodel and Azuara model were the best fitted as compared to other models for water loss andsolute gain of elephant foot yam, respectively.

Keywords: Elephant Foot Yam, osmotic dehydration, kinetics, empirical models

INTRODUCTION

Elephant foot yam, Amorphophallus paeoniifoliusi s very much prevalent in Phi l ippines ,I n d i a , M a l a y s i a , I n d o n e s i a , C h i n a ,S r i L a n k a a n d m a n y o t h e r S o u t h e a s tA s i a n c o u n t r i e s ( R a v i e t a l 2 0 0 9 ) .T h e t u b e r s o f e l e p h a n t f o o t y a m a r ec o m m o n l y u s e d a s a v e g e t a b l e a f t e rcooking and in preparation of indigenousayurvedic medicines (Mishra et al 2002).T h e t u b e r s a r e c h e a p e s t s o u r c e o fcarbohydrates mainly starch and fibres,v i t a m i n s a n d m i n e r a l s ( B r a d b u r y a n dHolloway 1988) and play a importantl rolein food securi ty and are the importantstaple or subsidiary food for a large groupof population (Sreerag et al 2014). Tubershave a short shelf life because of their highmoisture content. One of the best ways top r e s e r v e t h e m m a y b e b y p r o c e s s i n gmethods l ike drying, dehydration or byobtaining flour and/or starches. Due to ther e d u c t i o n o f m o i s t u r e c o n t e n tby various means the shelf life of corms can be

increased. In recent years, for preservationo f f r u i t s a n d v e g e t a b l e s o s m o t i cd e h y d r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e i s g a i n i n gconsiderable amount of at tention due to i ts potential to keep sensory and nutr i t ionalp r o p e r t i e s s i m i l a r t o t h e f r e s h f r u i t s(Garc í a -Mar t inez e t a l 2002) . Osmot i cd e h y d r a t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f w a t e rremoval by immersion of water containingcellular sol id in a concentrated aqueouss o l u t i o n o f h i g h o s m o t i c p r e s s u r e(hypertonic media) for a specif ied t ime andtempera tu re . Wate r r emova l in osmot icdehydrat ion is based on the natural andnon-dest ruct ive phenomenon of osmosisacross cel l membranes. The driving forcefor water removal from cell is potentiald i fference be tween osmot ic pressure offresh mater ia l and surrounding solut ion( C o r z o a n d B r a c h o 2 0 0 5 ) . O s m o t i cdehydra t ion i s ac tua l ly combina t ion o fsimultaneous water and solute diffusionprocess (Rahman and Lamb 1990) meansm a s s t r a n s f e r c o n s i s t s o f t w o m a j o rsimultaneous counter-current f luxes of


31

water and solutes because complex cel lwal l s t ructure is not perfect ly select ive(Madamba 2003) . Leaching of negl igibleamount of natural solutes f rom food intosolut ion has considered as third minor f lux(Rastogi and Raghavarao 2004) . This pre-t reatment minimize color losses as wel l asreduce nutr ient losses due to drying. Theinf luence of the main process var iablessuch as concentrat ion and composi t ion ofosmotic solut ion, temperature , immersiont ime, pre- t reatments , agi ta t ion, nature offood and i ts geometry, solut ion to samplerat io on the kinet ics of mass t ransfer andp r o d u c t q u a l i t y h a v e b e e n s t u d i e de x t e n s i v e l y ( K a y m a k - E r t e k i n a n dS u l t a n o g l u 2 0 0 0 ; R a s t o g i e t a l 2 0 0 2 ;

Panades et a l 2008) . Considerable effor thas been made toward developing modelsto predict the mass t ransfer kinet ics ofo s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s . I n t h i sregard, several equat ions based on Fick 'ssecond law have been proposed which aren o t u s e f u l p r a c t i c a l l y b e c a u s e o funreal is t ic assumptions and complexi ty of

the some equat ions (Chausi e t a l 2001) .S o m e r e s e a r c h e r s ( P e l e g 1 9 8 8 ; A z u a r a1 9 9 2 ; M a g e e e t a l 1 9 8 3 ; p e n e t r a t i o n ( R a h a m a n 1 9 9 2 ) r e c o m m e n d e d s i m p l e rempir ical equat ions including parameterswi th physical meaning. These empir ica lequat ions have been used to model the ra teof dehydra t ion o f d i ffe ren t p lan t -basedmater ia ls (Kaymak-Ertekin and Sul tanoglu2000; García-Pascual e t a l 2006; Singh eta l 2 0 0 7 ; K h i n e t a l 2 0 0 6 ; S c h m i d t e ta l . 2009 and Mercal i e t a l 2010) . However,l i te ra ture about the su i tab i l i ty of thesee q u a t i o n s t o m o d e l t h e m a s s t r a n s f e rk i n e t i c s o f o s m o t i c a l l y d e h y d r a t e delephant foot yam is very rare . So, the a imof present s tudy was to evaluate the effecto f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d s u c r o s e s o l u t i o nc o n c e n t r a t i o n o n m a s s t r a n s f e r d u r i n gosmotic dehydrat ion process and to assessthe predict ive capaci ty of Peleg, Azuara ,magee and penetra t ion equat ions dur ingosmotic dehydrat ion of e lephant foot yamcubes in sucrose solut ion.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Osmotic dehydration of Elephant FootYam cubes

Osmotic dehydrat ion Elephant Foot Yam(EFY) cubes having size 1 cm x1 cm x 1c m w a s d o n e i n o s m o t i c s o l u t i o n o fsucrose having d i ffe ren t concent ra t ions(40, 50, 60°Bx) and solut ion temperature(35, 45, 55°C). Vegetable to solut ion rat iowas kep t 1 :5 (w/w) (Mannivanan e t a l2008) during osmotic dehydrat ion for aregular interval of t ime period of (0-240m i n ) . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e o s m o t i csolut ion was maintained by hot water bathagi ta t ing @ 50 osci l la t ions per minute . Agitat ion was given during osmosis forreducing the mass t ransfer resis tance at thesurface of the frui t and for good mixingand close temperature control in osmoticm e d i u m ( K a r e l 1 9 7 6 ; B o n g i r w a r a n dSreenivasan 1977; Mavroudis et al 1998;Chopra 2001). Stain less s teel containers

( o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 0 m l c a p a c i t y )containing osmotic solution were kept inhot water bath. After attainment of desiredtemperature of the solution, known weightof EFY cubes was put in to the container.The EFY cubes from each container werer e m o v e d a t s p e c i f i e d t i m e a n d w e r eimmediately rinsed with running water toremove the solute adhered to fruit surface.The cubes were then spread on muslincloth to remove the free water from theouter surface of the EFY cubes. The cubeswere then put in the pre-weighed petri-dishfor determination of dry matter by ovenmethod. During experimentation , i t wasassumed that the amount of solid (sugars,acids, minerals, vitamins) leaching out ofproduct into the medium was consideredq u a n t i t a t i v e l y n e g l i g i b l e ( B i s w a l a n dBozorgmehr 1992; Lazarides et al 1995;Singh et al 1999).The water loss and solutegain were calculated as given below:


32

Let , ini t ia l dry matter of f resh vegetable = Z %

I n i t i a l w e i g h t o f v e g e t a b l e t a k e n f o ro s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o n = W ( g )0

In i t ia l d ry mat te r of vegetab le =

ھھوoW Z

= S say)o (

Let the weight of vegetable after osmotic dehydrationfor any time t = W (g)t

And the dry matter of vegetable after osmoticdehydration for time t = S (g)t

Validation of empirical models for osmotic

d e h y d r a t i o n o f E F Y c u b e s T h e

validity of following empirical models for

Solute gain after osmotic dehydration fortime t, SG= S –S (g)t o

Water Loss, WL =WR + SG

Wa t e r l o s s i n g / 1 0 0 g f r e s h s a m p l e =

ھھو

o

WL

W (1)

So lu te ga in in g /100g f r e sh sample =

ھھو

o

SG

W (2)

wate r loss and so lu te ga in dur ing osmot ic

dehydra t ion (Table 1 ) was checked by non

l inear regress ion technique .

Table 1. Selected osmotic dehydration models

Model Name Model Reference

Penetration model WL or SG = K* t Rahaman (1992)

Peleg Model WL or SG = K1 + K2*t Peleg (1988)

Magee Model WL or SG = A + K*t1 /2 Magee et al (1983)

Azuara Model

t

tWL

t

WLtSGorWL tt

1

1

1

11

)(

Azuara et al (1992), Kaymak-Ertein et al (2000)

Azuara e t a l (1992) developed a model

f r o m m a s s b a l a n c e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o

predic t the kinet ics and f inal equi l ibr ium

point of osmot ic dehydrat ion by us ing data

obta ined dur ing re la t ively shor t per iod of

osmosis . In Azuara model , the constant 1

Adequacy of fit of empirical models

To f i t t he exper imen ta l da ta to the va r ious

empi r i ca l mode l s , r eg ress ion ana lys i s has

been ca r r i ed ou t by s t a t i s t i ca l so f tware

STATSTICA 7 .0 fo r windows (S ta t so f t ,

Inc Tu l sa OK U.SA. ) . To se lec t the bes t

equa t ion va r ious s t a t i s t i ca l pa ramete r s ,

such as r educed χ2 and roo t mean square2

e r ro r (RMSE) in add i t ion to R , were a l so

used as p r imary c r i t e r ion (S ingh e t a l .

is related to the rates of water diffusion out– 1

from the sample (min ) . For solute gain

instead of and , constant used are1 WL

2 and , otherwise the formula used is

same as that of water loss.

2 0 0 7 ) . F o r e v a l u a t i n g n o n l i n e a r

mathematical models, these parameters are

not a good criterion therefore, to select the

best equation to account for variation in

the drying curves of the dried samples, the

percent mean relative deviation modulus

(E%) that indicate the deviation of the

observed data from the predicted line was

a l so used a s r ecommended by seve ra l

authors in their drying studies (Azoubel et


33

a l 2004) . The re fo re , t he bes t mode l waschosen a s one wi th the h ighes t coe ff i c i en t

2o f c o r r e l a t i o n ( R ) ; a n d t h e l e a s t χ2 ,R M S E , a n d m e a n r e l a t i v e d e v i a t i o nmodu lus (E% ) .

2R is a measure of the amount of variation aroundthe mean explained by model.

N

i nN

valuepredictedValuealExperimentSquareChi

1

22

Where, n = no. of unknown and

N= Data point measured

N

i N

valuepredictedvaluealExperimenterrorsquaremeanRootRMSE

1

2

T h e m e a n r e l a t i v e d e v i a t i o n E ( % ) i s a na b s o l u t e v a l u e t h a t w a s u s e d b e c a u s e i tg i v e s a c l e a r i d e a o f t h e m e a n d i v e rg e n c eo f t h e e s t i m a t e d d a t a f r o m t h e m e a s u r e dd a t a .

N

i valuealExperiment

valuepredictedValuealExperiment

NE

1

100(%)


D u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s o n o s m o t i c

dehydrationof EFY cubes an increase in

w a t e r l o s s a n d s o l u t e g a i n h a s b e e n

observed with increase of osmotic solution

concen t ra t ion , p rocess t empera ture and

time. The rates of water loss and solute

gain were higher in the init ial stages and

approached to zero in the later stages. The

process variables have significant effect on

the constants and exponents of the various

empirical models fi t ted to the water loss

a n d s o l u t e g a i n d a t a o b t a i n e d d u r i n g

osmot ic dehydra t ion . The va l ida t ion of

various models for water loss and solute

gain during osmotic dehydration of EFY

cubes has been discussed below:

Validation of empirical models for water loss

T h e v a l u e s o f s t a t i s t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s ,

m o d e l s c o n s t a n t s a n d c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r

water loss dur ing osmot ic dehydra t ion a re

g iven in Tables 2 and 3 . Out o f the f i t t ed

models , the va lues of , RMSE and E%2

w e r e l o w e r f o r M a g e e m o d e l i n

compar i son to the Pe leg model and Azuara

model . There was a very good adequacy

between pred ic ted and observed da ta wi th2co r re l a t ion coe ff i c i en t 'R ' h ighe r t han

0 . 9 6 f o r w a t e r l o s s i n c a s e o f M a g e e

m o d e l . H o w e v e r , A z a r p a z h o o h a n d

Ramaswamy (2010) repor ted tha t Pe leg

model was a bes t f i t model fo r water loss

in osmot ic dehydra t ion , bu t th i s model d id

The va lues o f E l e s s than 5 .0 ind ica te anexce l l en t f i t , wh i l e va lues g rea te r than 10are ind ica t ive o f a poor f i t .not f i t to the exper imenta l da ta in thepresent s tudy because of high value of E%,

RMSE and . The Azuara model (Table2

3) indicates that the predicted values ofe q u i l i b r i u m w a t e r l o s s w e r e 4 0 . 2 3 1 ,49.786, 59.324 g/100 g of sample at 35,4 5 , 5 5 ° C , r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r o s m o t i c

◦s o l u t i o n o f 5 0 B x c o n c e n t r a t i o n .Therefore, with increase of temperature ofosmotic solut ion, the values of water lossat equil ibrium have been increased. Thepredicted values of equil ibrium water losswere 57.14, 59.32, 60.24 g/ 100 g of fresh

◦frui t in 40, 50, 60 Bx, respectively, at 55◦C o f o s m o t i c s o l u t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e .

Therefore, with increase of concentrat ionof osmotic solut ion, the values of waterloss at equil ibrium have been increased.The values of indicates that the rates of1b

w a t e r l o s s w e r e h i g h e r a t h i g h e rc o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e i nc o m p a r i s o n t o t h e l o w v a l u e s o fconcentrat ion and temperature may be dueto the fact that increase in osmotic solut ionconcentrat ion increases the concentrat iongradient and in turn the driving force forosmotic dehydrat ion process (Rastogi andR a g h a v a r a o 2 0 0 4 ) a n d i n c r e a s e i ntemperature decreases the viscosi ty of theosmotic solut ion, decreases the externalresis tance to mass transfer rate at productsurface; and thus faci l i tate the outf low ofw a t e r f r o m c u b e s .The comparat ive val idi ty of the variousmodels f i t ted to the water loss data can

34

a l so be r ep resen ted f rom the p red ic t edcurves o f va r ious mode l s (F igu re 1 ) . TheF igure ind ica t e s tha t t he p red ic t ed va lues

obta ined f rom Magee model a re very c loseto the exper imenta l va lues .

Table 2. Various regression coefficient and statistical parameters of Magee and Peleg model forwater loss

Magee model (water loss) Peleg model (water loss)

Conc (°Bx)

Temp. (°C) A K R2

2 E% RMSE K1 K2 R2

2 E% RMSE

40 35 3.01677

2.5059

0.97

6.1022

11.1078

2.5723

14.78721

0.12359

0.91

16.9309

18.754

4.1147

40 45 6.2810

6.3820

0.98

1.6144

4.5476

1.3710

17.78264

0.12849

0.92

6.84894

11.119

2.61704

40 55 3.7845

3.8855

0.97

4.7640

6.4143

2.2828

20.80045

0.19062

0.90

22.1364

15.7564

4.70493

50 35 2.0695

2.0795

0.99

1.3906

4.3637

1.2793

15.54508

0.15215

0.92

10.15608

13.80795

3.1868

50 45 7.7284

7.7164

0.98

4.2946

6.6693

2.0825

21.47233

0.15069

0.88

16.8150

14.25272

4.10061

50 55 4.9950

4.8960

0.98

3.1760

4.9317

1.7724

23.45795

0.21256

0.92

20.9119

13.5888

4.5729

60 35 5.5333

5.4343

0.98

3.1847

5.6983

1.7943

20.37269

0.16658

0.90

15.7033

14.25569

3.9627

60 45 8.2063

8.1073

0.97

10.135

7.9162

3.998

25.21692

0.18684

0.85 31.79

15.0833

5.6382

60 55 4.0344

4.0234

0.99

3.1039

3.8266

1.7720

23.76347

0.23316

0.94

18.20551

11.78207

4.2667

Table 3. Various regression coefficient and statistical parameters of Auara model forwater loss

Conc (°Bx) Temp. (°C)

WL8 1 R2 2 E% RMSE

40 35 37.547 0.0114 0.99 3.0124 6.6984 0.3042

40 45 46.569 0.0135 0.98 3.2567 10.254 0.38547

40 55 57.142 0.0175 0.98 4.123 8.564 0.4587

50 35 40.231 0.0186 0.99 11.256 7.987 1.2354

50 45 49.786 0.0935 0.99 17.564 10.564 0.3154

50 55 59.324 0.0212 0.99 3.654 11.256 0.9574

60 35 42.214 0.0223 098 19.564 13.564 0.5604

60 45 52.321 0.0243 0.99 13.254 6.354 1.2635

60 55 60.245 0.0258 0.99 26.145 8.954 1.321


35

Fig 1 . Plot for various predicted and experimental values for water loss with t ime at40°Bx at 45° C

Empirical models for Solute gain duringosmotic dehydrat ionThe so lu te ga in dur ing the p rocess o f

o s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o n a t v a r i o u s

concentrat ions and at various temperatures

was observed at regular intervals of t ime.

T h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e g o e s o n

increasing with the passage of t ime and

become a lmos t cons t an t a t t he end o f

process.

There was a ve ry good adequacy be tween

p r e d i c t e d a n d o b s e r v e d d a t a w i t h2

co r r e l a t i on coe ff i c i en t 'R ' h ighe r t han

0 .96 fo r so lu te ga in (Tab le 4 and 5 ) in case

of Azuara mode l . The va lues fo r E%,

RMSE and a re l e s s a s compared to2other models and value of R² is h igh thanother models , which is the cr i ter ia used forthe adequacy of good f i t t ing of Model .Adequacy of f i t t ing of Azuara model is ingood agreement wi th the resul ts found byMundada e t a l (2010) in case of osmoticd e h y d r a t i o n o f p o m e g r a n a t e a r i l s . T h ecomparison of exper imental and predictedv a l u e s o f v a r i o u s o s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o nmodels for solute gain could be analyzedvisual ly in the Figure 2 . The predic tedva lues o f so lu te ga in g iven by Azuaramodel were very c lose to the exper imentalv a l u e s f o r s o l u t e g a i n d u r i n g o s m o t i cdehydrat ion of EFY cubes .

Table 4 .Various regress ion coeff ic ient and stat is t ical parameters of Magee and PelegModel for solute gain

Magee model (solute gain) Peleg model (solute gain)

Conc.(°Bx)

Temp.( ° C ) A K 2R

2 E%RMSE K1 K2

2R2 E%

RMSE

40 35 1.6957 0.7824 0.98 0.2127 4.4275 0.3457 4.4329 0.03458 0.91 0.573 10.69 0.7573

40 45 2.9609 0.8472 0.99 0.0694 2.1855 0.2634 6.30406 0.04279 0.94 0.592 8.442 0.7695

40 55 3.5877 0.9240 0.99 0.1015 1.8886 0.3187 7.2927 0.04805 0.97 0.309 5.342 0.5559

36

50 35 2.2932 0.7861 0.98 0.1084 3.5912 0.3293 5.54218 0.04001 0.93 0.641 9.9769 0.8011

50 45 4.0481 0.8481 0.99 0.0529 1.9356 0.2400 7.46864 0.04399 0.97 0.282 5.4214 0.5312

50 55 4.5820 1.1402 0.99 0.1279 1.8948 0.3576 9.1689 0 .05931 0.97 0.449 4.369 0.6707

60 35 2.6721 0.8614 0.99 0.0407 1.6916 0.2018 6.20413 0.04439 0.96 0.408 6.3006 0.6392

60 45 4.0604 1.0879 0.99 0.0562 1.7448 0.2573 8.4532 0.056201 0.96 0.586 5.5548 0.7656

60 55 4.6557 1.5219 0.99 0.2668 2.6868 0.5261 10.8119 0.07781 0.94 1.984 7.8928 1.4088

Table 5. Various regression coefficient and statistical parameters of Auara model for solutegain

Conc (°Bx) Temp (°C)

SG8 2 R2 2 E% RMSE

40 35 7.521 0.0348 0.98 0.0999 5.1326 0.0356

40 45 8.654 0.0254 0.99 0.0450 6.5478 0.0645

40 55 9.123 0.0088 0.98 0.0654 8.654 0.0795

50 35 9.2654 0.0045 0.99 0.0147 9.6479 0.0214

50 45 9.641 0.00145 0.99 0.1254 11.3255 0.0145

50 55 12.864 0.0013 0.99 0.3159 8.987 0.0478

60 35 10.764 0.0064 0.98 0.2647 4.679 0.0347

60 45 11.965 0.00564 0.99 0.1345 11.255 0.0614

60 55 12.954 0.00154 0.99 0.2359 8.789 0.0874


37

Fig 2. Plot for various predicted and experimental values for solute gain with time at 40°Bx at 45° CA c c o r d i n g t o A z u a r a m o d e l ( Ta b l e 5 ) ,predicted values of equi l ibr ium solute gainwere 9 .26, 9 .64, 12.86 g/100 g of f reshsample at 35, 45, 55°C, respect ively, for

◦osmotic solut ion of 50 Bx concentrat ion.Therefore , with increase of temperature ofosmotic solut ion, the values of solute gainat equi l ibr ium have been increased. Theva lues o f equ i l ib r ium so lu te ga in were9 . 1 2 , 1 2 . 8 6 , 1 2 . 9 5 4 g / 1 0 0 g o f f r e s hsample in 40, 50, 60°Bx, respect ively, a t55°C of osmotic solut ion temperature asp red i c t ed by Azua ra mode l . The re fo r e ,with increase of concentrat ion of osmotics o l u t i o n , t h e v a l u e s o f s o l u t e g a i n a tequi l ibr ium have been increased. The

values of indicates that the rates ofw a t e r l o s s w e r e h i g h e r a t h i g h e rc o n c e n t r a t i o n s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e i nc o m p r a s i o n t o t h e l o w v a l u e s o fconcentration and temperature. It may bedue to the fact that the low concentrationof sugar syrup may get diluted and reach the nearsaturat ion point quickly. An increase inosmotic solution concentration increasesthe concentration gradient and in turn thed r i v i n g f o r c e f o r o s m o t i c d e h y d r a t i o nprocess and high temperature decrease ther e s i s t a n c e d u e t o h i g h v i s c o s i t y b ylower ing down the v i scos i ty o f h igh lyconcentrated solution.

و

CONCLUSION

T h e o s m o t i c s o l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,

t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t i m e h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t

e ffec t on wate r loss and so lu te ga in dur ing

osmot ic dehydra t ion of EFY cubes . The

effec t o f p rocess var iab les on wate r loss

and so lu te ga in can be represen ted by the

model constants . Among di fferent appl iede q u a t i o n s , M a g e e a n d A u a r a m o d e lshowed the bes t f i t t ing to the exper imenta ld a t a f o r w a t e r l o s s a n d s o l i d g a i n ,r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e o s m o t i cdehydrat ion process of EFY cubes can besuccess fu l ly represen ted by appropr ia temodels for sca le up purposes .

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A survey of bioresources based Industry of Punjab 1 1 * 2Neeelima Jerath , Gurharminder Singh , Dhiraj Kumar Sehgal

1Member Secretary,

Senior Scientific Officer, Punjab Biodiversity Board, Chandigarh2Department of Life Sciences

Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh

*E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

India accounts for 7.8% of the recorded species of the world and is one of the 17mega diverse countries in terms of biodiversity. Sustainable use of our biodiversity has bothecological and economic value as it is linked to local livelihoods of millions of people andalso has the potential of becoming the core strength of Indian economy. Punjab's largeagricultural base gives it a competitive advantage in various industries such as foodprocessing, textiles, paper, leather, and other agro based industries, which are rapidly movingup in production and contributing to the state's economy. Realizing the crucial role ofbiological resources in industrial production and socio-economic development in the state, asurvey was undertaken on “Bioresources based Industry of Punjab”. The present paper isan outcome of this study, where an attempt has been made to identify and assess volumes ofmajor bioresources used in Punjab and their commercial potential. Special focus has beenaccorded to collect primary data on commercial utilization of those species (includingmedicinal plants) which are generally available in the wild and their trade is restricted tocertain parts of the state (like Majith Mandi, Amritsar). The study attempts to assess theireconomic potential in order to promote their conservation and sustainable use. For this,extensive field visits were carried out in all districts to collect first hand information on use ofbiological resources by registered herbal units/pharmacies of the State. The data has beenthoroughly categorized, critically analyzed and interpreted to draw logical conclusions.Further, this data needs to be supplemented with information on unregistered units, cottage &tiny units and use of botanicals by local hakims and voids as well.

Keywords: Bioresources, plants, Punjab, Industrialization

INTRODUCTION

T h e v a r i e t y o f g e n e s , s p e c i e s a n d

ecosystems which encompass popula t ions ,

c o m m u n i t i e s & h a b i t a t s c o n s t i t u t e

b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y . I t f o r m s t h e

foundat ion upon which human c ivi l iza t ion

depends and is essent ia l for mainta ining

the bas ic l i fe processes and for performing

e n v i r o n m e n t a l s e r v i c e s . P o p u l a t i o n

p r e s s u r e , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , i n t e n s i v e

agr icul tura l and extensive use of natura l

resources are , however, leading to loss of

b i o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s .

Ind i a accoun t s fo r 7 .8% o f t he g loba l

recorded species and is one of the 17 mega

d i v e r s e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d . F o u r

biodivers i ty hot spots of world (out of 35)

exist in India. The country is estimated to

h o u s e a b o u t 4 5 , 0 0 0 p l a n t s p e c i e s a n d

89,442 animal species representing 12.5%

of the world's flora and 6.6% of fauna. The

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 has been

enacted by the Govt. of India to promote

conservation and sustainable of biological

r e s o u r c e s . P u n j a b i s p r i m a r i l y a n

agricultural state with about 84% land area

u n d e r a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e s t a t e h a r b o r e d

considerable genetic variabili ty in the past,

b o t h , i n w i l d a n d c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s .

However, this has reduced over the years

d u e t o c h a n g e s i n c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n ,

extensive & intensive farming and higher

dependence on HYVs. Though the state

has only 6% area under forests, yet a large


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variety of f lora & fauna has been recordedf r o m S h i v a l i k s a n d w e t l a n d s . D a t aindicates the presence of 397 species ofalgae, >560 species of fungi , 21 species ofl i c h e n s , 3 4 s p e c i e s o f b r y o p h y t e s ,2 1 s p e c i e s o f g y m n o s p e r m s a n d 1 9 3 9species of angiosperms in the s tate . Faunaldiversi ty includes 112species of f ishes, 15s p e c i e s o f a m p h i b i a n s , 3 5 s p e c i e s o fr e p t i l e s , 4 4 2 s p e c i e s o f b i r d s a n d 4 3s p e c i e s o f m a m m a l s , b e s i d e s , l a r g enumber of invertebrates . Prior to the greenr e v o l u t i o n , 4 1 v a r i e t i e s o f w h e a t , 3 7variet ies of r ice, 4 variet ies of maize, 3v a r i e t i e s o f b a j r a , 1 6 v a r i e t i e s o fsugarcane, 19species/variet ies of pulses , 9s p e c i e s / v a r i e t i e s o f o i l s e e d s a n d 1 0variet ies of cot ton were reported to be inuse in Punjab. Data indicates that out of 49post green revolut ion variet ies of wheatreleased by PAU, only 3 are widely used.S i m i l a r l y, o u t o f 2 7 v a r i e t i e s o f r i c ereleased, only 9 are current ly in use. Thestate has done remarkably well in the f ieldof agricul ture and is now laying emphasison promoting industr ial growth. Present ly,t he re a r e 162 ,559 sma l l s ca l e and 373large and medium sca le indus t r ies . TheI n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n h a s m o r e t h a ndoubled in bo th , smal l sca le indus t r i es( f rom Rs .183.24 b i l l ion in 2001 to Rs .4 1 8 . 9 6 b i l l i o n i n 2 0 1 0 ) a s w e l l a smedium/large scale industr ies ( f rom Rs.265.76 bi l l ion in 2001 to Rs 583.12 bi l l ionin 2010). Various industr ial sectors l ikep r o c e s s e d f o o d , r i c e , y a r n & t e x t i l e ,hosiery, pulp & paper and sports goodsdepend upon biological resources whicha r e b e i n g c u l t i v a t e d a n d a r e n o r m a l l yt r a d e d . T h e s h a r e o f i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r( S e c o n d a r y S e c t o r ) t o S t a t e G r o s sDomestic Product has increased from 20%in 1980-81 to 29% in2009-10. There arealso 255 registered herbal uni ts operat ingin the Sta te , bes ides many unregis teredu n i t s . T h e s e a r e e x t e n s i v e l y u t i l i z i n gm e d i c i n a l p l a n t s a n d h e r b s w h i c h a r eobtained from various parts of Punjab andadjoining s tates . No systematic s tudy hasbeen carr ied out in the State to assess the

u t i l i za t ion and marke t ing o f b io log ica l

r e s o u r c e s , w h i c h a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t

normal ly t raded and are exempted f rom

provis ions of the Biologica l Divers i ty Act ,

2 0 0 2 p r o v i d e d t h e y a r e t r a d e d a s

commodi t ies , as not i f ied by Govt . of India

u n d e r s e c t i o n 4 0 o f t h e B i o l o g i c a l

Divers i ty Act , 2002 (commonly refer red to

as 'normal ly t raded commodi ty ' l i s t ) . The

present s tudy gives a br ief overview of

var ious b ioresources based indust r ies in

the s ta te wi th specia l focus on indust r ies

u s i n g m e d i c i n a l a n d a r o m a t i c p l a n t s ,

w h i c h a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e a b o v e

n o t i f i c a t i o n , t o a s s e s s t h e i r e c o n o m i c

p o t e n t i a l s o a s t o p r o m o t e t h e i r

c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d s u s t a i n a b l e u s e .

Extens ive f ie ld v is i t s were made to col lec t

pr imary as wel l as secondary data .

Bioresources based industry in Punjab

Punjab 's large agr icul tura l base gives i t ac o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e i n v a r i o u s a g r ob a s e d i n d u s t r i e s l i k e f o o d p r o c e s s i n g ,t e x t i l e s , p a p e r , l e a t h e r , e t c . F u r t h e r ,b i o r e s o u r c e s ( i n c l u d i n g m e d i c i n a l a n daromat ic p lants) are a lso being used as rawm a t e r i a l b y s o m e p h a r m a c e u t i c a l &nutraceut ical indust ry in the s ta te . Most oft h e r a w m a t e r i a l b e i n g u s e d b y t h e s eindustr ies i s e i ther being cul t ivated or i sc o v e r e d u n d e r t h e a b o v e r e f e r r e dn o t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e M i n i s t r y o fEnvironment and Fores ts , Govt . of India .The Minis t ry had exempted 190 biologicalresources including 35 medicinal p lants ,28 sp ices and 127other c rops f rom thepurview of the Biological Divers i ty Act ,2002 . P r io r pe rmiss ion o f the Na t iona lB i o d i v e r s i t y A u t h o r i t y w o u l d n o t b erequired for expor t of these 190 i tems.However, cer ta in raw mater ia ls used bythe indust ry are obta ined f rom the wi ld andare covered under the provis ions of theB i o l o g i c a l D i v e r s i t y A c t ; 2 0 0 2 . D a t ai n d i c a t e s t h a t o u t o f t h e t o t a l 3 7 3large/medium uni ts (LMU) in the s ta te ,310 uni ts (83%) are ut i l iz ing bio-resourcesas major raw mater ia l . These include 142uni ts of food products & beverages (45%),


42

96 text i le uni ts of both, natural & synthet icf ibre (31%) and 33 paper & paper productsunits (11%). The maximum bioresourcesb a s e d L M U s a r e l o c a t e d i n d i s t r i c tLudhiana (77) fol lowed by distr icts Pat iala(59), and Mohali & Amritsar (32 each).Data also indicates that 13% (20,940) ofthe t o t a l Sma l l Sca l e Un i t s (SSU) a r eb i o r e s o u r c e b a s e d e n t e r p r i s e s . T h e s einclude food products &beverages (6081),leather & leather products (4263), text i les( 1 4 2 5 a p p r o x . ) , w o o d p r o d u c t s(2783) , fu rn i tu re (2621) , paper & paperp roduc t s (754) , rubbe r p roduc t s (647) ,hosiery & garments 394),pharmaceuticals& botanicals (212) and tobacco products(7 ) . Ludh iana (4292) , Amr i t sa r (2816) ,Sangrur (2803) and Jalandhar (1926) areleading dis t r ic ts for b ioresources basedS S U s i n t h e s t a t e . P u n j a b ' s f o o d a n dbeverage indus t r i a l sec to r covers g ra inp r o c e s s i n g , a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s , f r u i ta n d v e g e t a b l e p r o c e s s i n g , m e a t a n dpoultry, milk & milk products , sugar &edible oi l , soya based products , e tc . Thereare total 6223 food and beverage industr iesin s t a te cons i s t ing 142 LMUs and6081SSUs, and maximum units are s i tuated inDistr ict Sangur (841), Ludhiana (627) &Amritsar (615). Eighty one per cent uni tsare manufacturing grain/cereal based foodproducts & animal feed. The text i le sectorc o n t r i b u t e s a b o u t 1 9 % t o t h e t o t a lindustr ial production and about 38% to thetotal exports from Punjab. The sector isa l s o o n e o f t h e l a rg e s t e m p l o y m e n t a zprovider and accounts for almost 60% ofi n d u s t r i a l e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e s t a t ei n c l u d i n g t h e l a r g e s t e m p l o y m e n tproviding sec tor to women. The text i lesector is s t rong on al l aspects of the valuechain, i .e . , f rom the raw material s tage tothe f inished products s tage. Natural f ibersare being used by 45% of LMU/SSU units ,whereas 55% un i t s a r e u s ing a r t i f i c i a lf ibers , which are cheaper as compared tonatural f ibers . Out of a total of 3264 text i leunits (3168 SSU and 96 LMU) in the s tate ,over 1460 units are bioresource base. Morethan two third of text i le uni ts (76%) are

manufactur ing kni t ted and crocheted fabr ic&art ic les and remaining 24% are involvedi n s p i n n i n g , w e a v i n g a n d f i n i s h i n g .Ludhiana is one of the important centres ofh o s i e r y i n d u s t r y o f I n d i a f o r c o t t o n ,wool len and synthet ic kni twear. Ludhianahosiery industry caters to about 90% of thetota l demand of wool lens bes ides , beingl e a d i n g e x p o r t e r t o U S A , E u r o p e a n dM i d d l e E a s t . T h e l e a t h e r i n d u s t r y i nPunjab is facing a shor tage of qual i ty hideseven though cat t le head count of the s ta tes tands only second to Ut tar Pradesh in thecountry. Present ly, more than 40% of ther a w m a t e r i a l i s b e i n g p u r c h a s e d f r o mouts ide the s ta te . Leather products worthRs.2 .17 bi l l ion and Rs.2 .34 bi l l ion haveb e e n e x p o r t e d m o s t l y t o E u r o p e a ncountr ies f rom the s ta te in the years 2009a n d 2 0 1 0 r e s p e c t i v e l y. T h e r e a r e 4 2 6 8leather goods industr ies operat ional in thes ta te compris ing 5LMUs and 4263 SSUs.D a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t 6 5 3 r u b b e rmanufactur ing uni ts are operat ional in thes ta te consis t ing of 647 SSUs and only 6LMUs ( in Ludhiana) . The natural rubberaccounts for 33% of thetota l b ioresourcebase of the indus t ry. There i s an acuteshor tage of natural rubber in Kerala owingt o e v e r g r o w i n g d e m a n d l e a d i n g t oupswing in i t s pr ices . The unprecedentedhike in natural rubberpr ices in las t fewyears coupled wi th fa l l in demand of somerubber-based products has put therubberi n d u s t r y o f P u n j a b i n j e o p a r d y. A b o u t2/3rd of rubber uni ts (74%) are involved inthe manufactur ing of rubber tyres & tubes ,w h i l e r e s t s ( 2 6 % ) a r e m a n u f a c t u r i n grubber footwear. There are 797 paper uni tsin the s ta te , out of which, 33 are LMUsand 764 are SSUs. The paper industry ofthe s ta te is mainly ut i l iz ing waste paper,wood pulp , agr i - res idues l ike wheat s t rawand kana g ra s s ( s a rkanda ) , e t c . a s r awm a t e r i a l s f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p a p e rproducts . However, the industry is qui teconcerned about the ever increas ing pr icesa n d f l u c t u a t i o n s i n s u p p l y o f r a wmater ia ls . Even though the s ta te has a verysmal l area under natural fores ts (6%) and


43

agro fores t ry, s t i l l , 2783 wood productuni ts and 2621 furni ture making uni ts arefunc t iona l in the s ta te . Euca lyp tus andp o p l a r a r e b e i n g u s e d a s m a i n r a wm a t e r i a l s b y p l y w o o d i n d u s t r y . T h efurni ture uni ts extensively use Dalbergia ,Te a k , B a m b o o , C a n e , D e o d a r , M a n g o ,Neem e tc fo r making d i ffe ren t type o ff u r n i t u r e a r t i c l e s .H o w e v e r , D a l b e r g i a a n d T e a k a r egene ra l l y p re fe r r ed fo r mak ing qua l i t yfurni ture . There are 7 smal l scale tobaccomanufactur ing uni ts in the s ta te , mainlyproducing snuff , katha, chewing l ime, e tc .Most of the raw mater ia l is being broughtfrom other s ta tes though Acacia catechu i savai lable in the Shival iks . There are 268reg i s t e red un i t s o f co t t age and v i l l ageindustr ies in the s ta te with an employmentof about 1650 workers . Out of these, 121u n i t s a r e u t i l i z i n g v a r i o u s k i n d s o fbioresources as raw mater ia l . Worldwide,between 50,000 and 80,000 plants , most lyf lower ing , a re used med ic ina l ly. Abou t80%popu la t ion o f deve lop ing coun t r i e srel ies on plant based products for theirpharmaceu t i ca l and nu t raceu t i ca l needsa n d t h e r e i s a g l o b a l r e s u r g e n c e i nt r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l t e r n a t i v e h e a l t h c a r esystems, resul t ing in world herbal t rade ofabout US$ 120 bi l l ion, which is expectedto reach US$ 7 t r i l l ion by2050. India hasapproximately 17,500 species of f loweringplants . Out of these, 6000-7000 species areest imated to have medicinal usage in folkand documented systems of medicine l ikeA y u r v e d a , S i d d h a , U n a n i a n dH o m o e o p a t h y . A b o u t 9 6 0 s p e c i e s o fm e d i c i n a l p l a n t s a r e e s t i m a t e d t o b eintrade, of which, 178 species have annualconsumption levels in excess of 100 metr ictonnes . The Indian medicinal plants andtheir products account for exports of aboutRs . 10 b i l l i on . There a re nea r ly 9 ,500reg i s t e red he rba l indus t r i e s a long wi thmany un reg i s t e r ed co t t age - l eve l he rba luni ts in the country, which depend uponthe cont inuous supply of medicinal plantsf o r m a n u f a c t u r e o f h e r b a l m e d i c a lformulat ions based on Indian Systems of

M e d i c i n e . B r o a d l y n i n e c a t e g o r i e s o fproducts are being obtained by industrialp r o c e s s i n g o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s . T h e s einclude new drugs, phytopharmaceuticals,health and immunity enhancing productsand nutraceutical , cosmetics, intermediatesfor drug manufactur ing, galenicals , e tc .Significant quanti t ies of medicinal plantresources are also being consumed in thecount ry a t the household leve l throughtradit ional healers and practi t ioners. About800 species of medicinal plants are usedb y i n d u s t r y o u t o f w h i c h m a j o r l y 2 0species (2.5%) are being cult ivated. Over90% of the species are mainly collectedfrom the wild. Further, over 70%of thesep l a n t c o l l e c t i o n s i n v o l v e d e s t r u c t i v eharvesting practices and pose a definitethreat to the diversity of medicinal plantsin the count ry. Market ing of medic ina lplants is ineff icient , informal , secret iveand oppor tunis t ic . As a resul t , the rawm a t e r i a l s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n i s s h a k y ,unsustainable and exploitat ive. There are255 registered herbal units operat ing inPunjab, besides many unregistered herbaluni ts , which are u t i l iz ing botanica ls toprepare various product formulations (withor without the species included in the aforementioned notif ication of the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India).Herbal industry in Punjab

Out of these 180 uni ts were found to befunct ional , out of which l imited data hasbeen provided by121 uni ts only (67.2%)f rom 15 d i s t r i c t s (ou t o f 20 d i s t r i c t s ) .T h e s e 1 2 1 u n i t s a r e u s i n g 9 1 9 . 9M T / a n n u m o f r a w p l a n t m a t e r i a l s .However, no data has been provided w.r. t .a reas / s i tes of co l lec t ionand volumes ofcer ta in important species obtained fromthe wild which are current ly being usedbythe industry. The dis tr ic t wise usage ofplant species by pharmacies/herbal uni ts inP u n j a b r a n g e s f r o m 2 7 9 k g / a n n u m i ndistr ict Mansa to 527 MT/annum in dis tr ic tAmritsar, which is 57% of the total usagein t he s t a t e . O the r d i s t r i c t s w i th h ighconsumption value are Ludhiana (>153.6th. kg/annum), Sangrur (>80 th. kg/annum)


44

and Jalandhar (>68 th . kg/annum). Thesea c c o u n t f o r 1 7 % , 9 % a n d 7 % u s a g erespect ively. Rest a l l dis t r ic ts are usingraw mater ial in the range of 3% to 1%.The maximum (28) herbal based industr ia luni ts are funct ioning in dis t r ic t Amri tsarfol lowed by 26 uni ts in dis t r ic t Ludhiana,17 uni ts in dis t r ic t Jalandhar and 14 uni tsi n d i s t r i c t S a n g r u r . D a t a a b o u t t h eharves t ing and process ing of medic ina lp l a n t s b y h a k i m s , v a i d s , S H G s a n dcommunit ies is not avai lable . None of theindus t r i es p rov ided any in format ion ondirect col lect ion s i tes . I t was informed thatraw mater ial was being procured from themarket / t raders and not col lected direct ly.Such t raders operate in Maji th Mandi a tAmri tsar, col lect ion center a t Pathankotand in other s ta tes as wel l . Maji th Mandiisknown as the t rade hub of some of thesebiological resources . Raw mater ials f romPunjab and nearby s ta tes is col lected hereand categorized for export and/or domest icconsumpt ion . F i f ty four dea le r s / t r ade r sexporters are operat ing in Maji th Mandi .An es t ima ted 22 ,000 Met r i c Tonnes o fbotanical ' s (mainly 67 species) are beingannual ly t raded from Maji th Mandi . Manystakeholders with divergent interests areinvolved in the market ing of medic inalplants in s ta te and organized market ing,s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o lpract ices are lacking. Industry wise dataindicates that the ten highest herbal rawmater ial consuming uni ts of the s ta te arel o c a t e d i n D i s t r i c t A m r i t s a r ( 8 ) ,Ludhiana(1) and Fatehgarh Sahib(1) andare col lect ively ut i l iz ing524,481 kg of rawmater ial per annum, which is about 57% oftotal herbal usage in the s ta te . Pha rma lo id s , Amr i t s a r ( 131 ,100

kg) ,Hoap Indust r ies , Ludhiana (111,170

kg)and Himachal Drug Pharma, Amri tsar

(58,151) are using maximum botanical raw

mater ia l . A total of 503 plant species are

being used in the s ta te , out of which, 334

species (66%) occur in Punjab and the res t

a re be ing brought /co l lec ted f rom o ther

s ta tes . Data reveals that of the 334 plant

species f rom Punjab, 127 are herb species ,

110 are t ree species , 63 are shrubs , and 34are c l imbers . Out of to ta l 503 species used,only 82 species are exempted f rom theprovis ions of the Biological Divers i ty Act ,2002 (as these are included in the l is t of'normal ly t raded commodit ies ' not i f ied byG o v t . o f I n d i a ) . T h e r e f o r e , p r i o rp e r m i s s i o n o f N a t i o n a l B i o d i v e r s i t yAuthori ty is required for export of res t ofthe 421 p lant species or the i r productsbeing t raded from the s ta te . The most usedm e d i c i n a l p l a n t s a r e A l o e b a r b a d e n s i s(175Tons/annum), Emblica of f ic inal is (38Tons/annum) and Terminal ia chebula (25Tons/annum). Datapoints that out of the 10maximum used plant species , s ix speciesnamely, Terminal ia chebula ,Commiphoraw i g h t i i , Ti n o s p o r a c o rd i f o l i a , Tr i b u l u sl a n u g i n o s u s , Te r m i n a l i a a r j u n a a n dTe r m i n a l i a b e l e r i c a d o n o t f a l l u n d e r 'normal ly t raded commodity l is t ' , but arev e r y i m p o r t a n t s p e c i e s u s e d b y t h eindustry. Other important species excludedfrom the normal ly t raded commodit ies l i s twhich arebeing col lected f rom the s ta teinclude Saraca asoca (11311 kg/annum),B o e r h a v i a d i f f f u s a ( 1 0 9 7 9 k g / a n n u m ) ,S e s a m u m o r i e n t a l e ( 1 0 9 5 1 k g / a n n u m ) ,Asparagus racemosus (7314 kg/annum) ,P s o r a l e a c o r y l i f o l i a ( 1 0 9 5 1 k g / a n n u m ) ,M u c u n a p r u r i e n s ( 5 2 9 0 k g / a n n u m ) ,E c l i p t a p ro s t a t a ( 5 2 9 0 k g / a n n u m ) e t c .Conservat ion of their habi ta t and regulatedharvest ing needs to be promoted to ensuret h e i r l o n g t e r m s u s t a i n a b i l i t y .Tw o p l a n t s p e c i e s , n a m e l y Te c h o m e l l aundulata and Withania coagulans , beingused by herbal uni tshave been ident i f ied asthreatened species in the s ta te . Techomellau n d u l a t a h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a n' e n d a n g e r e d s p e c i e s ' a n d W i t h a n i acoagulans as 'vulnerable species ' as perIUCN Red Data Lis t .Only 10 kg/annum ofWithania coagulans i s used in the s ta te ,b u t t h e u s a g e o f Te c o m e l l a u n d u l a t ai squi te high (790 kg/annum).Since theseare threatened species of the s ta te , theirt r a d e a n d h a r v e s t i n g n e e d s t o b espec i f i ca l ly moni to red . Fur the r, spec ia lfocus needs to be given on conservat ion of


45

thehabitat of their two species. Informationabout the annual turnover was provided byo n l y 7 4 u n i t s ( 6 1 % ) . T h e t o t a l a n n u a lt u r n o v e r o f t h e s e u n i t s c o l l e c t i v e l ya m o u n t s t o a p p r o x . R s . 2 8 c r o r e ( 2 8 0million). Only 7 units had aturn over ofm o r e t h a n o n e c r o r e p e r a n n u m . T h eturnover of 10 units ranged between Rs.50lac toRs.1 crore, 32 units had a turn overranging between Rs.10 to Rs.50 lac and 25units showed annual turnover of less than10 lac. Data on product details reveals thatthese uni t s produce ayurvedic andunanim e d i c i n e s ( t a b l e t s , c a p s u l e s , p o w d e r s ,medicinal oi ls e tc . ) nutraceut icals ( teas ,syrups, tonicsand drops), cosmetics (facep a c k s , s h a m p o o s , g e l s , c r e a m s , f a c epowders , ha i r o i l , henna & herba ldyes ,soaps & toiletries, etc.) and pickles & foods u p p l e m e n t s ( j u i c e s , s h e r b a t s , e t c . ) .Twenty four units have also provided names of tradersf r o m w h e r e r a w m a t e r i a l i s b e i n gpurchased. This includes 22 traders fromP u n j a b a n d 1 0 t r a d e r s f r o m D e l h i ,U t t a r a k h a n d , H a r y a n a a n d M a d h y aPradesh. About 500 unregistered tiny andcottage units based on biological resourcesexist in the state with alarge percentageoccuring in the Shivalik area alone due toh i g h e r a v a i l a b i l i t y o f n o n - t i m b e rf o r e s t p r o d u c e ( N T F P ) , w i l d m e d i c i n a lplants, etc. These units provide livelihoodto local communities in about 300 villagesin the Shivalik area falling in five forestd i v i s i o n s n a m e l y, R o p a r, G a r h s h a n k a r,Hoshiarpur, Dasuya and Pa thankot . Thel o c a l p o p u l a t i o n a c c e s s e s t h e s e b i o -r e s o u r c e s , b o t h f r o m t h e f o r e s t s a n du n c u l t i v a t e d a r e a s a s r a w m a t e r i a l .A pilot study was got conducted under thepresent project to assess the extent of bio-resources used in such units, identify

specif ic areas from where these resourcesw e r e b e i n g c o l l e c t e d , e x t e n t o finvolvement of the local communit ies , l is tof products and production value. As perthe survey, a total of 371 Self Help Groups(SHGs) wi th about 5000 members werefound to exist in 223 vi l lages. These SHGsw e r e e n g a g e d i n v a r i o u s i n c o m egenerat ion act ivi t ies and collect ively madeearnings of about Rs .44 lac per annumd u r i n g t h e s t u d y p e r i o d . T h e s u r v e yind ica t e s t ha t ma in ly 22 ca t ego r i e s o fl ivel ihood act ivi t ies were being taken upthrough these non-registered units , out ofwhich at least 10were based on resourceswhich were not normally t raded i .e . ropemaking, leaf plate making, basket , chatai ,broom making units , medicinal plant units ,pickle making units based on wild frui ts ,c h y a v a n p r a s h m a k i n g u n i t s a n d u n i t sinvolved in t rade of wheat s traw and vermicomposting.

The way forwardThe s tudy needs to be supplemented wi th

informat ion f rom t raders on speci f ic s i tes

of col lec t ion of raw biologica l mater ia ls ,

e s p e c i a l l y p l a n t s w h i c h a r e e i t h e r

threa tened or used in la rge quant i t ies . The

e x t e n t o f p l a n t u s a g e b y c o t t a g e / t i n y

i n d u s t r y , b o t h i n t h e o r g a n i z e d a n d

unorganized sec tors and access by vaids

and hakims a lso needs to be assessed to

h e l p d e f i n e s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e i r

conservat ion and sus ta inable u t i l iza t ion to

implement the Biologica l Divers i ty Act ,

2 0 0 2 i n t h e s t a t e . I n f o r m a t i o n o n

a s s o c i a t e d Tr a d i t i o n a l K n o w l e d g e w i l l

a lso help to s t rengthen the 'Access and

Benef i t Shar ing mechanism and help local

c o m m u n i t i e s r e c o g n i z e t h e e c o n o m i c

benef i t s of protec t ing b iodivers i ty

REFERENCES

Bhandari A K (2010) Working Paper on

Global Cris is , Environmental Volat i l i ty

and Expansion of the Indian

leatherindustry. Centre for DevelopmentStudies, Kerala, India.

C R R I D ( 2 0 0 2 ) P u n j a b D e v e l o p m e n t

R e p o r t , 2 0 0 2 P u b l i s h e d b y : C e n t r e f o r

R e s e a r c h i n R u r a l a n d


46

I n d u s t r i a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( C R R I D ) ,C h a n d i g a r h .

Economic and Stat is t ical Advisor (2011) Stat is t ical Abstract of Punjab, various i s s u e s . P u b l i s h e d b y D i r e c t o r a t e o f E c o n o m i c s a n d S t a t i s t i c s , Government of Punjab.I U C N ( 2 0 0 7 ) I U C N S p e c i e s S u r v i v a l Commission Medicinal Plant Specialist, Why Conserve and Manage Medicinal P l a n t s ? I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n f o r Conservation of Nature, Swizterland

Je ra th N , Nang ia P, Kaur A Chadha , J

(2002) Strategy & Action Plan for the

Conservation of Biodiversity inPunjab.

Punjab State Council for Science &

Technology, Chandigarh. 338.

Jerath, Saxena, S K 2004 100 Medicinal

Plants of Punjab. Punjab State Council

for Science & Technology,Chandigarh.

Jerath N, Nangia P, Chadha J (eds) (2006)

Biodiversity in the Shivalik Ecoystem

of Punjab. Punjab State Council for

Science & Technology, Chandigarh

Mar ine l l i J (2005) P lan t : The Ul t imate

Visual Reference to Plants and Flowers

o f t h e W o r l d . N e w Y o r k :

DKPublishing, Inc.

M i n i s t r y o f E n v i r o n m e n t a n d F o r e s t s

(2009) India's Fourth National Report

t o t h e C o n v e n t i o n o n

BiologicalDiversity (CBD). Ministry of

Environment and Forests. Government

of India.

Planning Commision (2000) Report of the

Ta s k F o r c e o n C o n s e r v a t i o n &

S u s t a i n a b l e u s e o f M e d i c i n a l

Plants .Planning Commission, Govt of

India.

Sharma M (1990) Punjab Plants- Check List. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh Publishers, Dehra Dun.

Tiwana NS, Je ra th N, Ladhar SS , S ingh G,

Pau l R , Dua DK, Parwana HK (2007)

S ta te o f Env i ronment ,Pun jab-2007 ,

Pun jab S ta te Counc i l fo r Sc ience &

Techno logy pp . 243 .

T E E B ( 2 0 1 0 ) T h e E c o n o m i c s o f Ecosys tems and Biod ivers i ty, Repor t f o r B u s i n e s s - E x e c u t i v e Summary.UNEP,Geneva .

Ved DK, Goraya GS (2007) Demand and

Supply of Medicinal Plants in India.

N a t i o n a l M e d i c i n a l P l a n t s B o a r d

(NMPB), New Delhi & Foundation for

R e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f L o c a l H e a l t h

Traditions (FRLHT), Bangalore, India.


47

Cournot's Model of Oligopoly- A Brief introduction

* 1 2 3Bhupinder Kaur , Amanpreet Singh , Randev Sandhu

1Associate Professor, Govt. College for girls, sec 11,

Chandigarh (Punjab) (India)2Department of Mathematic , Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Khalsa College

Anandpur Sahib, Ropar (Punjab) India3Department of Physics, B.A.M.Khalsa College,

Garhshankar(punjab) (India) *Email Id: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Today Cournot's work is associated with a discipline called econometrics, which is the art andscience of making measurements in economic theory and applying them to realistic situations.In econometrics the goal is to recast mathematical economics into a stochastic form.Economic relationships can only be estimated based on sample observations. There are manydependent variables at work in economic relationships and also many relationshipssimultaneously generating non-experimental samples of data. Estimation of economicrelationships using methods of statistical inference is not the only approach of econometrics.Russian economist Wassly Leontief developed a departure from the statistical inference aspectof econometrics, by employing input-output analysis. It has proved to be useful indevelopment planning for merging countries and in emergency planning for developedcountries.

Keywords: Oligopoly, Cournot Model, Equilibrium.

INTRODUCTION

G e n e r a l l y w e r e a d a b o u t t w o t y p e s o f

markets which are opposi te to each other in

nature , one of them is Perfect compet i t ion

and o the r i s Monopo ly. In compe t i t i ve

m a r k e t s y s t e m w e c o m e a c r o s s l a r g e

number of f i rms and in monopoly there is

s ingle f i rm in the market . As demand of a l l

the f i rms sat isf ied by this s ingle f i rm. I t

takes a l l the benef i ts of th is th ing and

controls supply to make more prof i t . In

monopoly market system f i rm can charge

different pr ices for different categories of

c o n s u m e r s .

After monopoly there was a new market

system which is Oligopoly. Oligopoly is a

market system which is control led by few

f irms. The term Oligopoly comes from two

Greek words : Ol igo i meaning “ few”and

p o l e e i n m e a n i n g “ t o s e l l ” . O l i g o p o l y

m a r k e t r e f e r s t o a k i n d o f m a r k e t

m e c h a n i s m t h a t o n l y a f e w

manufacturers contro l product ion and

vendi t ion of product in ent i re market .

D u o p o l y i s a m a r k e t s y s t e m w h i c h i s

subcase of ol igopoly which is control led

b y t w o f i r m s o n l y . D u o p o l i s t m a k e

strategies keeping in mind s trategies of his

r ival f i rm. Antoine Cournot introduced an

impor tant c lass of mathemat ica l models

desc r ib ing compe t i t i ve behav io r i n t he

m a r k e t p l a c e . H i s l e g a c y i s s h o w i n g

e c o n o m i s t s h o w t o u s e

Mathematics to develop economic theory.

The work was not embraced during his


48

lifetime; in fact i t was severely criticized. Itw a s f a r t o o a d v a n c e d a t a t i m e w h e ne c o n o m i s t s s t u d i o u s l y a v o i d e dm a t h e m a t i c s . M a t h e m a t i c s w a s n o tgenerally integrated into the mainstreamlanguage and analysis of economists untilthe second half of the 20th century. Todaymany economis t s l aud h i s book a s themidwi fe o f mode rn economic ana lys i s .Cournot ' s cont r ibu t ions a re hera lded asforerunners for mathematical game theory,w h i c h i s u s e d f o r d e s c r i b i n g s t r a t e g i ci n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n b u s i n e s s f i r m s ,tacticians or diplomats.B o r n i n G r a y, H a u t e - S a ô n e , C o u r n o t

attended the Collège de Gray from 1809 to

1816. After graduation from the secondary

school he worked in an attorney's office

for four years. Inspired by the work of

Pierre de Laplace, Cournot realized that he

would have to learn mathemat ics i f he

w a n t e d t o f o l l o w h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l

aspirations. As a result , he concentrated on

mathematics at Collège Royal in Besançon

and in 1821 entered the teachers ' t raining

c o l l e g e É c o l e N o r m a l e S u p é r i e u r e .

H o w e v e r , p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t f o r c e d t h e

closure of the school. Together with fel low

s t u d e n t L e j e u n e D i r i c h l e t , C o u r n o t

t r an s f e r r ed t o t he S o rbonne , w he re he

supported himself by tutoring. In 1829 he

received his doctorate in mathematics, with

a thesis Le mouvement d'un corps rigide

par un plan f ixe , mainly on mechanics and

astronomy.

Impressed wi th Cournot , S iméon Denis

Poisson arranged for his appointment to a

posi t ion with theAcademy in Paris . I t was

at this t ime that Cournot t ranslated John

H e r s c h e l ' s A s t r o n o m y ( 1 8 3 4 ) a n d

D i o n y s u s L a r d n e r ' s M e c h a n i c s ( 1 8 3 5 ) .

Throughout his career Cournot joint ly held

posi t ions as a professor of analysis and

mechanics and high posts in the French

government . Again through the inf luence

of Poisson, he was made Inspecteur

Général des Études ( inspector general ofpubl ic educat ion) in 1838, the same yearh e w a s m a d e a K n i g h t o f t h e L é g i o nd 'Honneur (he was e levated to an Off iceri n 1 8 4 5 ) . T h i s w a s a l s o t h e y e a r h epubl ished his mathemat ical v iews in h ism a s t e r p i e c e , t h e . I n i t h e i n t r o d u c e dfunct ion and probabi l i ty to economics andb r o u g h t t o b e a r h i s b a c k g r o u n d i nmechanics to seek general pr inciples fore c o n o m i c s . H e i s c r e d i t e d w i t h t h ei n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t h e o r y o f p r o f i tmaximizing producers , tha t i s , he assumedthat par t ic ipants in the exchange processshare the goa l o f wish ing to maximizem o n e t a r y p r o f i t . H e d e r i v e d t h e f i r s tformula for the ru le of supply and demandas a func t ion o f p r i ce . In add i t ion , heconsidered condi t ions for equi l ibr ium withm o n o p o l y , d u o p o l y , a n d p e r f e c tcompet i t ion . He a lso advanced the opinionthat the pract ica l uses of mathemat ics ine c o n o m i c s n e e d n o t i n v o l v e s t r i c tnumerical precis ion.

Courno t ' s duopo ly ma thema t i ca l mode l

c o n c e r n s t w o r i v a l p r o d u c e r s o f a

h o m o g e n e o u s p r o d u c t . E a c h p r o d u c e r

knows tha t h i s compet i to r ' s dec i s ion as to

the quan t i ty o f the p roduc t to make wi l l

a l so impac t the p r i ce he o r she faces and

t h u s t h e p r o f i t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y, e a c h

p r o d u c e r c h o o s e s a q u a n t i t y t h a t

maximizes h i s o r he r p ro f i t s sub jec t to the

quan t i ty r eac t ions o f the compet i t ion .

COURNOT'S MODELThe Model may present many ways but in

t h e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n , i t m a k e s t h e

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e t w o f i r m s h a v e

ident ical product and cost . Cournot in his

model takes two f i rms owning a spr ing of

mineral water, which is produced at zero

cost . Here we wil l present br ief ly the same

version and then we wil l genel ise i t to n

f i rm by using mathematical equat ions .


49

Cournot assumed that there are twof i rms each owning a mine ra l we l l andoperating with zero cost. In today's wordwhich is not possible. we are explainingonly his Ideas. The firm sells their output

in a market with a s traight l ine demandcurve. The f irm assumes that i ts competi torwil l not change i ts output and decides i tsown output to maximize profi t .

e’

B A O

P’

P e =1

D

P

D’

X

MR

C

A s s u m e t h a t f i r m i s f i r s t t o s t a r tproducing and sel l ing mineral water. I t wil lproduce quanti ty A at price P where profi tsa r e m a x i m u m a n d b e c a u s e M R = M C = 0f i rm has maximum prof i t a t th is point .Now firm assume that wil l keep i tsoutput f ixed (At OA) and hence considersthat i ts own demand curve is . Clearlyf i r m w i l l p r o d u c e h a l f t h e q u a n t i t y because a t th i s l eve l o f ou tpu t i srevenue and profi t is at a maximum. Firm produce half of the market which hasno t been supp l i ed by . Ou tpu t o f of total market .

1X

1X2X

DC

2X

2X

DA

2X

1X

4

1

2

1.

2

12 X

next period. So he will produce one half of

the market which is not supplied by ,

i .e . of total market. Similarly

f o r m a s s u m e t h e s a m e a n d p r o d u c e

1/2(1-3/8)=5/16 of total market.

8

3)

4

11(

2

1

2X

For Next Per iod , f i rm a s sume tha t

w i l l r e t a i n h i s q u a n t i t y

cons tan t i n t he

1X

2X

For Third per iod , In th i rd per iod f i rm

wi l l con t inue to assume tha t wi l l no t

change i t s quan t i ty and thus wi l l p roduce

one ha l f o f the remainder o f the marke t

and so on we wi l l r eached

a t equ i l ib r ium in which each f i rm produce

1 /3 o f the to ta l marke t . To ga ther they

cover the two th i rds o f the to ta l marke t .

Each f i rm maximizes i t s p rof i t in each

p e r i o d b u t t h e i n d u s t r y p r o f i t a r e n o t

maximized . Tha t i s , the f i rms would have

1X2X

32

11)

16

51(

2

1


50

higher joint profi ts i f the recognized their

in te rdependence , a f te r the i r fa i lu re in

forecast ing the correct react ion of their

r ival . Recognit ion of their interdependence

would lead them to act as 'a monopolist ' ,

p roducing one ha l f of the to ta l market

output , sel l ing i t at the profi t- maximizing

price P , and sharing the market equally,

that is , each producing one-quarter of the

total market( instead of one-third) .

1. The production of firm 1 in Xsuccessive periods is ;

2

1

8

3)

4

11(

2

1

8

1

2

1

32

11)

16

51(

2

1

32

1

8

1

2

1

128

43)

128

421(

2

1

128

1

32

1

8

1

2

1

Period 1 :

Period 2 :

Period 3:

Period 4:

We o b s e r v e t h a t t h e o u t p u t o f d e c l i n e1X

g r a d u a l l y. We r e w r i t e t h i s e x p r e s s i o n a s

f o l l o w s

Product of in equilibrium = X1

128

1

32

1

8

1

2

1 ...

=32

4

1

8

1

4

1

8

1

4

1

8

1

8

1[

2

1

. . . ]

T h e e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e b r a c k e t s i s a

declining geometric progression with rat io

using sum to infinity on geometric

series4

1r

i . e w e g o t .1 r

a

3

1

24

8

24

4

2

1

2

1

12

1

43

81

41

81

2. The production for the firm in successiveX2

periods is

We observe tha t ' s product ion increases ,X 2

b u t a t a d e c l i n i n g r a t e . I t m a y b e

wri t ten as

Produc t o f in equi l ib r ium = X 2

32

4

1

4

1

4

1

4

1

4

1

4

1

4

1

. . .

The expression in the brackets is a declining

g e o m e t r i c p r o g r e s s i o n w i t h r a t i o

using sum to infinity on geometric

series4

1r

we got3

1

1 43

41

41

41

Thus the cournot solut ion is s table . Each

f i rm suppl ies 1 /3 of the market , a t a

common pr ice which is lower than the

m o n o p o l y p r i c e , b u t a b o v e t h e p u r e

competi t ive pr ice . I t can be shown that i f

there are three f i rms in the industry, each

wil l produce one-quarter of the market and

al l of them together wil l supply of the

ent i re market .And in general , i f there

a r e n f i r m s i n t h e i n d u s t r y e a c h w i l l

p r o v i d e o f t h e m a r k e t , a n d t h e

industry output wil l be .

4

3

DO

1

1

n

1n

n

Period 2 : 4

1

2

1

2

1

Period 3 : 16

5)

8

31(

2

1

16

1

4

1

Period 4 : 64

21)

32

111(

2

1

64

1

16

1

4

1

Period.5 256

85)

128

431(

2

1

256

1

64

1

16

1

4

1


51

1211 )( xxxf

C o u r n o t c o n s i d e r e d t w o f i r m s s e l l i n gh o m o g e n e o u s p r o d u c t i n q u a n t i t i e s . T h e i r t o t a l s a l e w i l l b e I ft h e d e m a n d f u n c t i o n a n d i t si n v e r s e i s . R e v e n u e o ft w o f i r m s i s g i v e n b y :

21, xx .21 xxx )(yDx

)(xfy )(1 xD

2212 )( xxxf

(2)

(1)

Here Cournot disregards production cost .

I f t h e r e w e r e p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s s a y

, i t w i l l be sub t rac t ed f rom

respective revenue functions. But Cournot

r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s w o u l d m a k e a l i t t l e

difference for analysis , so he suggested the

production of mineral water direct from the

source as his case, disregarding bott l ing

costs .

)(),( 2211 xgxg

By substituting, the second 01

1

x

02

2

x,we get the equations:

0)()( 121'

21 xxxfxxf

0)()( 221'

21 xxxfxxf (4)

(3)

These a re imp l i c i t equa t ions be tween two

v a r i a b l e s . S u p p o s e w e s o l v e t h e m

exp l i c i t l y, we ge t

)( 211 xx

)( 122 xx (6)

(5)

The equa t ions (5) - (6) a re ca l led reac t ion

func t ions . They can be regarded in two

d i f f e r e n t w a y s . I t c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s

s imul taneous sys tem, and we can cons ider

them the Cournot equilibrium point

which satisfies (5)-(6). If we see (5) and

(6) as curves, this Cournot equilibrium-

point is the intersection point of the curves.

2

__

1, xx

We can cons ide r the r eac t ion func t ions

in a dynamic p rocess , a s

)( 21'1 xx

)( 12'2 xx (8)

(7)

W h e r e d a s h m e a n s a d v a n c i n g t h e m a pfrom new per iod ' t ' to another per iod ( t+1) .

CONCLUSION

Cournot actual ly regarded the re act ion

f u n c t i o n s b o t h w a y s , i n t e r m s o f

simultaneous equil ibrium, and in terms of a

recursive dynamical system. He lef t , of

c o u r s e , m a n y l o o s e e n d s a n d o b v i o u s

exposures for objections, conceming the

optimization variable, the homogeneity of

the commodity, and the implied strategy in

the adjustment process. In fact , one of the

g r e a t m e r i t s o f C o u r n o t ' s w o r k w a s

keeping scientists busy for more than 150

years

REFRENCES

Puu, · Irina Sushko (2003) “Oligopoly Dynamics

M o d e l s a n d To o l s ” P u b l i s h e d b y

Springer.

Coumot, A. , (1838), “Reeherehes sur les

Prineipes Mathematiques de la Theorie

des Riehesses” (Hachette , Paris)

Vo n N e u m a n n , J , . a n d M o r g e n s t e r n , 0 . ,

( 1 9 4 4 ) , “ T h e o r y o f G a m e s a n d

E c o n o m i c B e h a v i o u r ” ( P r i n c e t o n

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s )

Puu, T., (1991), Chaos in duopoly Pricing,

Chaos, Solitons, & Fractals 1 :573-

581

R and , D . , (1978) , "Exo t i c phenomena in

g a m e s a n d d u o p o l y m o d e l s . ” ,

J o u r n a l o f M a t h e m a t i c a l

Economics 5 :173-184


52

MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON ADULTERANTS AND

SUBSTITUTES* Kundailia Neetika, Saroch Vikas, Johar Smita

Dept. of Rasashastra and Bhaishajya Kalpana,

PG School of Ayurveda and Research,

Desh Bhagat University, MGG,Punjab,India*E mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Ayurveda is the fastest growing world. Increased use of Ayurvedic products day by day leads toadulteration. Adulteration and Substitution is a major treat in research field on commercialnatural products. Adulteration may be due to deforestation or extinction of many species.Unavailability and price limit also leads to adulteration and substitution. Concept of substitutecan be found in Bhavaprakasha and Yogaratnakara. This article analyses the trend ofAdulteration and Substitution in present days. Adulteration is a practice of substituting originalcrude drug partially or fully with other similar looking drug/substance which is either free fromchemical and therapeutic properties. Substitution is the replacement of one drug with anotherhaving similar therapeutic properties in non-availability of original drug. According toW.H.O.(World Health Organisation) guidelines , any batch of raw material has to be rejectedwhich has more than 5% of any other plant part of same plant whether it is derived fromauthentic plant. Even in Drugs and Cosmetics Act a motivation step regarding adulterated drugsand spurious drugs has been discussed. As the root of Sida cordifolia and the whole plant of Sidacordifolia can be considered. Root has the chemical constituents such as sitoindoside,acylsteryglycoside, while the whole plant has alkaloid, hydrocarbons, fatty acids and ephedrine.Various extracts of the whole plant showed antibacterial, antioxidant, hypoglycemic,hepatoprotective and cardio tonic activities. Though it is the root which is mentioned as officinalpart of S. cordifolia in the classics as Balya (promotes strength), Shotahara (reduceinflammation) etc. Modern researches prove that even the aerial parts are also equally effective.

KEYWORDS: Ayurveda, Adulteration, Bhavaparkasha, Drugs and Cosmetics Act, Substitution,

Yogaratnakara

INTRODUCTION

Adulteration and Substitution is a major

i s s u e o f t o d a y ' s c o m m e r c i a l n a t u r a l

products. Adulteration may be intentional or

unintentional. Intentional adulteration may

be done for enhancement of profits by using

subs t anda rd commerc ia l s , Supe r f i c i a l l y

s i m i l a r i n f e r i o r d r u g s , A r t i f i c i a l l y

manufactured substances, Exhausted drugs

or any other harmful adulterants. Unintentional

a d u l t e r a t i o n m a y b e d u e t o

Confusion in Vernacular name, Lack of

knowledge of authentic source, Similarity in

morphology, Similarity in colour or due to

careless collections. Crude drugs are also

substituted in unavailability of drug or due

to high price of original drug in market by

using totally different drug, Species


53

b e l o n g i n g t o s a m e f a m i l y o r d i f f e r e n tspec ies , Di ffe ren t pa r t s o f p lan t s o r p lan t swhich a re same in ac t ion . Subs t i tu t ion cana l s o b e e n h a n c e d d u e t o g e o g r a p h i c a ld i s t r ibu t ion o f d rugs o r due to adverse

Adulteration

Adul t e ra t ion i s a p rac t i ce o f subs t i tu t ingor ig ina l c rude d rug pa r t i a l ly o r fu l ly wi th

SubstitutionSubstitution is the replacement of one drug withanother having similar therapeutic


Adulterated drugs (Angadi 2011):A drug may be deemed to be adulterated:

• If it consists, in whole or in part, of any filthy,

putrid or decomposed substance.

• If it has been prepared, packed or stored under

u n s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e b y i t

may have been contaminated with filth

or whereby it may have been rendered

injurious to health.

• If its container is composed in whole or in

part, of any poisonous or deleterious

substance that may render the contents

injurious to health.

• I f i t bears or contains , for purposes of

color ing only, a color other than one

that is prescr ibed.

• If i t contains any harmful or toxic

substance which may render it injurious

to health.• I f a n y s u b s t a n c e h a s b e e n m i x e d

therewith so as to reduce i ts qual i ty or

s t rength.

Spurious drugs (Angadi 2011):

A drug may be deemed to be spurious:

• I f i t i s i m p o r t e d u n d e r a n a m e w h i c h

b e l o n g s t o a n o t h e r d r u g .

• If it is an imitation of, or a substitute

reaction of drugs. Concept of substi tute can

b e f o u n d i n B h a v a p r a k a s h a a n d

Yogaratnakara. So, concept of Adulteration

and Substi tution is needed to be analyzed

properly.

other similar looking drug/substance which is

either free from chemical and therapeutic

properties.

p r o p e r t i e s i n n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f o r i g i n a ld r u g .

for, another drug or resembles another

drug in a manner likely to deceive or

bears upon i t or upon i ts label or

container the name of another drug

unless it is plainly and conspicuously

marked so as to reveal its true character

and its lack of identity with such drug.

• If the label or the container bears the name of an individual or company purporting to be the manufacturer of the drug, which individual or company is fictitious does not exist; or if it has been subst i tute in wholly or in part by another drug or substance.

• I f i t purports to be the product of a

manufacturer of whom i t is not t ruly a

product .

TYPES OF ADULTERATION

S u b s t i t u t i o n w i t h s u b s t a n d a r d

c o m m e r c i a l - E g : - P r e s e n c e o f

S t r y c h r o u s N u x - B a n d a i n p l a c e o f

S t r y c h r o u s N u x - v o m i c a .

S u b s t i t u t i o n w i t h S u p e r f i c i a l l y

Similar Inferior Drug - Eg: - Saffron

i s a d m i x e d w i t h d r y f l o w e r s o f

Carthamus, t inctoris ; Bee wax is

substituted by Japan wax.

Substitution with Artificially


54

M a n u f a c t u r e d S u b s t a n c e – E g : -

P a r a f f i n w a x i s s u b s t i t u t e d w i t h b e e s

w a x .

Substitution with Exhausted Drug

This practice is more common in drugs

conta in ing vola t i le o i l s l ike Clove,

fennel, Caraway Coriander etc.

Subst i tut ion wi th Synthet ic

C h e m i c a l s t o E n h a n c e N a t u r a l

Character - Eg: - Addi t ion of Benzyl

Benzoa te to Barsam of Peru , Ci t ra l to

C i t rus o i l l ike o i l o f l emon, o range .

Presence of Vegetat ive Matter of

Same Plant - Eg: - The lower parts like

M i o s s , l i v e r w a r t s a n d e p i p h y t e s

growing on the Bark portion are mixed

with Cascara or Cinchona.

H a r m f u l A d u l t e r a n t s - E g : - T h e

a d d i t i o n o f R o d e n t f e c a l m a t t e r t o

C a r d a m u m s e e d i s a v e r y h a r m f u l

a d u l t e r a n t .

Adulteration of Powders - Eg: - The

powdered bark is frequently found to be

adulterated with Brick powder.

Types of Substitution (Om Prakash et al 2013):

U s i n g To t a l l y D i f f e r e n t D r u g -

Bharangi (Clerodendron indicum) and

Kantakari .Bharangi has bi t ter tas te;

laghu (light), ruksha(unctuous) guna

( q u a l i t y ) a n d h a s K a p h a - v a t a h a r a

property. While Kantakari (Solanum

xanthocarpam) has katu vipaka (punjent

d i g e s t i o n ) a n d u s h n a v i r y a ( h o t

potency).

Substitution of the Species Belonging

to Same Family - The Datura metal

a n d D a t u r a s t r a m o n i u m c a n b e

considered here. Chemical constituents

are alkaloids, scopalamine, atropin,

h y o c y a m i n , l y o s c i n e . T h e a l k a l o i d

p r e s e n t i n b o t h t h e s p e c i e s a r e w e l l

p r o v e n b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s a n d a l s o t h e y

i n h i b i t t h e s e c r e t i o n o f m u c o u s

m e m b r a n e o f t h e r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t .

Using Different Species - Two types of

G o k s h u r a v i z . T r i b u l u s

terrestris(Zygophylaceae) and Pedalium

m u r e x ( P e d a l i a c e a e ) o f w h i c h , T.

terrestris has the chemical constituents

l i k e c h l o r o g e n i n , d i o s g e n i n , r u t i n ,

rhamnose and alkaloids. While P.murex

has s i tosterol , ursol ic acid, vani l in ,

flavonoids and alkaloids. The clinical

conditions where Gokshura is indicated

i,e,Mutrakrcra (renal disorder), Ashmari

(urinary calculi) , Prameha (diabetes)

e t c , bo th T. t e r res t r i s and P.murex

appear to be appropriate.

Using Different Parts of the Plant -

The root of Sida cordifolia and the

whole plant of Sida cordifolia can be

c o n s i d e r e d . W h o l e p l a n t s h o w e d

a n t i b a c t e r i a l , a n t i o x i d a n t ,

hypoglycemic , hepa topro tec t ive and

cardio tonic activities.Though root is

ment ioned in the c lass ics as Balya

(promotes strength) , Shotahara (reduce

inflammation) etc. Modern researches

prove that even the aerial parts are also

equally effective .

D u e t o S a m e i n A c t i o n - B o t h

A m a l a k i { E m b e l i c a o f f i c i n a l i s } a n d

Bhal la taka{Semecarpus anacard ium}

are Rasayana ( re juvenator) drugs . In

c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e t h e R a s a y a n a

formulat ions are being employed as an

adjuvant therapy in Chronic as wel l as

Mal ignant d iseases . Amalaki can be

employed as Rasayana in Chronic


55

debi l i t a t ing d i seases l ike b ronch ia las thma, diabetes e tc , whi le Bhal la takawould be bet ter choice in mal ignantcondi t ions , both in sol id tumors and inleukemia .

REASON OF ADULTERATION (OmPrakash et al 2013)

1. Confusion in Vernacular Names - In

Ayurveda, Parpatta refers to Fumaria

parviflora. In Siddha, 'Parpadagam'

refers to Mollugo pentaphylla. Owing to

the similarity in the names in traditional

systems of medicine,these two herbs are

often interchanged or adulterated or

substituted.

2. Lack of Knowledge About Authentic

Source - Nagakesar's authentic source is

Mesua ferrea. However, market samples

a r e a d u l t e r a t e d w i t h f l o w e r s o f

Calophyllum inophyllum . Though the

authentic plant is available in plenty

throughout the Western Ghats and parts

of Himalayas, suppliers are unaware of it.

There may also be some restrictions in

forest collection. Due to these reasons, C.

inophyllum (which is in the plains) is sold

as Nagakesar.

3. Similarity in Morphology - Mucuna

pruriens is adulterated with other similar

Papilionaceae seeds having similarity in

morphology. M. utilis (sold as white

variety) and M. deeringiana (sold as

bigger variety) are popular adulterants.

4. Lack of Authentic Plant - Hypericum

perforatum is cultivated and sold in

European markets. In India, availability

of this species is very limited. However,

the abundant Indo-Nepal species H.

patulum, sold in the name of H.

perforatum.

5. Similarity in Colour - Eg.-Ratanjot.

According to the suppliers and non-timer

forest product (NTFP) contractors, in the

past, roots of Ventilago madraspatana

were collected from Western Ghats, as

t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f ' R a t a n j o t ' . A .

euchroma substitutes V.madraspatana.

Recently V. madraspatana is not found in

market. Whatever is available in the

market , in the name of Ratanjot is

originated from A. euchroma.

6. Careless Collections - Some of the

herbal adul tera t ions are due to the

carelessness of herbal collectors and

suppliers. Parmelia perlata is used in

Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. It is also

used as grocery. Market samples showed

it to be admixed with other species

( P. p e r f o r a t a a n d P. c i r r h a t a ) .

Sometimes, Usnea sp. is also mixed with

them.

C O N D I T I O N S F O R

ADULTERATION(Alqasoumi e t a l 2014)

1. Inferiori ty i s a natura l substandard

condi t ion (e .g . where a crop is taken

whose natura l const i tuent i s be low the

minimum s tandard for tha t par t icular

drug) which can be avoided by more

careful se lec t ion of the p lant mater ia l .

1. Spoilage is a substandard condition

produced by microbial or other pest

infestation, which makes a product unfit

for consumption, which can be avoided

by careful attention to the drying, and

storage conditions.

3. Deterioration is an impairment of the

quali ty or value of an art icle due to

destruction or abstraction of valuable


56

consti tuents by bad treatment or agingor to the deliberate extraction of theconsti tuents and the sale of the residueas the original drugs

4. Admixture is the addition of one article

to another through accident, ignorance

or carelessness e.g. inclusion of soil on

a n u n d e r g r o u n d o r g a n o r t h e c o -

collection of two similar species.

5. Sophistication is the deliberate addition

of spurious or inferior material with

intent to defraud; such materials are

carefully produced and may appear at

first sight to be genuine e.g. powder

ginger may be diluted with starch with

addition of little coloring material to

give the correct shade of yellow colour.

6. Subst i tut ion i s the addi t ion of an

entirely different article in place of that

which is required e.g. supply of cheap

cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.

NEED FOR SUBSTITUTION (Poornimaet al 2010)

1. N o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y o f D r u g - E g : -

Subst i tut ion for Ashtavarga Dravyas.

2. Uncertain Identity of the Drug - Eg:-

f o r t he he rb Lakshmana d i f f e r en t

species such as Arlia quinquefolia,

Ipomea sepiaria etc are considered.

3. Cost of the Drug - Eg:- Kumkuma being

costly herb is substituted by Kusumbha.

4. Geographical Distribution of the Drug

- Eg:- As Rasna Plucia lanceolata is

u s e d i n N o r t h e r n I n d i a w h i l e i n

sou theren par t s Alp in ia ga langa i s

considered as the source.

5. Adverse Reaction of the Drug - Eg: -

Vasa is a well-known Rakta-Pittahara

drug, but due to its Abortificiant activity ]

6. I ts uti l i ty in pregnant women is l imited, instead drugs such as Laksha, Ashoka etc are substi tuted.

CRITERIA FOR SUBSTITUTION(Poornima B et al 2010)

1. Similarity in Ras-Panchakas - Eg: -

Bharangi and Kantakari.

2. Exhibit Similar Therapeutic Efect - Eg: - Ativisha and Musta.

3. I n a F o r m u l a t i o n t h e P r a d h a n a

Dravya, I.e. is the Major ingredient

should never be substituted - Eg:-

whi le p repar ing Bharangyaadi Guda

should not Substitute Bharangi with any

other with any other drug.

DETERIORATION OF HERBALDRUGS

Being adulteration of drugs, crude drugs are

a l s o p r o n e t o r i s k o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

Deterioration may be due to many factors

including storage conditions or stability of

secondary metabolites.

P R I M A R Y FA C T O R S F O R

DETERIORATION(Alqasoumi et a l 2014)

1.Light - Photo-decomposi t ion occurs

with santonin, the principal constituents

of wormseed, which on exposure to

light darkens and eventually becomes

black. Powdered rhubarb stored in clear

g l a s s j a r s r a p i d l y c h a n g e s a s t h e

exposed surfaces turning from yellow to

m o r e r e d d i s h c o l o u r . F o r t h e s e ,

m e d i c i n a l p l a n t m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r i n g

p r o t e c t i o n f r o m l i g h t s h o u l d b e

maintained in a light resistant container

or container maybe placed inside a

suitable light resistant (opaque)


57

covering and/or stored in a dark place.

2. Moisture/Humidity - Drugs stored in

non-airtight containers are termed air-

dry and contain about 10-12% of water

depend ing on the humid i ty o f t he

atmosphere. This amount of water is

su ff i c i en t t o ac t iva te the enzymes

present in some dried plant materials,

such as Digitalis and bring about the

decomposition of the active glycosides.

Such drug should therefore be stored

with a dehydrating agent or in sealed

containers immediately after drying.

Therefore strict humidity control is

necessary while storing; low moisture

may be maintained.

3. Te m p e r a t u r e - M a n y e n z y m a t i c

c h a n g e s i n t h e p l a n t s e c o n d a r y

metabolites proceed more rapidly at the

slightly raised temperature up to about

4 5 ° C , e . g . t h e p e t a l s o f r o s e a n d

chamomile all loose oil with an increase

in temperature; cotton wool, ones fully

a b s o r b e n t w i l l g r a d u a l l y b e c o m e

completely non-absorbent because of

the effect of temperature.

4. Airic Oxidation - Direct oxidation of

t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f c r u d e d r u g i s

sometime brought about by the oxygen

of the air, e .g. Linseed oil rapidly

become resinified as like the oil of

Turpentine and oil of Lemon ; cod-liver

oil, which involves the formation of

unstable peroxides, is also an oxidative

process. Thus, these types of materials

require storage in a well-filled, airtight

container.

S E C O N D A RY FA C T O R S F O R

DETERIORATION (Alqasoumi et a l 2014)

1. Bacteria and Moulds - Dried herbs are

particularly liable to be contaminated

with the spores of the bacteria and

moulds, which are always present in the

air. The effect produced by bacteria are

n o t a l w a y s v e r y v i s i b l e w i t h t h e

exception of some chromogenic species

of bacteria, e.g. Bacillus prodigious,

which produced red patches in starchy

materials. However, bacterial growth is

usually accompanied by the crude drug

by growth of moulds whose presence is

quickly evident by the characteristics

m e l l a n d b y t h e m a s s o f c l i n g i n g

par t ic les en t rapped in the myce l ia l

hyphae.

2 . M i t e s a n d N e m a t o d e W o r m s -

D i ffe ren t mi tes found usua l ly inc lude

Ty ro g l y p h c e s s i ro ( C h e e s e m i t e ) ;

A leurob ius far inae (F lour mi te ) and

G l y c y p h a g u s s p i n i p e s ( C a n t h a r i d e s

mi te ) .The bes t known examples o f

nematode worms a re "Vinegar ee l " -

Tu r b a t r i x a c e t i , A n g u i l l u l a a c e t i ,

A n g u i n a t r i t i c i w h i c h a r e f o u n d

in whea t f lour o r in the c rude d rug

con ta in ing s ta rchy mate r ia l s .

3. Insects/Moths - The moths involved

are e.g. Ephestia kuehniella (Flour

moth ) ; E. e l lu te l la (Cocoa moth ) .

B e s i d e s t h i s s o m e o t h e r i n s e c t s ,

c o c k r o a c h e s , a n t s a n d o t h e r s a r e

sometimes found to cause deterioration

to the stored products.

4. Coleoptera or Beetles - Stegobium

paniceum is one beetle, which is found

i n a m a n y d r u g s i n c l u d i n g g e n t i a n ,

l iquorice and rhubarb as well as leafy

drugs and seeds. Belonging to the same

family is Lasioderma serricorne


58

(tobacco or cigar beetle) which is found

in many stored crude drugs including

ginger and liquorice.

CONTROL MEASURES FOR

DETERIORATION

A. Use of air tight containers:

1. The container used for storage and i ts

closure must not interact physically or

chemically with the material within in

a n y w a y w h i c h w o u l d a l t e r i t s

composit ion.

2. A well closed container must protect the

contents from extraneous matter or from

loss of the material while handling.

3. A tightly closed container must protect

t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m e f f l o r e s c e n c e ,

del iquescence or evaporat ion under

normal condition of handling or storage.

B. Good housekeeping :

1. The principles, which apply to the

control of infestation in warehouses, are

e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o s m a l l - s c a l e

storage.

2. Good housekeeping is utmost essential.

3. E a c h s t o c k s h o u l d b e i n s p e c t e d

regularly and the material found to be

contaminated is best to be destroyed by

burning.

C. Other conditions :

1. Cool, dry condition is the most suitable

for the retardation of living organisms.

As all leaves organisms require water

for the development, perfectly dry drugs

shou ld be immune f rom secondary

deterioration.

2. Sterilized drugs should comply with an

acceptable limit for toxic residues e.g.

for Senna pods 50 ppm of ethylene oxide isthe limit.

Unintentional adulteration (S.K.Mitra et al

2007) Unintentional adulteration may be due to

following reasons.

1 . C o n f u s i o n i n v e r n a c u l a r n a m e s

between indigenous systems of medicine

and local dialects -In Ayurveda, 'Parpatta'

r e f e r s t o F u m a r i a p a r v i f l o r a .

I n S i d d h a ' P a r p a d a g a m ' r e f e r s

t o M o l l u g o p e n t a p h y l l a . O w i n g t o t h e

similarity in the names in traditional systems

of medic ine , these two herbs are of ten

i n t e r c h a n g e d o r a d u l t e r a t e d o r

substituted.Casuarina equisetifolia for Tama

rix indica andAerva lanata for Bergenia cili

a t a a r e s o m e o t h e r e x a m p l e s f o r

adulterations due to confusion in names.

2. Lack of knowledge about the authentic

p l a n t - N a g a k e s a r ' s a u t h e n t i c s o u r c e

is Mesua ferrea. However, market samples

a r e a d u l t e r a t e d w i t h f l o w e r s

of Calophyl lum inophyl lum . Though the

a u t h e n t i c p l a n t i s a v a i l a b l e i n p l e n t y

throughout the Western Ghats and parts

of Himalayas, suppliers are unaware of it.

There may also be some restrictions in forest

c o l l e c t i o n . D u e t o t h e s e

reasons, C. inophyllum (which is in the

plains) is sold as Nagakesar.

3. Non-availability of the authentic plant -

Hypericum perforatum is cultivated and sold

in European markets. In India, availability of

this species is very limited. However, the

abundant Indo-Nepal species H. patulum ,

sold in the name of H. perforatum.


59

4. Similarity in morphology and or aroma

-Eg:-Mucuna pruriens is adulterated with

other similar papilionaceae seeds. M. utilis (sold

as white variety) and M. deeringiana (sold

as bigger variety).

5. Careless col lect ion - Some of the herbal

adul terat ions are due to the carelessness of

h e r b a l c o l l e c t o r s a n d

s u p p l i e r s . P a r m e l i a p e r l a t a i s u s e d

in Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. I t is a lso

used as grocery. Market samples showed i t

t o b e a d m i x e d w i t h o t h e r s p e c i e s

( P . p e r f o r a t a a n d P . c i r r h a t a ) .

Sometimes, Usnea sp . is a lso mixed with

them.

6. Other unknown reasons -Eg:-Vidari's

authentic source is Pueraria tuberosa and its

substitute is Ipomoea digitata . However,

market samples are not derived from these

two. Rather an endangered gymnosperm

C y c a s c i r c i n a l i s i s s o l d i n

plenty as Vidari. The adulterated materials

originated from Kerala, India. Though both

the authentic plant and its substitute are

a v a i l a b l e i n p l e n t y t h r o u g h o u t I n d i a ,

how C. circinalis became a major source for

this drug is unknown.

DETECTION OF ADULTERATION

(Wallis T.E.2005)

Detection of adulteration is the necessity of

modern era and can be done by following

ways:

1. Establish the identity of the adulterant.

2. Determine the quality of the drug.

To e s t a b l i s h i d e n t i t y s e v e r a l m e t h o d s o fa p p r o a c h m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d :

a. The Gross Morphology will give definite information about unground

d r u g s s u c h a s I n d i a n s e n n a p o d ssubstituted for Alexandrian pods; coniumfruit adulterating anise.

b. Histology and Microscopical

M o r p h o l o g y i s v a l u a b l e f o r b o t h

p o w d e r s a n d u n g r o u n d d r u g s . F o r

e x a m p l e , R e c o g n i t i o n o f m a n y

adulterants of belladona herb by the

palisade ratio, by the stomach index or by

trichomes; Japanese chillies and fruits of

Capsicum annuum in powdered cayenne

pepper by the cells of the epidermis of

the pericarp.

c. Microscopical Linear measurements:

The length of the stomata in leaves of

Barosma betulina will exclude leaves of

other species of Barosma.

d. So lubi l i ty ' s , espec ia l ly excep t iona l

behavior towards solvents, are useful for

the examination of many oils, oleo-resins

etc. For example, solubility of castor oil

in half its volume of light petroleum.

e. Qualitative chemical tests - The copper

acetate test for colophony which occurs

as an adulterant for balsams, resins and

waxes.

f. Physical constants such as specific

g rav i ty, op t i ca l ro ta t ion , v i scos i ty,

refractive index are especially valuable

for oils and fats, oleo-resins, balsams and

similar substances.

g. Ultra-violet l ight - Drugs such as

hydrastis, calumba, viburnum and wild

cherry bark show brilliant effects in

ultra-violet light, and these also may be

used to aid in identification and to

detect certain adulterants which do not

exhibit a similar florescence.

h. Processes of assay for alkaloid, resin,

volatile oil, glycoside, vitamins or other


60

const i tuent .Examples are the assay of

to ta l a lkaloid in bel ladonna herb, the

res in in ja lap, the cardiac ac t iv i ty in

digi ta l i s and the v i tamins in cod- l iver

oi l .I Yield to solvents - For example, the

amount of insoluble matter will indicate

the presence of an unreasonable amount

of woody matter or pieces of bark or of

vegetable debris in drugs such as myrrh,

balsam of tolu, catechu etc.

j. Ash - The determination of ash is useful

fo r de tec t ing low grade p roduc t s ,

exhausted drugs and excess of sandy or

earthy matter; it is more especially

appl icable to powdered drugs . For

example, one can obtain evidence of the

presence of excessive earthy matter,

which is likely to occur with roots and

rhizomes and with leaves which are

d e n s e l y p u b e s c e n t , l i k e t h o s e o f

foxglove, or are clothed with abundant

trichomes secreting resin, as in henbane,

and tend to retain earthy matter splashed

on to them during heavy rainstorms.

k. Crude fibre - For example, it is useful to

determine the presence of clove stalks in

cloves.

l. Quantitative microscopy - For example,

Starches or starchy drugs, when used as

a d u l t e r a n t s , c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y

counting the number of starch grains per

milligramme and calculating the amount

from the known number of starch grains

per milligramme of the pure starch or

starchy material. Thus, if spent gi nger is

the adulterant, one knows that ginger

con ta in s 286 ,000 s t a r ch g ra in s pe r

milligramme and the amount used as an

adulterant can be calculated by using this

f i g u r e ; C a s s i a i s s u b s t i t t u e d f o r

cinnamon, either wholly or in part, one

c a n u s e t h e e s t a b l i s h e d d a t a t h a t

powdered cinnamon has a mean length of

2 6 5 m . o f f i b r e s p e r g r a m m e , a n d

powdered cassia has a mean length of

only 40m. of fibres per gramme

R E S U LT S

Table 1: Commonly used substitute drugs in Ayurveda(Mishra Nadan 2011)

S.NO. Common name Latin name Substitute drug Latin name

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Svarna

Svarnamakshika

Mulethi

Draksha

Shitalchini

Sweta Punarnava

White Sarson

Auru

Copper pyrite

Glycyrrhiza glabra

Vitis vinifera

Piper cubeba

Boerhaavia verticillata

Brassica campestris

Svarnamakshika

Svarnagairika

Dhataki pushpa

Gambhari phala

Javitri

Rakta Punarnava

Yellow or Red Sarson

Copper pyrite

Ochre/Haematite

Woodfordia fruticosa

Gmelina arborea

Myristica fragrans

Boerhaavia diffusa

Brassica campestris


61

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Chavya/Gajpiper

Pushkarmula

Rasanjana

Vaiduryadi ratna bhasma

Kantlauhabhasma

Jivaka

Kakoli

Lauha

Daruhaldi

Sona-Chandi

Samundra lavana /

Saindhava lavana

Prishanparni

Kesar

Mukta

Jeera

Meda

Piper retrofractum/

Piper chaba

Inula racemosa

Antimony ore

Beryllium aluminate

Magnetic iron ore/Magnetite

Microstylis wallichii

Roscoea procera

Ferrum

Berberis aristata

Auru-Argentinum

Sea salt/Rock salt

Uraria picta

Crocus sativus

Pearl

Cuminum cyminum

Polygonatumverticillatum

Piperamula

Kustha

Daruhaldikvatha

Mukta bhasma

Tikshanalauhabhasma

Guduchi

Shatavari

Mandur

Haldi

Lauha

Vidlavana

Shalparni

Haldi

Shukti churna

Dhaniya

Asvagandha

Piper longum

Saussurea lappa

Berberis aristata

Pearl

Wrought iron

Tinospora cordifolia

Asparagus racemosus

Iron oxide

Curcuma longa

Ferrum

Ammonium chloride

Desmodiumgangeticum

Curcuma longa

Pearl oyster

Coriandrum sativum

Withania somnifera

Table 2: List of substitutes (Asha et al 2010)

Drug Substituted drug

Citraka (Plumbago zeylanica)

Tagara (Valeriana wallichi)

Kamala (Nelumbo nucifera)

Nilotpala (Nymphea stellata)

Jatipatra (Myristica fragrans)

Latex of Arka (Calotropis procera)

Pauskara (Inula racemosa)

Apamarga (Achyranthes aspera)

Kustha (Saussurea lappa)

Kamalaksa (Nelumbo nucifera)

Kumuda (Nymphea nouchali)

Jatiphala (Myristica fragrans) /Lavanga (Syzygium aromaticum)

Juice of Arka (Calotropis procera)

Eranda (Ricinus communis)


62

Saurastri (Alum/Alunite)

Bhargi (Clerodendrum serratum)

Madhuyasti (Glycyrrhiza glabra)

Kasturi

Rakta candana (Pterocarpus santalinus)

Musta (Cyperus rotundus)

Haritaki (Terminalia chebula)

Meda (Polygonatum verticillatum)

Jivaka (Microstylis wallichii)Kakoli (Roscoea procera)

Rddhi (Habenaria edgeworthii) / Vrddhi

(Habenaria intermedia)

Honey

Svarna bhasma (Auru)

Parada bhasma (Hydragyrurum)

Cow milk

Kankola (Piper cubeba)

Sphatika (Potash alum)

Root of Kantakari (Solanum surrattense)

Dhataki (Woodfordia fruticosa)

Kankola (Piper cubeba)

Jatipuspa/Malati(Jasminum

officinale/Myristica fragrans)

Fresh Usira (Vetiveria zizanioides)

Ativisa (Aconitum heterophylum)

Karkatasrngi (Pistacia integerrima)

Vari

Asvagandha (Withania somnifera)

Varahi (Dioscorea bulbifera)

Old Jaggery

Rasa-sinndura (Red sulphide of Mercury)

Goat milk

Vidari (Pueraria tuberosa)

Lauha bhasma (Ferrum)

DISCUSSION

Adul te ra t ion and subs t i tu t ion i s an o ld

criteria of using another drugs in place of

authentic ones for enhancement of profits or

in non-availabil i ty of drug. Adulterat ion

m a y b e i n t e n t i o n a l o r u n i n t e n t i o n a l .

Substitution can be done due to non-

avai labi l i ty of drug or to reduce or ig ina l

drugs cos t . I t g ives a choice of drugs to

phys ic ian to use . Due to increased demand

o f a y u r v e d i c p r o d u c t s d a y b y d a y

adul tera t ion had increased which has to be

regula ted .

CONCLUSION

Due to increase in demand of ayurvedic

products day by day adulteration has been

increased for enhancement of profit. So, to

regulate adulteration, manufacturing has to

be standardized. Drugs should be uniform in

q u a l i t y , b o t h a s r e g a r d s o r i g i n a n d

cleanliness and also with respect to the

c o n t e n t o f t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y a c t i v e

constituents. Such uniformity is necessary to

ensure an expected effect when a particular

dose is prescribed and also to assist the

pharmacis t in making ga len ica l s which

always be of uniform strength (Wall is T.E

2005) .According to W.H.O. (World Heal th

Organizat ion) guidel ines , any batch of raw

mater ia l has to be rejected which has more

than 5% of any other plant par t of same

plant whether i t i s der ived from authent ic

plant . Same therapeut ic effect as that of

or iginal drug promotes subst i tut ion. So,

Standardizat ion, Detect ion of adul terat ion

a n d W . H . O . g u i d e l i n e s a r e t h e

r e g u l a t o r y m e t h o d s o f a d u l t e r a t i o n .


63

REFERENCES

A d u l t e r a t i o n o f H e r b a l D r u g s , R e t r i e v e d o n 2 0 1 4 J a n u a r y 2 5

D r. K u m a r i A s h a , D r. Te w a r i P r e m v a t i ,

( 2 0 1 0 ) , c o m p l e t e t r e a t i s e o n

Ayurveda Yogara tnakaraChaukhamba

Visvabhara t i , 1 ,191-195.

O m P r a k e s h e t a l / J o u r n a l o f M e d i c i n a l

P l a n t s S t u d i e s ( 2 0 1 3 ) , I S S N : 2 3 2 0 -

3 8 6 2 1 , I s s u e : 4 1 2 7 - 1 3 2 .

Poornima B. Adulteration and substitution in

herbal drugs a critical analysis, IJRAP

2010; 1(1): 8-12. Retrieved on 2014 June

25

P r o f . M i s h r a N a n d a n S i d d h i , e d i t o r .

Bhaisajya Ratnavali of Kaviraj Govind

Das Sen; 2011,Verse 1-44. Varanasi:

Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan,4/70

-72.

R a v i n d r a A n g a d i ( 2 0 11 ) , A t e x t b o o k o f

B h a i s a j y a K a l p a n a V i j n a n a

( P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s c i e n c e ) ,

Chapter-49,,Varanasi:ChaukhambaSurbharati Prakashan Pg.No. 457.

R a v i n d r a A n g a d i ( 2 0 11 ) , A t e x t b o o k o f B h a i s a j y a K a l p a n a V i j n a n a ( P h a r m a c e u t i c a l s c i e n c e ) , Va r a n a s i : C h a u k h a m b a S u r b h a r a t i P r a k a s h a n . 4 9 - 4 5 7 , 4 5 8 .

S.K.Mitra and R.Kannan(2007) A Note on

U n i n t e n t i o n a l A d u l t e r a t i o n i n

Ay u r v e d i c H e r b s R & D C e n t e r ,

T h e H i m a l a y a D r u g C o m p a n y ,

Bangalore-562123. India. 23 January

Wallis T.E., Text book of Pharmacognosy

(2005), New Delhi:CBS publishers and

distributors Pvt. Ltd.;19,564.

Wa l l i s T. E . , Te x t b o o k o f P h a r m a c o g n o s y

2 0 0 5 , N e w D e l h i : C B S p u b l i s h e r s a n d

d i s t r i b u t o r s P v t . L t d . ; . 1 9 / 5 5 8 - 5 6 3 .


64

TPM- A review1 1 2*Gurpreet Singh , Ravinder Singh , Jagdeep Singh

1Assistant Professor, Desh Bhagat University,

Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, 1473012Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,

Punjabi University Patiala, Punjab

*Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACTTPM is the management approach focused on achieving major enhancement in operations

through small incremental changes in the manufacturing system processes. Research is stil l

lacking to identify different strategies involved in implementing TPM approach. This study

attempts to identify useful contributions in this field and present a review of li terature on

TPM systematically. Different concepts, need for this approach, benefits and case studies

related to this field have been discussed.

Keywords: TQM (Total Quality Management), JIT (Just in Time) and TPM (Totalproductive maintenance)

INTRODUCTION

Total Product ive Maintenance (TPM) is a

v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r e q u i p m e n t

intensive manufactur ing sectors . I t i s a key

means for increasing machine avai labi l i ty,

and a vi ta l s tep in l inking machines to

c r e a t e b e t t e r f l o w. To t a l P r o d u c t i v e

Maintenance is the combinat ion of three

words: Total implies a comprehensive

look at all activities that relate to

maintenance of equipment and the

impact each has upon availability.

Productive relates to the end goal

o f t h e e f f o r t i . e . e f f i c i e n t

product ion not mere ly eff ic ient

maintenance as is often mistakenly

assumed. Maintenance signifies the directional

thrust of the program in ensuring

reliable processes and maintaining

production. (Ljungberg 1998).

T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y h a sexperienced an unprecedented degree of

change in the las t three decades , involvingd r a s t i c c h a n g e s i n m a n a g e m e n ta p p r o a c h e s , p r o d u c t a n d p r o c e s st e c h n o l o g i e s , c u s t o m e r e x p e c t a t i o n s ,suppl ier a t t i tudes as wel l as compet i t ivebehaviour. In today 's highly dynamic andrapidly changing environment , the globalcompet i t ion among organizat ions has leadto higher demands on the manufactur ingorganizat ions . The global marketplace hasw i t n e s s e d a n i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e f r o mc u s t o m e r s a n d c o m p e t i t o r s i nmanufactur ing as wel l as service sector(Ahuja and Khamba, 2008) . Manufacturershave to offer a great var ie ty of products inthe leas t amount of t ime on a high qual i tylevel for an acceptable pr ice . Beside theseaspects some authors s t ress the importanceof f lexibi l i ty (Upton, 1994) . As a resul t ,manufactur ing organizat ions are deployingsuch s t ra tegies . This paper reviews a largenumber of papers in this f ie ld and presentst h e o v e r v i e w o f v a r i o u s T P Mimplementat ion pract ices demonstra ted bymanufactur ing organizat ions global ly.


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The essence o f TPM was deve loped inDenso a t ier one automotive suppl ier in theTo y o t a g r o u p o f s u p p l i e r s d u r i n g t h e1 9 6 0 ' s a n d 7 0 ' s i n J a p a n . T h e c e n t r a lt h r u s t o f t h e p r o g r a m i s t h e c o m p l e t eel iminat ion of what are ca l led the “s ixmajor machine losses” i .e . breakdowns, setu p t i m e , c y c l e t i m e l o s s e s , m i n o rstoppages, scrap and rework, and yield ors tar t up losses . In response to maintenanceand support problems in the commercialf a c t o r y, t h e J a p a n e s e d e v e l o p e d a n dintroduced the concept of TPM in 1971.Manufactur ing organizat ions s t r iving forworld class performance have shown thatt h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a n e f f e c t i v emaintenance s t rategy can be s ignif icant inproviding competi t ive advantage throughi t s to ta l product ive main tenance (TPM)program. The emergence of TPM is

i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g b o t h f u n c t i o n s(product ion and maintenance) together bya combinat ion of good working pract ices ,t e a m w o r k i n g a n d c o n t i n u o u simprovement . Firs t developed in Japan in1971 by the Japanese Inst i tute of PlantMaintenance (JIPM) and widely adoptedin Japanese f i rms today, TPM is a not iont a k e n f r o m t h e T Q M c o n c e p t o f z e r op r o d u c t i o n d e f e c t s a n d a p p l y i n g i t t oequipment where the a im is to have zerob r e a k d o w n s a n d m i n i m a l p r o d u c t i o nlosses (Taj i r i , 1992) .TPM is def ined by( N a k a j i m a ( 1 9 8 8 ) a s t h e c o m b i n a t i o nbetween the involvement of tota l employeeand Japanese thought of managing totalq u a l i t y a n d “ A m e r i c a n p r e v e n t i v emaintenance”. This approach is der ived byJ a p a n t o s u p p o r t t h e s y s t e m o f l e a nmanufactur ing.

Literature review related to conceptualframework

(Gall imore and Penlesky (1988) defined

total productive maintenance (TPM) as an

aggressive strategy that focuses on actually

improving the function and design of the

production equipment . Maintenance may

participate in these improvements through

i n v o l v e m e n t i n e ! o r t s t o i m p r o v e t h e

design of new and exist ing equipment.( M a c a u l a y ( 1 9 8 8 ) d e f i n e d T P M i s aphi losophy of main tenance managementd e v e l o p e d i n J a p a n e s e m a n u f a c t u r i n gplants to support the implementat ion ofj u s t - i n - t i m e m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a d v a n c e dmanufactur ing technologies and to supporteffor ts a t improving product qual i ty. TPMact iv i t ies focus on e l iminat ing the `s ixm a j o r l o s s e s . T h e s e l o s s e s i n c l u d eequipment fa i lure , se t -up and adjustmentt ime, id l ing and minor s toppages , reduceds p e e d , d e f e c t s i n p r o c e s s a n d r e d u c e dyield .( R h y n e ( 1 9 9 0 ) i n t r o d u c e s T P M a s acol labora t ion between product ion funct iona n d c o m p a n y m a i n t e n a n c e t o i n c r e a s eproduct qual i ty, reduce waste , reduce thecost of manufactur ing, increase equipment

access ib i l i ty, and enhance the s ta te of the

organiza t ion regard ing main tenance .

Ts u c h i y a , ( 1 9 9 2 ) d e f i n e d T P M a s as t r a t e g y t o m a x i m i z e e q u i p m e n teffec t iveness improving overa l l e ff ic iencyb y e s t a b l i s h i n g a c o m p r e h e n s i v eproduct ive-maintenance sys tem cover ingthe ent i re l i fe of the equipment , spanningal l equipment- re la ted f ie lds p lanning, use ,m a i n t e n a n c e , e t c . a n d , w i t h t h epar t ic ipa t ion of a l l employees f rom topmanagement down to shop-f loor workers ,t o p r o m o t e p r o d u c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c et h r o u g h m o t i v a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t o rvoluntary smal l -group ac t iv i t ies .(Blanchard e t a l . (1995) sugges t tha t TPMconcept can be def ined as a compet i t ion ofa c t i v i t i e s t o i m p r o v e t h e s t r u c t u r e o fc o m p a n i e s b y m e a n s o f i m p r o v i n g t h eequipment and the employee ' s ta len t in thecompany. Based on th is concept , TPM isc l a s s i f i e d i n t o a n i n d e p e n d e n tp r e s e r v a t i o n , q u a l i t y p r e s e r v a t i o n , a nindiv idual ' s improvement , an envi ronmentsafe ty, a p lanned reserva t ion , an ac t iv i tysuppor t ing a bus iness and educa t ion &tra in ing .Wi t t (2006) saw TPM as a communica t ion ,in which the re i s an


66

o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t e n a b l e s o p e r a t o r s , a n d

m a i n t e n a n c e e n g i n e e r s a n d p e o p l e

c o m m u n a l l y c o o p e r a t e a n d d e d u c e e a c h

o t h e r ' s l a n g u a g e .

(Ahuja (2009) re fe r s to TPM as g rea t lyknown and ac t ing as a weapon of s t ra tegyfor enhanc ing manufac tur ing per formanceb y i m p r o v i n g p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e se ffec t ive ly. The au thor a l so p roposes tha tTPM is a co l lec t ion o f methodolog ies andprac t i ces which improve manufac tu r inge q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d w a sdeve loped towards ex tens ive e ffo r t s t omaximize manufac tur ing produc t iv i ty.

(Endrenyi (2001) define TPM as a managementp h i l o s o p h y w h i c h r e c o g n i s e s t h a tc u s t o m e r s a t i s f a c t i o n , p l a n t a n dp e o p l e ' s h e a l t h , s a f e t y, e n v i r o n m e n t a lconsiderations and business objectives arem u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t . T h e p r i n c i p l e s o fTotal Productive Maintenance (TPM) havebeen around for some time and much hardwork has been done on the subjec t byvarious organisations. TPM is about

h a r n e s s i n g h u m a n a n d m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e

i n t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e w a y t o a c h i e v e a n

o r g a n i s a t i o n ' s o b j e c t i v e s .

( K e u n g ( 2 0 0 3 ) c l a i m s t h a t T P M i s a l l

a b o u t To t a l P l a n t M a i n t e n a n c e . T h e

u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e p t i s , i f y o u p r o p e r l y

m a i n t a i n p l a n t m a c h i n e r y t h e r e w i l l s e e a

s h a r p d e c l i n e i n m a c h i n e b r e a k d o w n s ,

s a f e t y a n d q u a l i t y p r o b l e m s . U n d e r T P M ,

m a c h i n e o p e r a t o r s c a r r y o u t r o u t i n e

m a i n t e n a n c e s u c h a s c h e c k i n g w a t e r, o i l ,

c o o l a n t , a n d a i r l e v e l s . T h i s m a y i n v o l v e

s o m e t r a i n i n g o f m a c h i n e o p e r a t o r s .

(Bernste in (2005) suggests that TPM isbeing design as a method to improve thea v a i l a b i l i t y o f m a c h i n e s t h r o u g h t h euti l izat ion of maintenance. Some peoplemight th ink tha t TPM is “de te r io ra t ionprevention”, which means is what happensnatural ly to anything that is not “taken careof”. For this reason many people refer toTPM as "total productive manufacturing"or "total process management"

Literature review related to casestudies/ Surveys

( M c K o n e e t a l . ( 2 0 1 2 ) e x p l o r e s t h econtextual differences of plants to bet terunderstand what types of companies haveadopted TPM programs. They propose atheoret ical framework for understandingthe use of TPM and how i t depends onmanagerial factors such as Just- in-Time(JIT), Total Quali ty Management (TQM)and Employee Involvement (EI) . as well asenvironmental and organizat ional factorssuch as country, industry and companyc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e a u t h o r t e s t t h i sframework using data from 97 plants inthree different countries to determine whattypes o f companies a re mos t l ike ly toaggressively pursue TPM practices. Thea u t h o r c o n d u c t e d t h i s s t u d y t o b e t t e runderstand what types of companies haveadopted TPM programs. The contextualv a r i a b l e s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c he x p l a i n b e t w e e n 2 5 % a n d 6 3 % o f t h evariance in the perceptual TPM measures.

This indicates that TPM is dependent on contextual

differences between companies.

(Hassan (2012) presents a model for to ta lproduct ive maintenance for an e lec t r ica lmaintenance sys tem in a dr i l l ing r ig . Thework in t roduces an overview on one of themodel ing techniques ca l led causa l loopdiagram in conjunct ion wi th applying thet o t a l p r o d u c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e mdynamics for improving the avai labi l i ty ofthe o i l dr i l l ing equipment . The model hasb e e n d e v e l o p e d u s i n g t h e c a u s a l l o o pdiagrams (CLD) s imula t ion technique andhas showed that applying TPM improvesthe e lec t r ica l maintenance sys tem throughi m p r o v e d e q u i p m e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y a n dreduced downt ime. Simula t ion saves cos ta n d t i m e t o p r e d i c t t h e a c t u a limplementa t ion model outputs . Also i t hasf l e x i b i l i t y i n t r a c k i n g t h e e f f e c t o fchanging any var iable through the modelruns .(Mokashi (2002) identified specific problemsl i k e l y t o b e e n c o u n t e r e d i nendeavour of implementing reliability-


67

cen t red main tenance (RCM) on sh ips . A

sub jec t ive qua l i t a t ive approach has been

proposed to overcome the l imi ta t ions o f

the de f in i t ive log ic used by the dec i s ion

t r e e s a n d t h e d e m a n d f o r f a i l u r e d a t a

imposed by quan t i t a t ive methods . A fue l

o i l pur i f i ca t ion sys tem has been used as a

t e s t c a se t o demons t r a t e i t s u se . I t i s

c o n c l u d e d t h a t R C M i s a m a i n t e n a n c e

methodology may be cons idered by some

t o b e d i f f i c u l t t o i m p l e m e n t , a s a

ph i losophy i t s sa l i en t po in t s can eas i ly be

u s e d b y t h e s e a f a r e r s t o m a k e t h e i r

main tenance p lans o r dec i s ions .

K o c h e r e t a l . ( 2 0 1 2 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h ec o n t r i b u t i o n o f t o t a l p r o d u c t i v emaintenance in i t ia t ives to manufactur ingindustr ies in India . The s tudy is carr ied outa t case company Leader Valves Ltd . inIndia that has in i t ia ted the TPM st ra tegies .T h e O E E f o r C N C Tu r n i n g i s 3 1 . 9 7 %against the des i red level of 85%. In thecase s tudy f i rm, there have been a t temptsb y m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c eworkers to involve the product ion peoplein bas ic maintenance work.

OH e t a l . (2008) presen t a theore t i ca lmodel f rom the re la t ionship between theact ive factors of the TPM program andmanagement resul ts for a product ivi ty andqual i ty increase , and to invest igate thed i r e c t a n d i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s o n t h em a n a g e m e n t o f a c o m p a n y t h r o u g h aparametr ic s tudy. A quest ionnaire surveyof 300 companies that present ly ut i l ize theTPM program has been conducted. Resul tindicated that TPM act ive factors exceptfor an independent preservat ion have aposi t ive effect on equipment ' s eff ic iencya n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d p e r s o n n e lmanagement .(Swanson (2001) repor ts the resul t s of as t u d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e nmaintenance s t ra tegies and per formance .Based on the responses f rom a survey ofp l a n t m a n a g e r s a n d m a i n t e n a n c em a n a g e r s , t h e a n a l y s i s s h o w s s t r o n gpos i t ive re la t ionships be tween proact iveand aggress ive maintenance s t ra tegies andperformance . The in tent of th is paper was

to explore different maintenance s trategies

and their re la t ionship with maintenance

and plant performance. The resul ts of the

exploratory factor analysis are consis tent

w i t h t h e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t m a i n t e n a n c e

strategies described in the l i terature.

( M c K o n e ( 2 0 0 1 ) i n v e s t i g a t e t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n To t a l P r o d u c t i v e

Main tenance (TPM) and manufac tu r ing

p e r f o r m a n c e ( M P ) t h r o u g h S t r u c t u r a l

Equat ion Model ing (SEM). The resu l t s o f

t h e a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e t h a t T P M , a s

m e a s u r e d f o r t h i s p a p e r, h a s a s t r o n g

pos i t ive impac t on mul t ip le d imens ions of

M P. W h i l e T P M d i r e c t l y i m p a c t s M P,

there i s a l so a s t rong ind i rec t re la t ionsh ip

be tween TPM and MP through J IT.(Bon and Karim (2011) ident i fy factorswhich contr ibute to product defects andp r o p o s e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f T P M i nr e d u c i n g t h e d e f e c t s . A c c o r d i n g t oresearch, there are four major factors thatc a u s e d e f e c t s , h u m a n n e g l i g e n c e , l e s squal i ty of raw mater ia ls , machines thatneed maintenances and work procedures .Based on the f indings of the data col lectedand the analys is made, i t can be ident i f iedthat the fac tors of engine damage is as t rong factor affect ing the qual i ty of thep r o d u c t i o n o f r u b b e r g l o v e s . E n g i n em a i n t e n a n c e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e i s a ni m p o r t a n t i s s u e i n q u a l i t y c o n t r o lproduct ion of la tex gloves in a factory TopGlove. To opt imize and reduce productdefects engine damage occurs , the plantshould be focused on the maintenance ofmachinery to ensure qual i ty product ion a ta s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l . R e g u l a r e n g i n emaintenance can reduce the occurrence ofa major engine damage affects the ra te ofdefects .(Mugwindrir i e t a l . (2013) seeks to showthat the longer product ion cont inues withno interrupt ions , the higher the product ionwil l be . By looking at the maintenancesignif icant i tems or machines out of the 27l is ted i t has been possible to detai l some ofthe per t inent and at tendant problems andthen to proffer unique solut ions to each ofthese problems for the cr i t ical machines .


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The r e sea rch sough t t o a sce r t a in t he l eve l

o f commi tmen t and invo lvemen t o f t he

managemen t i n t he imp lemen ta t ion and

sus t a in ing o f con t inuous improvemen t a s

we l l a s i nvo lvemen t i n s t r a t eg i c changes

s u c h a s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f To t a l

P r o d u c t i v e M a i n t e n a n c e ( T P M ) f o r a l l

e m p l o y e e s . T h e p a p e r c o n c l u d e s b y

a f f i r m i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g t h e

ho l i s t i c TPM approach wh ich i s peop le

cen t r ed .

Need for TPM in contemporarymanufacturing scenario

T h e r e i s e m e r g i n g n e e d f o r T P Mimplementation in the Industry and need todevelop TPM implementation practice andprocedures. The successful implementationof TPM in the industry is a function ofabi l i ty of an indus t ry to approach andPractice TPM; support and improvement,providing empowerment and incent ives ,promot ing cross funct ional i ty and teamw o r k . T P M i s a n e x c e l l e n t w o r kphilosophy that really produces gain in thep r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s . To t a l P r o d u c t i v eMaintenance (TPM) is a methodology thataims to increase the availabil i ty of existing

( B o r i k a r ( 2 0 1 4 ) p r o p o s e d a m e t h o d o l o g y

t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o c o m p a r e t h e

m a n a g e m e n t m e t h o d s a n d d e t e r m i n e a

m e t h o d t h a t c a n o p t i m i z e m a i n t e n a n c e o f

T P P s t o m a k e t h e p l a n t s o p e r a t e

e c o n o m i c a l l y b y u s i n g T P M a t . T h e r m a l

p o w e r p l a n t . T h e e f f i c i e n c y w a s

i m p r o v e d f r o m 7 7 . 7 7 % t o 8 4 . 2 7 % .

e q u i p m e n t a n d r e d u c i n g t h e n e e d f o rf u r t h e r c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t . A f t e r t h ei m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f T P M m o d e l , b o t htangible and intangible benefi ts are shownt o b e o b t a i n e d f o r e q u i p m e n t a n demployees respectively. These intangibleb e n e f i t s r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e c h a n g e o forganizat ional cul ture, change of paradigmfo r p roduc t ion peop le i n r ea l i z ing t heimportance of maintenance act ivi t ies andt h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a i n t e n a n c e ,p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d q u a l i t y . M o r e o v e r ,s t ra teg ic TPM implementa t ion can a l sof a c i l i t a t e a c h i e v i n g t h e v a r i o u so rgan iza t iona l manufac tu r ing p r io r i t i e sa n d g o a l s a s d e p i c t e d i n T a b l e I(source: Ahuja and Khamba, 2008).

Table 1 Organizational manufacturing priorities and goals realized through CI

Manufacturing priorities CI considerations

Productivity

Reduced unplanned stoppages and breakdown improving equipment availability and productivity Provide customization with additional capacity, quick change-over and design of product

Quality

Reduce quality problems from unstable production Reduced in field failures through improved quality Provide customization with additional capacity, quick change-over and design of product

Cost Life cycle costing Efficient improvement procedures Supports volume and mix flexibility Reduced quality and stoppage-related waste

Delivery Support of CI efforts with dependable improvement Improves efficiency of delivery, speed. and reliability Improved line availability of skilled workers

Safety Improved workplace environment


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Realizing zero accidents at workplace Eliminates hazardous situations

Morale Significant improvement in kaizen and suggestions

Increase employees' knowledge of the process and product

Improved problem-solving ability

Increase in worker skills and knowledge

Employee involvement and empowerment

The recent compet i t ive t rends and everincreasing business pressures have beenput t ing main tenance func t ion under thespot l ight as never before . The maintenancefunct ion in an organizat ion is confrontedw i t h t h e c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k o f a f f e c t i n gsignif icant reduct ions in cycle t ime; set -upt ime, cost ; faci l i ta t ing qual i ty

improvements; capaci ty expansions, andaffect ing improvements in organizat ionalworking environment . Thus, an effect ivemaintenance program can make s ignif icantc o n t r i b u t i o n s t o w a r d s e n h a n c i n gproduct ion eff ic iency, plant avai labi l i ty,rel iabi l i ty and organizat ional prof i tabi l i ty(Maggard and Rhyne, 1992) .

Benefits of implementing TPM Strategy

Tota l p roduc t ive main tenance (TPM), aresource-emphasized approach moves thep a r a d i g m o f m a i n t e n a n c e b y p u t t i n gemphasis on total employee involvementin the maintenance act ivi t ies . Operatorsa n d a l l e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d b e a c t i v e l yinvolved in a maintenance programme thate n a b l e t o a v o i d a n y d i s r u p t i o n s ,breakdowns, s toppages , fa i lures , and soforth in order to improve manufacturingp e r f o r m a n c e . T h e r e f o r e , i n t h e h i g h l ycompeti t ive manufacturing industr ies , theabi l i ty and rel iabi l i ty of equipment thatwell-maintained is very important in ordert o a c h i e v e d e s i r e d m a n u f a c t u r i n gperformance namely cost reduct ion, highqua l i ty p roduc t s , on- t ime de l ive ry, andf l e x i b i l i t y ( L a z i m e t a l . , 2 0 1 3 ) Amanufactur ing fac i l i ty has been s tudieda n d a n a l y z e d t o s t u d y T P Mi m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s s u e s , t h e r o a d m a pfol lowed and the key benef i t s achievedf r o m O E E a s a r e s u l t o f T P Mimplementat ion. OEE has been improvedf r o m 7 0 . 3 5 % t o 8 0 . 2 3 % ( Wa k j i r a a n dSingh, 2012) , The main purpose of thes tudy i s to f ind ou t a p roper p lann ings y s t e m f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g T P M a t t h eini t ia l s tage in the organizat ion. This s tudydiscusses the important key performanceindicators or KPIs of TPM, which are

Machine Breakdown t ime, Mean Time toFa i lu re (MTBF) , Mean Time to Repa i r( M T T R ) a n d S e t u p t i m e ( A z i z e t a l . ,2 0 1 2 ) . T h e a u t h o r c r e a t e d t h e m o d e lprocess for this new approach, with fourlevels and each s tep durat ion is around s ixmonths with planning, t ra inings, execut iona c t i v e s a n d a u d i t s . T h e a c c o m p l i s h e dr e s u l t s s h o w g a i n s a r o u n d 3 0 % i nm a n u f a c t u r i n g e f f i c i e n c y m e a s u r e d b yO v e r a l l E q u i p m e n t E f f i c i e n c y, To t a lProduct ive Maintenance knowledge levelincrease and Operators promotions (Sauzoa n d S i l v a , 2 1 0 1 3 ) . C o m p a n y a c h i e v e da b o u t 9 3 % i n a v e r a g e q u a l i t y r a t e o foveral l equipment effect iveness equat ionand about 87% in avai labi l i ty in October2 0 1 2 w h e r e i n a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c eeff ic iency in October 2012 i t ach ievedabout 87.5 %. The comparison between theworld class s tandard and company resul tsi s ca r r i ed ou t and the company i s no ta c h i e v e d t h e w o r l d c l a s s a v a i l a b i l i t y,performance eff ic iency, qual i ty rate andovera l l equipment e ffec t iveness (Afefy,2013). In order to possess highly rel iablem a c h i n e s t o m a k e s u r e s m o o t hm a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , m a n yo rg a n i z a t i o n s h a v e i m p l e m e n t e d To t a lP r o d u c t i v e M a i n t e n a n c e ( T P M ) a s t h ee n a b l i n g t o o l t o m a x i m i z e t h eeffect iveness of equipment by set t ing and


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m a i n t a i n i n g t h e o p t i m u m r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d t h e i r m a c h i n e s .

Overa l l Equipment Effec t iveness (OEE) i s

u s e d a s a m e a s u r e w h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h er e s u l t o f T P M ( B o n e t a l . , 2 0 1 1 ) .

CONCLUSIONS

From the l i terature survey described here,i t c an b e s een t h a t t h e r e i s a g en e r a lconsensus tha t TPM St ra tegy i s a veryeffect ive manufacturing phi losophy. Thiss t r a t e g y i s u n i v e r s a l i n n a t u r e a n dencompasses al l aspects of manufacturing.These also include the generat ion of anappropr ia te cul tura l environment , whichincludes total commitment at a l l levels ofmanagement and within the workforce. I tcan be concluded that there is reasonablyvast l i terature avai lable on TPM strategy,which gives a broad view of past pract icesand researches carr ied over the globe. Butas s t rategy is a widely accepted phi losophyin manufacturing organizat ions, so moreresearch work is required in this f ie ld. Thel i terature highl ights the contr ibut ions of

var ious TPM implementat ion s t ra tegies foraccruing different types of benefi ts l ikeincreased product ivi ty, qual i ty, cost , sa lesand safety etc . for meet ing the chal lengesposed by g loba l compet i t ion . TPM hasemerged as a key compet i t ive s t ra tegy forb u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e g l o b a lm a r k e t p l a c e . A n e f f e c t i v e T P Mi m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o g r a m c a n f o c u s o naddressing the organizat ion 's maintenancerelated issues and ideas , with a view too p t i m i z e e q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . T P Mhas become a new management paradigmin a l l types of organizat ions . In recenty e a r s , m a n y o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v ed e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n timprovements in business can be achievedthroughTPM

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Structural Genomics : From Genome mapping to Genome annotationGaurav Aggarwal

Dept. of Food Technology,


E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACTGenomics is the study of the genomes of organisms. The field includes intensive efforts to

determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping efforts.

The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis,1pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. Genome

projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome

sequence of an organism (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a

protist or a virus). The genome sequence for any organism requires the DNA sequences for

each of the chromosomes in an organism to be determined. For bacteria, which usually

have just one chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that

chromosome. Humans, with 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, will require 462separate chromosome sequences in order to represent the completed genome . Mapping

involves (1) dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be propagated and3

characterized and (2) ordering (mapping) them to correspond to their respective locations on4

the chromosomes . After mapping is completed, the next step is to determine the base5

sequence of each of the ordered DNA fragments . The ultimate goal of genome research is to

find all the genes in the DNA sequence and to develop tools for using this information in the

study of human biology and medicine.

Keywords: DNA sequencing, gene mapping, chromosome, genomics

INTRODUCTIONGenomics i s the s tudy of the genomes oforganisms . The f ie ld inc ludes in tens ivee f f o r t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e n t i r e D N As e q u e n c e o f o r g a n i s m s a n d f i n e - s c a l egene t ic mapping e ffor t s . The f ie ld a l soi n c l u d e s s t u d i e s o f i n t r a g e n o m i cphenomena such as he te ros i s , ep is tas i s ,p le io t ropy and o ther in te rac t ions be tweenloc i and a l l e l es wi th in the genome. Incont ras t , the inves t iga t ion of the ro les andfunc t ions o f s ing le genes i s a p r imaryf o c u s o f m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y a n d i s ac o m m o n t o p i c o f m o d e r n m e d i c a l a n db io log ica l r esea rch . Research o f s ing legenes does no t fa l l in to the def in i t ion ofgenomics un less the a im of th i s gene t ic ,p a t h w a y, a n d f u n c t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o nana lys i s i s to e luc ida te i t s e ffec t on , p lacein , and response to the en t i re genome 'sne tworks .

F o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e sEnv i ronmenta l P ro tec t ion Agency, " theterm "genomics" encompasses a broaders c o p e o f s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y a s s o c i a t e dt ech n o lo g i e s t h an w h en g en o mics w asini t ia l ly considered. A genome is the sumtotal of a l l an individual organism's genes.Thus, genomics is the s tudy of a l l thegenes of a cel l , or t issue, a t the DNA( g e n o t y p e ) , m R N A ( t r a n s c r i p t o m e ) , o rprotein (proteome) levels ." Genome projects are scientifice n d e a v o u r s t h a t u l t i m a t e l y a i m t odetermine the complete genome sequenceof an organism (be it an animal, a plant, afungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protistor a virus). The genome sequence for anyorganism requires the DNA sequences foreach of the chromosomes in an organismt o b e d e t e r m i n e d . F o r b a c t e r i a , w h i c hu s u a l l y h a v e j u s t o n e c h r o m o s o m e , agenome project will aim to map the


74

s e q u e n c e o f t h a t c h r o m o s o m e . H u m a n s ,

w i t h 2 2 p a i r s o f a u t o s o m e s a n d 2 s e x

c h r o m o s o m e s , w i l l r e q u i r e 4 6 s e p a r a t e

c h r o m o s o m e s e q u e n c e s i n o r d e r t o

r e p r e s e n t t h e c o m p l e t e d g e n o m e .

Mapping and Sequencing the Genome

A p r i m a r y g o a l o f t h e G e n o m e

Project is to make a series of descript ive

d i a g r a m s m a p s o f e a c h h u m a n

c h r o m o s o m e a t i n c r e a s i n g l y f i n e r

resolutions. Mapping involves (1) dividing

the chromosomes into smaller fragments

that can be propagated and characterized

a n d ( 2 ) o r d e r i n g ( m a p p i n g ) t h e m t o

correspond to their respective locations on

t h e c h r o m o s o m e s . A f t e r m a p p i n g i s

completed, the next step is to determine

the base sequence of each of the ordered

D N A f r a g m e n t s . T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f

genome research is to f ind al l the genes in

the DNA sequence and to develop tools for

us ing th i s in fo rmat ion in the s tudy o f

human biology and medicine. Improving

t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a n d t e c h n i q u e s

required for mapping and sequencing a

major focus of the genome project wil l

increase efficiency and cost- effectiveness.

Goa l s inc lude au tomat ing methods and

o p t i m i z i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o e x t r a c t t h e

maximum useful information from maps

and sequences.

A genome map descr ibes the orderof genes or o ther markers and the spacingb e t w e e n t h e m o n e a c h c h r o m o s o m e .G e n e t i c i s t s h a v e a l r e a d y c h a r t e d t h eapproximate pos i t ions of over 2300 genes ,and a s tar t has been made in es tabl ish ingh i g h - r e s o l u t i o n m a p s o f t h e g e n o m e .More- prec ise maps are needed to organizesys temat ic sequenc ing e ffo r t s and p lannew research d i rec t ions .Mapping StrategiesGenetic Linkage Maps

A g e n e t i c l i n k a g e m a p s h o w s t h erela t ive locat ions of specif ic DNA markersalong the chromosome. Any inher i ted

physical or molecular character is t ic thatdi ffers among individuals and is eas i lydetectable in the laboratory is a potent ia lgenet ic marker. Markers can be expressedDNA regions (genes) or DNA segmentsthat have no known coding funct ion butwhose inheri tance pat tern can be fol lowed.DNA sequence differences are especial lyuseful markers because they are plent i fuland easy to character ize precisely.

Markers must be polymorphic to beuse fu l i n mapp ing ; t ha t i s , a l t e rna t iveforms must exis t among individuals so thatt h e y a r e d e t e c t a b l e a m o n g d i f f e r e n tm e m b e r s i n f a m i l y s t u d i e s .P o l y m o r p h i s m s a r e v a r i a t i o n s i n D N Asequence that occur on average once every300 to 500 bp . Var ia t ions wi th in exonsequences can lead to observable changes,such as differences in eye color, b loodt y p e , a n d d i s e a s e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y. M o s tvar ia t ions occur within introns and havel i t t l e o r n o e f f e c t o n a n o r g a n i s m sa p p e a r a n c e o r f u n c t i o n , y e t t h e y a r edetectable a t the DNA level and can beused as markers . Examples of these typesof markers include (1) res t r ic t ion fragmentl e n g t h p o l y m o r p h i s m s ( R F L P s ) , w h i c href lect sequence var ia t ions in DNA si testhat can be cleaved by DNA restr ic t ione n z y m e s , a n d ( 2 ) v a r i a b l e n u m b e r o ftandem repeat sequences , which are shortrepeated sequences that vary in the numberof repeated uni ts and, therefore , in length(a charac te r i s t i c eas i ly measured) . Thehuman genet ic l inkage map is constructedby observing how frequent ly two markersare inher i ted together.

Tw o m a r k e r s l o c a t e d n e a r e a c h

other on the same chromosome wi l l tend to

be passed together f rom parent to chi ld .

Dur ing the normal product ion of sperm

and egg ce l l s , DNA s t rands occas ional ly

break and re jo in in d i fferent p laces on the

same chromosome or on the o ther copy of

t h e s a m e c h r o m o s o m e ( i . e . , t h e

homologous chromosome) . This process

(ca l led meiot ic recombinat ion) can resul t


75

in the separat ion of two markers or ig inal ly

o n t h e s a m e c h r o m o s o m e ( F i g . :

Construct ing a Genet ic Linkage Map ) . The

closer the markers are to each other the

m o r e t i g h t l y l i n k e d t h e l e s s l i k e l y a

recombinat ion event wi l l fa l l between and

separate them. Recombinat ion f requency

thus provides an es t imate of the dis tance

between two markers .

O n t h e g e n e t i c m a p , d i s t a n c e s

be tween markers a re measured in te rms of

c e n t i m o r g a n s ( c M ) , n a m e d a f t e r t h e

A m e r i c a n g e n e t i c i s t T h o m a s H u n t

Morgan . Two markers a re sa id to be 1 cM

a p a r t i f t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d b y

recombina t ion 1% of the t ime . A gene t ic

d is tance of 1 cM is roughly equa l to a

phys ica l d i s tance of 1 mi l l ion bp (1 Mb) .

The cu r ren t r e so lu t ion o f mos t human

gene t ic map reg ions i s about 10 Mb.

T h e v a l u e o f t h e g e n e t i c m a p i s t h a t a n

i n h e r i t e d d i s e a s e c a n b e l o c a t e d o n t h e

m a p b y f o l l o w i n g t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f a

D N A m a r k e r p r e s e n t i n a f f e c t e d

i n d i v i d u a l s ( b u t a b s e n t i n u n a f f e c t e dindividuals) , even though the molecularb a s i s o f t h e d i s e a s e m a y n o t y e t b eu n d e r s t o o d n o r t h e r e s p o n s i b l e g e n eident i f ied. Genet ic maps have been used tof ind the exact chromosomal locat ion ofseveral important disease genes , includingcyst ic f ibrosis , s ickle cel l d isease, Tay-Sachs disease, f ragi le X syndrome, andmyotonic dystrophy.

One short- term goal of the genome project

is to develop a high- resolution genetic

map (2 to 5 cM); recent consensus maps of

some chromosomes have averaged 7 to 10

c M b e t w e e n g e n e t i c m a r k e r s . G e n e t i c

mapp ing re so lu t ion has been inc reased

through the appl ica t ion of recombinant

D N A t e c h n o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g i n v i t r o

r a d i a t i o n - i n d u c e d c h r o m o s o m e

fragmenta t ion and ce l l fus ions ( jo in ing

human cells with those of other species to

form hybrid cells) to create panels of cells

w i t h s p e c i f i c a n d v a r i e d h u m a n

chromosomal components.


76

Restriction Enzymes: MicroscopicScalpels

I s o l a t e d f r o m v a r i o u s b a c t e r i a ,restr ict ion enzymes recognize short DNAsequences and cut the DNA molecules atthose specif ic s i tes . (A natural biologicalfunction of these enzymes is to protectb a c t e r i a b y a t t a c k i n g v i r a l a n d o t h e rforeign DNA.) Some restr ict ion enzymes( r a r e - c u t t e r s ) c u t t h e D N A v e r yinfrequently, generat ing a small number ofvery large fragments (several thousand to amill ion bp). Most enzymes cut DNA morefrequently, thus generat ing a large numberof small fragments ( less than a hundred tomore than a thousand bp).

On average, restriction enzymes with

4-base recognition sites will yield

p i e c e s 2 5 6 b a s e s l o n g ,


p ieces 4000 bases long, and


pieces 64,000 bases long.

Since hundreds of different restrictionenzymes have been charac ter ized , DNAc a n b e c u t i n t o m a n y d i f f e r e n t s m a l lfragments.

Physical Maps

Di ffe ren t types o f phys ica l maps

vary in the i r degree of reso lu t ion . The

lowes t - r e so lu t ion phys ica l map i s t he

c h r o m o s o m a l ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d

cytogenet ic ) map, which i s based on the

dis t inc t ive banding pa t te rns observed by

l ight microscopy of s ta ined chromosomes .

A c D N A m a p s h o w s t h e l o c a t i o n s o f

expressed DNA reg ions (exons ) on the

c h r o m o s o m a l m a p . T h e m o r e d e t a i l e d

cosmid cont ig map depic ts the order of

over lapping DNA fragments spanning the

genome. A macrores t r ic t ion map descr ibes

the order and d is tance be tween enzyme

c u t t i n g ( c l e a v a g e ) s i t e s . T h e h i g h e s t -

reso lu t ion phys ica l map i s the comple te

elucidation of the DNA base- pair

s e q u e n c e o f e a c h c h r o m o s o m e i n t h e

h u m a n g e n o m e . P h y s i c a l m a p s a r e

described in greater detail below.

Low-Resolution Physical Mapping

C h r o m o s o m a l m a p . I n a

c h r o m o s o m a l m a p , g e n e s o r o t h e r

identifiable DNA fragments are assigned

to t he i r r e spec t i ve ch romosomes , w i th

distances measured in base pairs. These

markers can be physically associated with

particular bands (identified by cytogenetic

staining) primarily by in situ hybridization,

a technique that involves tagging the DNA

marker with an observable label (e.g. , one

tha t f l uo re sces o r i s r ad ioac t ive ) . The

l o c a t i o n o f t h e l a b e l e d p r o b e c a n b e

d e t e c t e d a f t e r i t b i n d s t o i t s

complementary DNA strand in an intact

chromosome.

A s w i t h g e n e t i c l i n k a g e m a p p i n g ,c h r o m o s o m a l m a p p i n g c a n b e u s e d t ol o c a t e g e n e t i c m a r k e r s d e f i n e d b y t r a i t so b s e r v a b l e o n l y i n w h o l e o r g a n i s m s .B e c a u s e c h r o m o s o m a l m a p s a r e b a s e d o ne s t i m a t e s o f p h y s i c a l d i s t a n c e , t h e y a r ec o n s i d e r e d t o b e p h y s i c a l m a p s . T h en u m b e r o f b a s e p a i r s w i t h i n a b a n d c a no n l y b e e s t i m a t e d .

U n t i l r e c e n t l y, e v e n t h e b e s t

chromosomal maps could be used to loca te

a DNA fragment only to a reg ion of about

10 Mb, the s ize of a typica l band seen on a

c h r o m o s o m e . I m p r o v e m e n t s i n

f luorescence in s i tu hybr id iza t ion (FISH)

m e t h o d s a l l o w o r i e n t a t i o n o f D N A

sequences tha t l ie as c lose as 2 to 5 Mb.

M o d i f i c a t i o n s t o i n s i t u h y b r i d i z a t i o n

methods , us ing chromosomes a t a s tage in

ce l l d iv is ion ( in terphase) when they are

less compact , increase map resolu t ion to

a r o u n d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 b p . F u r t h e r b a n d i n g

r e f i n e m e n t m i g h t a l l o w c h r o m o s o m a l

b a n d s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s p e c i f i c

a m p l i f i e d D N A f r a g m e n t s , a n

improvement tha t could be usefu l in


77

analyzing observable physical t rai ts

a s s o c i a t e w i t h c h r o m o s o m a l

abnormalit ies.

cDNA map . A cDNA map showsthe posi t ions of expressed DNA regions(exons) re la t ive to par t icular chromosomalregions or bands . (Expressed DNA regionsare those t ranscr ibed in to mRNA.) cDNAis synthesized in the laboratory us ing them R N A m o l e c u l e a s a t e m p l a t e ; b a s e -pair ing rules are fol lowed ( i .e . , an A on themRNA molecule wi l l pai r wi th a T on thenew DNA st rand) . This cDNA can then bemapped to genomic regions .

Because they represent expressedgenomic regions, cDNAs are thought toident i fy the par ts of the genome with themost biological and medical s ignif icance.A c D N A m a p c a n p r o v i d e t h echromosomal loca t ion fo r genes whosef u n c t i o n s a r e c u r r e n t l y u n k n o w n . F o rdisease- gene hunters , the map can alsosuggest a set of candidate genes to tes twhen the approximate locat ion of a diseasegene has been mapped by genet ic l inkagetechniques.

High- Resolution Physical Mapping

T h e t w o c u r r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o

h i g h - r e s o l u t i o n p h y s i c a l m a p p i n g a r e

t e r m e d t o p - d o w n ( p r o d u c i n g a

m a c r o r e s t r i c t i o n m a p ) a n d b o t t o m - u p

( resu l t ing in a con t ig map) . Wi th e i the r

s t r a t e g y ( d e s c r i b e d b e l o w ) t h e m a p s

represen t o rde red se t s o f DNA f ragment s

tha t a r e gene ra t ed by cu t t i ng genomic

D N A w i t h r e s t r i c t i o n e n z y m e s ( s e e

p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d R e s t r i c t i o n

E n z y m e s ) . T h e f r a g m e n t s a r e t h e n

ampl i f i ed by c lon ing o r by po lymerase

cha in r eac t ion (PCR) me thods ( see DNA

A m p l i f i c a t i o n b e l o w ) . E l e c t r o p h o r e t i c

t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e

f ragment s accord ing to s i ze in to d i ff e ren t

bands , wh ich can be v i sua l i zed by d i r ec t

DNA s ta in ing o r by hybr id iza t ion wi th

DNA probes o f i n t e res t . The u se o f

pur i f ied chromosomes separa ted e i ther by

f low sor t ing f rom human ce l l l ines or in

h y b r i d c e l l l i n e s a l l o w s a s i n g l e

chromosome to be mapped (see Separa t ing

Chromosomes be low) .

A number of s t rategies can be used

to reconstruct the original order of the

D N A f r a g m e n t s i n t h e g e n o m e . M a n y

approaches make use of the ab i l i ty o f

s ing le s t r ands o f DNA and /o r RNA to

h y b r i d i z e t o f o r m d o u b l e - s t r a n d e d

segments by hydrogen bonding between

c o m p l e m e n t a r y b a s e s . T h e e x t e n t o f

s e q u e n c e h o m o l o g y b e t w e e n t h e t w o

strands can be inferred from the length of

t h e d o u b l e - s t r a n d e d s e g m e n t .

Fingerprint ing uses restr ict ion map data to

determine which fragments have a specif ic

sequence ( f inge rp r in t ) i n common and

therefore overlap. Another approach uses

l inking clones as probes for hybridizat ion

to chromosomal DNA cut with the samerestr ict ion enzyme.

M a c r o r e s t r i c t i o n m a p s : To p -down mapping . In top- down mapping, asingle chromosome is cut (with rare- cutterr e s t r i c t ion enzymes) in to l a rge p ieces ,which a re o rdered and subdiv ided ; thesmaller pieces are then mapped further.T h e r e s u l t i n g m a c r o - r e s t r i c t i o n m a p sdepict the order of and distance betweensites at which rare- cutter enzymes cleave( F i g . : P h y s i c a l M a p p i n g S t r a t e g i e s :M a c ro re s t r i c t i o n M a p ) . T h i s a p p r o a c hy i e l d s m a p s w i t h m o r e c o n t i n u i t y a n dfewer gaps between fragments than contigmaps, but map resolution is lower and maynot be useful in f inding part icular genes; inaddit ion, this s trategy generally does notproduce long stretches of mapped si tes.C u r r e n t l y, t h i s a p p r o a c h a l l o w s D N Apieces to be located in regions measuringabout 100,000 bp to 1 Mb.

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p u l s e d - f i e l d g e l

( P F G ) e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c m e t h o d s h a s

imp r o v ed t h e map p in g an d c lo n in g o f

large DNA molecules . Whi le convent ional


78

g e l e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c m e t h o d s s e p a r a t e

pieces less than 40 kb (1 kb = 1000 bases)

in s ize , PFG separa tes molecules up to 10

M b , a l l o w i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h

convent ional and new mapping methods to

larger genomic regions . C o n t i g m a p s : B o t t o m - u p

m a p p i n g . T h e b o t t o m - u p a p p r o a c h

i n v o l v e s c u t t i n g t h e c h r o m o s o m e i n t o

s m a l l p i e c e s , e a c h o f w h i c h i s c l o n e d a n d

o r d e r e d . T h e o r d e r e d f r a g m e n t s f o r mc o n t i g u o u s D N A b l o c k s ( c o n t i g s ) .Current ly, the resul t ing l ibrary of c lonesvar ies in s ize f rom 10,000 bp to 1 Mb (Fig.: Phys i ca l Mapp ing S t ra t eg i e s : Con t igMaps ) . An advantage of th is approach i sthe access ib i l i ty of these s table c lones toother researchers . Cont ig cons t ruc t ion canb e v e r i f i e d b y F I S H , w h i c h l o c a l i z e sc o s m i d s t o s p e c i f i c r e g i o n s w i t h i nchromosomal bands .

Contig maps thus consist of a linked

l i b r a r y o f s m a l l o v e r l a p p i n g c l o n e s

representing a complete chromosomal

s e g m e n t . W h i l e u s e f u l f o r f i n d i n g g e n e s

l o c a l i z e d t o a s m a l l a r e a ( u n d e r 2 M b ) ,

c o n t i g m a p s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e x t e n d o v e r


79

l a rg e s t r e t c h e s o f a c h r o m o s o m e b e c a u s e

a l l r e g i o n s a r e n o t c l o n a b l e . D N A p r o b e

t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e u s e d t o f i l l i n t h e g a p s ,

b u t t h e y a r e t i m e c o n s u m i n g . Technological improvements nowmake possible the cloning of large DNAp i e c e s , u s i n g a r t i f i c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e dc h r o m o s o m e v e c t o r s t h a t c a r r y h u m a nDNA fragments as large as 1 Mb. Thesevectors are maintained in yeast cel ls asart if icial chromosomes (YACs). (For moree x p l a n a t i o n , s e e D N A A m p l i f i c a t i o nbelow) Before YACs were developed, thelargest cloning vectors (cosmids) carr iedi n s e r t s o f o n l y 2 0 t o 4 0 k b . YA Cm e t h o d o l o g y d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e s t h enumber o f c lones to be o rde red ; manyYACs span ent i re human genes. A moredetai led map of a large YAC insert can bep r o d u c e d b y s u b c l o n i n g , a p r o c e s s i nwhich fragments of the original insert arec l o n e d i n t o s m a l l e r - i n s e r t v e c t o r s .Because some YAC regions are unstable,large- capacity bacterial vectors ( i .e . , thosethat can accommodate large inserts) arealso being developed.

Separating Chromosomes

Flow sorting

F l o w s o r t i n g e m p l o y s f l o wcytomet ry to separa te , accord ing to s ize ,chromosomes i so la ted f rom ce l l s dur ingce l l d iv i s ion when they a re condensed ands tab le . As the chromosomes f low s ing lypas t a l ase r beam, they a re d i ffe ren t ia tedby ana lyz ing the amount o f DNA presen t ,and ind iv idua l chromosomes a re d i rec tedto spec i f ic co l lec t ion tubes .

Somatic cell hybridization

In somat ic cel l hybr idizat ion,

human cel ls and rodent tumor ce l ls are

fused (hybr id ized) ; over t ime, a f ter the

chromosomes mix , human chromosomes

are preferent ia l ly los t f rom the hybrid cel l

unt i l only one or a few remain. Those

individual hybrid cel ls are then propagated

and maintained as cel l l ines containing

specif ic human chromosomes.

I m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h i s t e c h n i q u e h a v e

generated a number of hybrid cel l l ines,

e a c h w i t h a s p e c i f i c s i n g l e h u m a n

chromosome.

Sequencing Technologies

T h e u l t i m a t e p h y s i c a l m a p o f t h e

h u m a n g e n o m e i s t h e c o m p l e t e D N A

sequence the de te rmina t ion of a l l base

pairs on each chromosome. The completed

map wil l provide biologis ts with a Roset ta

s tone fo r s t udy ing human b io logy and

enable medica l researchers to beg in to

u n r a v e l t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f i n h e r i t e d

diseases . Much effor t cont inues to be spent

locat ing genes; i f the ful l sequence were

k n o w n , e m p h a s i s c o u l d s h i f t t o

de te rmin ing gene func t ion . The Human

Genome Project is creat ing research tools

for 21st- century biology, when the goal

wil l be to understand the sequence and

funct ions of the genes residing therein.

Achieving the goals of the HumanGenome Project will require substantialimprovements in the rate, efficiency, andr e l i a b i l i t y o f s t a n d a r d s e q u e n c i n gprocedures. While technological advancesare leading to the automation of standardD N A p u r i f i c a t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n , a n ddetection steps, efforts are also focusing ont h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e n t i r e l y n e wsequencing methods that may el iminates o m e o f t h e s e s t e p s . S e q u e n c i n gp r o c e d u r e s c u r r e n t l y i n v o l v e f i r s tsubcloning DNA fragments from a cosmido r b a c t e r i o p h a g e l i b r a r y i n t o s p e c i a ls e q u e n c i n g v e c t o r s t h a t c a r r y s h o r t e rpieces of the original cosmid fragments( F i g . : C o n s t r u c t i n g C l o n e s f o rSequencing). The next step is to make thesubcloned fragments into sets of nestedf r a g m e n t s d i f f e r i n g i n l e n g t h b y o n enucleotide, so that the specific base at theend of each successive fragment is


80

detectable after the fragments have been separated by gel electrophoresis.

Fig. : Constructing Clones for SequencingDNA Amplification: Cloning and

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Cloning (in vivo DNA amplification)

Cloning involves the

use of recombinant DNA technology to


81

sui table host cel ls , the DNA fragments can

then be reproduced along with the host cel l

D N A . Ve c t o r s a r e D N A m o l e c u l e s

o r ig ina t ing f rom v i ruses , bac te r i a , and

yeas t ce l l s . They accommodate var ious

sizes of foreign DNA fragments ranging

f r o m 1 2 , 0 0 0 b p f o r b a c t e r i a l v e c t o r s

(plasmids and cosmids) to 1 Mb for yeast

vec to r s (yeas t a r t i f i c i a l ch romosomes) .

C l o n i n g p r o c e d u r e s p r o v i d e u n l i m i t e d

mater ia l for exper imental s tudy. A random

(unordered) set of c loned DNA fragments

is cal led a l ibrary. Genomic l ibrar ies are

s e t s o f o v e r l a p p i n g f r a g m e n t s

e n c o m p a s s i n g a n e n t i r e g e n o m e . A l s o

a v a i l a b l e a r e c h r o m o s o m e - s p e c i f i c

l i b r a r i e s , w h i c h c o n s i s t o f f r a g m e n t s

der ived from source DNA enriched for a

par t icular chromosome. (See Separa t ing

Chromosomes, above.)

PCR (in vitro DNA amplification)

D e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g t o g e n e s w h a t

Gu tenbe rg ' s p r i n t i ng p r e s s was t o t he

wri t ten word, PCR can amplify a desired

D N A s e q u e n c e o f a n y o r i g i n ( v i r u s ,

bacter ia , p lant , or human) hundreds of

mil l ions of t imes in a matter of hours , a

task that would have required several days

w i t h r e c o m b i n a n t t e c h n o l o g y. P C R i s

especial ly valuable because the react ion is

h igh ly spec i f i c , eas i ly au tomated , and

capable of amplifying minute amounts of

sample. For these reasons, PCR has also

had a major impact on cl inical medicine,

g e n e t i c d i s e a s e d i a g n o s t i c s , f o r e n s i c

science, and evolut ionary biology.

( Figure: PCR (in vitro DNA amplification) )


82

PCR is a process based on a

special ized polymerase enzyme, which can

synthesize a complementary s t rand to a

given DNA strand in a mixture containing

the 4 DNA bases and 2 DNA fragments

( p r i m e r s , e a c h a b o u t 2 0 b a s e s l o n g )

f lanking the target sequence. The mixture

is heated to separate the s t rands of double-

s t r a n d e d D N A c o n t a i n i n g t h e t a r g e t

sequence and then cooled to al low (1) the

primers to f ind and b ind to their

complementary sequences on the separated

strands and (2) the polymerase to extend

t h e p r i m e r s i n t o n e w c o m p l e m e n t a r y

s t r ands . Repea t ed hea t i ng and coo l ing

c y c l e s m u l t i p l y t h e t a r g e t D N A

e x p o n e n t i a l l y, s i n c e e a c h n e w d o u b l e

strand separates to become two templates

for further synthesis . In about 1 hour, 20

PCR cycles can amplify the target by a

mil l ionfold.

Current Sequencing Technologies

T h e t w o b a s i c s e q u e n c i n gapproaches, Maxam- Gilber t and Sanger,differ pr imari ly in the way the nested DNAfragmen t s a r e p roduced . Bo th me thodswork because gel e lectrophoresis producesvery high resolut ion separat ions of DNAmolecules; even fragments that differ insize by only a s ingle nucleot ide can ber e s o l v e d . A l m o s t a l l s t e p s i n t h e s esequencing methods are now automated.Maxam- Gilber t sequencing (also cal ledthe chemica l degrada t ion me thod) useschemicals to cleave DNA at specif ic bases ,resul t ing in fragments of different lengths .A r e f i n e m e n t t o t h e M a x a m - G i l b e r tmethod known as mul t ip lex sequenc ingenables invest igators to analyze about 40clones on a s ingle DNA sequencing gel .Sanger sequencing (also cal led the chainterminat ion or dideoxy method) involvesu s i n g a n e n z y m a t i c p r o c e d u r e t osynthesize DNA chains of varying lengthin four different react ions, s topping the

Sequencing Technologies Under

DevelopmentA m a j o r f o c u s o f t h e H u m a nGenome Projec t i s the development ofautomated sequencing technology that cana c c u r a t e l y s e q u e n c e 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 o r m o r ebases per day at a cost of less than $.50 perb a s e . S p e c i f i c g o a l s i n c l u d e t h edevelopment of sequencing and detectionschemes that are faster and more sensit ive,accura te , and economica l . Many nove lsequencing technologies are now beingexplored, and the most promising ones will

DNA replication at positions occupied by

o n e o f t h e f o u r b a s e s , a n d t h e n

determining the resulting fragment lengths.

These f i r s t -genera t ion ge l -basedsequenc ing technolog ies a re now be ingused to sequence small regions of interesti n t h e h u m a n g e n o m e . A l t h o u g hinvestigators could use exist ing technologyto sequence whole chromosomes, t ime andc o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m a k e l a rg e - s c a l es e q u e n c i n g p r o j e c t s o f t h i s n a t u r ei m p r a c t i c a l . T h e s m a l l e s t h u m a nc h r o m o s o m e ( Y ) c o n t a i n s 5 0 M b ; t h elargest (chromosome 1) has 250 Mb. Thel a r g e s t c o n t i n u o u s D N A s e q u e n c eo b t a i n e d t h u s f a r , h o w e v e r , i sapproximately 350,000 bp, and the bestava i lab le equ ipment can sequence on ly50,000 to 100,000 bases per year at anapproximate cost of $1 to $2 per base. Atthat rate, an unacceptable 30,000 work-years and a t leas t $3 b i l l ion would berequired for sequencing alone.

e v e n t u a l l y b e o p t i m i z e d f o r w i d e s p r e a du s e .

Second- generat ion ( inter im) sequencing

t e c h n o l o g i e s w i l l e n a b l e s p e e d a n d

a c c u r a c y t o i n c r e a s e b y a n o r d e r o f

magnitude ( i .e . , 10 t imes greater) while

l o w e r i n g t h e c o s t p e r b a s e . S o m e

important disease genes wil l be sequenced

with such technologies as (1) high- vol tage

capi l lary and ul t ra thin electrophoresis to

increase fragment separat ion rate and (2)


83

use of resonance ionization spectroscopy

to detect stable isotope labels.

T h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n g e l - l e s ssequenc ing t echno log ies , which a im toincrease eff iciency by several orders ofmagnitude, are expected to be used forsequencing most of the human genome.These developing technologies include (1)e n h a n c e d f l u o r e s c e n c e d e t e c t i o n o findividual labeled bases in flow cytometry,(2) direct reading of the base sequence ona DNA strand with the use of scanningtunnel ing or atomic force microscopies ,(3) enhanced mass spectrometric analysisof DNA sequence, and (4) sequencing byhybridization to short panels of nucleotideso f k n o w n s e q u e n c e . P i l o t l a rg e - s c a l es e q u e n c i n g p r o j e c t s w i l l p r o v i d eo p p o r t u n i t i e s t o i m p r o v e c u r r e n ttechnologies and wi l l reveal chal lengesinves t i ga to r s may encoun te r i n l a rge r-scale efforts.

Partial Sequencing To Facilitate Mapping,

Gene Identification C o r r e l a t i n g m a p p i n g d a t a f r o m

di ffe ren t l abora tor ies has been a p rob lem

b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n g e n e r a t i n g ,

i so la t ing , and mapping DNA f ragments . A

c o m m o n r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m d e s i g n e d t o

m e e t t h e s e c h a l l e n g e s u s e s p a r t i a l l y

sequenced un ique reg ions (200 to 500 bp)

t o i d e n t i f y c l o n e s , c o n t i g s , a n d l o n g

s t re tches o f sequence . Ca l l ed sequence

tagged s i t es (STSs) , these shor t sequences

h a v e b e c o m e s t a n d a r d m a r k e r s f o r

phys ica l mapping .

Because coding sequences of genes

represent most of the potent ia l ly useful

information content of the genome (but are

only a fract ion of the total DNA), some

i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e b e g u n p a r t i a l

sequencing of cDNAs instead of random

genomic DNA. (cDNAs are der ived from

m R N A s e q u e n c e s , w h i c h a r e t h e

transcr ipt ion products of expressed genes.)

In addi t ion to providing unique markers ,

these par t ia l sequences [ te rmed expressed

s e q u e n c e t a g s ( E S Ts ) ] a l s o i d e n t i f y

expressed genes . This s t ra tegy can thus

prov ide a means of rap id ly iden t i fy ing

most human genes . Other appl ica t ions of

t h e E S T a p p r o a c h i n c l u d e d e t e r m i n i n g

locat ions of genes a long chromosomes and

i d e n t i f y i n g c o d i n g r e g i o n s i n g e n o m i c

sequences .

End Games: Completing Maps and

Sequences; Finding Specific Genes

S t a r t i n g m a p s a n d s e q u e n c e s i s

r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; f i n i s h i n g t h e m w i l l

require new s t ra tegies or a combinat ion of

e x i s t i n g m e t h o d s . A f t e r a s e q u e n c e i s

determined us ing the methods descr ibed

above, the task remains to f i l l in the many

l a r g e g a p s l e f t b y c u r r e n t m a p p i n g

m e t h o d s . O n e a p p r o a c h i s s i n g l e -

chromosome microdissect ion, in which a

p i e c e i s p h y s i c a l l y c u t f r o m a

chromosomal region of par t icular in teres t ,

b r o k e n u p i n t o s m a l l e r p i e c e s , a n d

ampli f ied by PCR or c loning (see DNA

Ampl i f i ca t ion above) . These f r agment s

can then be mapped and sequenced by the

methods previously descr ibed.

Chromosome walking, one s t ra tegy forf i l l ing in gaps , involves hybr id iz ing aprimer of known sequence to a clone froma n u n o r d e r e d g e n o m i c l i b r a r y a n dsynthesizing a short complementary strand(called walking along a chromosome). Thecomplementary strand is then sequencedand i ts end used as the next primer forfurther walking; in this way the adjacent,previously unknown, region is identif iedand sequenced. The chromosome is thussystematically sequenced from one end tot h e o t h e r . B e c a u s e p r i m e r s m u s t b esynthesized chemically, a disadvantage ofth i s t echn ique i s t he l a rge number o fdifferent primers needed to walk a longdis tance . Chromosome walk ing i s a l sou s e d t o l o c a t e s p e c i f i c g e n e s b ysequenc ing the ch romosomal segmen t sbetween markers that f lank the gene of


84

in te res t (Fig . : Clon ing a Disease Gene byChromosome Walk ing ) .

The current human genet ic map has

about 1000 markers , or 1 marker spaced

every 3 mi l l ion bp; an es t imated 100 genes

l ie between each pai r of markers . Higher-

resolut ion genet ic maps have been made in

regions of par t icular in teres t . New genes

can be located by combining genet ic and

physica l map informat ion for a region. The

g e n e t i c m a p b a s i c a l l y d e s c r i b e s g e n e

o r d e r. R o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t g e n e

locat ion is somet imes avai lable a lso , but

t h e s e d a t a m u s t b e u s e d w i t h c a u t i o n

b e c a u s e r e c o m b i n a t i o n i s n o t e q u a l l y

l ikely a t a l l p laces on the chromosome.

Thus the genet ic map, compared to the

physical map, s t re tches in some places and

compresses in others , as though i t were

drawn on a rubber band.

Fig.: Cloning a Disease Gene by Chromosome Walking


85

The degree of difficulty in finding a

disease gene of interest depends largely on

what information is already known about the

gene and, especially, on what kind of DNA

alterations cause the disease. Spotting the

disease gene is very difficult when disease

results from a single altered DNA base;

sickle cell anemia is an example of such a

case, as are probably most major human

inheri ted diseases. When disease resul ts

f r o m a l a rg e D N A r e a r r a n g e m e n t , t h i s

a n o m a l y c a n u s u a l l y b e d e t e c t e d a s

alterations in the physical map of the region

or even by direct microscopic examination

of the chromosome. The location of these

alterations pinpoints the site of the gene.

Identifying the gene responsible for a

specific disease without a map is analogous

to finding a needle in a haystack. Actually,

f inding the gene is even more difficult ,

because even close up, the gene sti l l looks

like just another piece of hay. However,

maps give clues on where to look; the finer

the maps resolution, the fewer pieces of hay

to be tested.

Once the neighborhood of a gene of

i n t e r e s t h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , s e v e r a l

strategies can be used to find the gene itself.

An ordered library of the gene neighborhood

can be constructed if one is not already

a v a i l a b l e . T h i s l i b r a r y p r o v i d e s D N A

fragments that can be screened for additional

polymorphisms, improving the genetic map

of the region and further restricting the

possible gene location. In addition, DNA

fragments from the region can be used as

probes to search for DNA sequences that are

e x p r e s s e d ( t r a n s c r i b e d t o R N A ) o r

conserved among individuals. Most genes

will have such sequences. Then individual

gene candidates must be examined. For

example, a gene responsible for liver disease

is likely to be expressed in the liver and less

likely in other tissues or organs. This type of

e v i d e n c e c a n f u r t h e r l i m i t t h e s e a r c h .

Finally, a suspected gene may need to be

sequenced in both heal thy and affec ted

individuals. A consistent pattern of DNA

v a r i a t i o n w h e n t h e s e t w o s a m p l e s a r e

compared will show that the gene of interest

has very likely been found. The ultimate

proof i s to cor rec t the suspec ted DNA

alteration in a cell and show that the cells

behavior reverts to normal.

Nanopore sequencing

It is a method under development since 1995

f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h

nucleotides occur on a strand of DNA. A

nanopore is simply a small hole, of the order

of 1 nanometer in internal diameter. Certain

t r ansmembrane ce l lu l a r p ro t e ins ac t a s

nanopores, and nanopores have also been

made by etching a somewhat larger hole

(several tens of nanometers) in a piece of

silicon, and then gradually filling it in using

ion-beam sculpting methods which results in

a much smaller diameter hole: the nanopore.

T h e t h e o r y b e h i n d n a n o p o r e

sequencing has to do with what occurs when

the nanopore is immersed in a conducting

fluid and a potential (voltage) is applied

across it: under these conditions a slight

electric current due to conduction of ions

through the nanopore can be observed, and

the amount of current is very sensitive to the

size and shape of the nanopore. If single

bases or strands of DNA pass (or part of the

D N A m o l e c u l e p a s s e s ) t h r o u g h t h e

nanopore, this can create a change in the

m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e

nanopore.

DNA could be passed through the

nanopore for various reasons. For example,

e l ec t rophores i s migh t a t t r ac t t he DNA

t o w a r d s t h e n a n o p o r e , a n d i t m i g h t

eventually pass through i t . Or, enzymes


86

attached to the nanopore might guide DNA

towards the nanopore. The scale of the

nanopore means tha t t he DNA may be

forced through the hole as a long string, one

base at a time, rather like thread through the

e y e o f a n e e d l e . A s i t d o e s s o , e a c h

n u c l e o t i d e o n t h e D N A m o l e c u l e m a y

o b s t r u c t t h e n a n o p o r e t o a d i f f e r e n t ,

characteristic degree. The amount of current

which can pass through the nanopore at any

given moment therefore varies depending on

whether the nanopore is blocked by an A, a

C, a G or a T. The change in the current

through the nanopore as the DNA molecule

passes through the nanopore represents a

d i r e c t r e a d i n g o f t h e D N A s e q u e n c e .

Alternatively, a nanopore might be used to

identify individual DNA bases as they pass

through the nanopore in the correct order.

The potential is that a single molecule of

DNA can be sequenced directly using a

n a n o p o r e , w i t h o u t t h e n e e d f o r a n

intervening PCR amplification step or a

chemical labell ing step or the need for

op t i ca l ins t rumenta t ion to iden t i fy the

c h e m i c a l l a b e l . A s o f O c t o b e r 2 0 0 8 ,

information available to the public indicates

that nanopore sequencing is st i l l at the

proof-of-concept experimental stage, with

some laboratory-based data to back up the

different components of the sequencing

method, but not yet parallelized, routineized,

nor cost-effective enough yet to compete

wi th ou t "nex t genera t ion sequenc ing"

methods. Nanopore-based DNA analysis

techniques are being industrially developed

by Oxford Nanopore Technologies (direct

label-free exonuclease sequencing), NabSys

(using a library of DNA probes and using

nanopores to detect where these probes have

hybridized to single stranded DNA) and

Sequenom (using nanopores in combination

with fluorescent labels). One challenge for

the 'strand sequencing' method is in refining

the method to improve its resolution to be

ab le to de tec t s ing le bases . In the ea r ly

papers methods , a nuc leo t ide needed to be

repea ted in a sequence about 100 t imes

s u c c e s s i v e l y i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a

measurab le charac te r i s t i c change . More

recen t ly e ffec t s o f s ing le bases due to

secondary s t ruc ture o r r e leased

mononuc leo t ides .

Shotgun sequencing

it is also known as shotgun cloning, is a

method used for sequenc ing long DNA

strands. It is named by analogy with the

rap id ly -expand ing , quas i - r andom f i r i ng

pattern of a shotgun.

Since the chain termination method of DNA

sequencing can only be used for fairly short

s t rands (100 to 1000 basepai rs ) , longer

sequences must be subdivided into smaller

fragments, and subsequently re-assembled to

give the overall sequence. Two principal

methods are used for th is : chromosome

walking, which progresses through the entire

s t r a n d , p i e c e b y p i e c e , a n d s h o t g u n

sequencing, which i s a fas ter but more

complex process, and uses random fragments.

In shotgun sequencing, DNA is broken up

randomly in to numerous smal l segments ,

w h i c h a r e s e q u e n c e d u s i n g t h e c h a i n

t e r m i n a t i o n m e t h o d t o o b t a i n r e a d s .

Mul t ip le over lapping reads for the target

DNA are obta ined by performing severa l

r o u n d s o f t h i s f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d

sequencing. Computer programs then use

the over lapping ends of d i fferent reads to

assemble them into a cont inuous sequence.

G e n o m e a s s e m b l y r e f e r s t o t h e

process of taking a large number of short

D N A s e q u e n c e s , a l l o f w h i c h w e r e

generated by a shotgun sequencing project ,

and put t ing them back together to create a


87

representation of the original chromosomesf r o m w h i c h t h e D N A o r i g i n a t e d . I n ashotgun sequencing project, all the DNAfrom a source (usually a single organism,anything from a bacterium to a mammal) isfirst fractured into millions of small pieces.These pieces are then "read" by automatedsequencing machines, which can read up to900 nucleotides or bases at a t ime. (The fourbases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, andthymine, represented as AGCT.) A genomeassembly algorithm works by taking all thepieces and aligning them to one another, anddetecting all places where two of the shorts e q u e n c e s , o r r e a d s , o v e r l a p . T h e s eoverlapping reads can be merged together,and the process continues.

Genome assembly is a very difficult

computational problem, made more difficult

b e c a u s e m a n y g e n o m e s c o n t a i n l a r g e

numbers of identical sequences, known as

repeats . These repeats can be thousands of

n u c l e o t i d e s l o n g , a n d s o m e o c c u r i n

thousands of different locations, especially

in the large genomes of plants and animals.

T h e r e s u l t i n g ( d r a f t ) g e n o m e

sequence is produced by combining the

information sequenced cont igs and then

employing l inking information to create

scaffolds. Scaffolds are positioned along the

physical map of the chromosomes creating a

"golden path".

Assembly software

Or iginal ly, most large-scale DNA

sequencing centers developed their own

software for assembling the sequences that

they produced. However, this has changed

as the software has grown more complex

and as the number of sequencing centers has

increased.

Among the list of available assemblers are:

Phred/Phrap by Phil Green was one

of the first successful assemblers,

widely used in the 1990s and early

2000s , e spec ia l ly fo r smal le r

genomes.

AMOS (A Modular, Open-Source

assembler) is a well-known open

source project intended to bring

together the efforts of leading

genome assembly code developers.

The home of AMOS is currently

http://amos.sourceforge.net/. AMOS

was initiated at The Institute for

Genomic Resea rch by S teven

Salzberg , Mihai Pop, and Art

Delcher, who are now at the The

University of Maryland.

The Celera Assembler was the a s semble r deve loped by Gene Myers, Granger Sutton, Art Delcher, and others at Celera Genomics from 1998 until approximately 2002. It was moved to SourceForge and continues to be developed by the original scientists and others, at http://sourceforge.net/projects/wgs- assembler.

The Arachne assembler began in

2000 as the doctoral thesis of

Serafim Batzoglou, now at Stanford

University. Since that time, it has

been developed by a team lead by

David B. Jaffe at the Broad Institute,

formerly part of the Whitehead

Institute. It is available for download

at

http://www.broad.mit.edu/wga/arach

newiki/. cox

Genome annotation

Genome annota t ion i s t he p roces s o f

a t t a c h i n g b i o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o

sequences . I t cons i s t s o f two ma in s t eps :


88

1. Identifying elements on the genome, a process called Gene Finding, and 2. Attaching biological information to these elements.

Automatic annotat ion tools t ry to

perform al l th is by computer analysis , as

o p p o s e d t o m a n u a l a n n o t a t i o n ( a . k . a .

curat ion) which involves human expert ise .

Idea l ly, t he se app roaches co -ex i s t and

c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r i n t h e s a m e

annotat ion pipel ine.

The basic level of annotation is using

BLAST for finding similarities, and then

annotating genomes based on that. However,

n o w a d a y s m o r e a n d m o r e a d d i t i o n a l

in fo rmat ion i s added to the anno ta t ion

platform. The additional information allows

m a n u a l a n n o t a t o r s t o d e c o n v o l u t e

discrepancies between genes that are given

the same annotation.

For example, the SEED database uses

genome con tex t in fo rmat ion , s imi la r i ty

scores, experimental data, and integrations

o f o t h e r r e s o u r c e s t o p r o v i d e g e n o m e

a n n o t a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e i r S u b s y s t e m s

approach. The Ensembl database relies on

both curated data sources as well as a range

of different software tools in their automated

genome annotation pipeline.[2]

Structural annotation consists in the identification

of genomic elements.

ORFs and their localisation

gene structure

coding regions

location of regulatory motifs

Functional annotation consists in attaching

biological information to genomic elements.

biochemical function

biological function

involved regulation and interactions

expression

These steps may involve both biological

experiments and in silico analysis.

A va r i e ty o f so f tware too l s have been

deve loped to permi t sc ien t i s t s to v iew and

share genome annota t ions .

G e n o m e a n n o t a t i o n i s t h e n e x t m a j o r

challenge for the Human Genome Project,

now that the genome sequences of human

and several model organisms are largely

complete. Identifying the locations of genes

and other genetic control elements is often

described as defining the biological "parts

list" for the assembly and normal operation

of an organism. Scientists are still at an early

stage in the process of delineating this parts

list and in understanding how all the parts]"fit together"

Genome annotat ion is an act ive area of

invest igat ion and involves a number of

different organizations in the life science

community which publish the results of their

e ffo r t s in pub l ic ly ava i l ab le b io log ica l

databases accessible via the web and other

electronic means. Here is an alphabetical

l i s t ing of on-going projects re levant to

genome annotation:

Encyclopedia Of DNA Elements

(ENCODE)

Entrez Gene

Ensembl

Gene Ontology Consortium

GeneRIF

RefSeq

Uniprot

Vertebrate and Genome Annotation

Project (Vega)


89

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92

HEAVY METAL STRESS AND PHYTOREMEDI1ATION

* 1 2 Dr.Harvinder Kaur Sidhu , Prof. Kirandeep Kaur Hundal

1Deptt. Of Botany,Desh Bhagat University,

Mandi Gobindgarh2Associate Professor, P.G. Department of Botany,

Khalsa College, Amritsar


ABSTRACTHeavy metals like lead, arsenic, chromium, zinc, cadmium, copper and mercury arecontaminating our soil and even underground water. These pollutants are directly or indirectlycausing significant damage to the environment and human health as a result of their mobilitiesand solubilities. The selection of most appropriate soil and sediment remediation methoddepends on the site characteristics, concentration, type of pollutants to be removed and the enduse of contaminated medium. Cheaper and effective technologies are needed to protect theprecious natural resources and biological lives. The main techniques involved are bioleachingand phytoremediation. Bioleaching involves use of Thiobacillus sp. bacteria which can reducesulphur compounds under aerobic and acidic conditions at temperature between 15º and 55ºCwhereas phytoremediation involve use of plants like Chenopodium, Utrica and Alyssum that cantake up and accumulate toxic metals in their leaves where they can be disposed off easily. Withthe recent advancement in biotechnology, the capabilities of hyperaccumulators may be greatlyenhanced through specific metal gene identification and its transfer in certain species, which playa significant role in the extraction of heavy metals from the polluted soils.

Keywords: Heavy metals, Remediation technologies, Bioleaching and Phytoremediation

INTRODUCTION Large areas of agricultural lands, are

contaminated by heavy metals that mainly

originate due to burning of fossil fuels,

indus t r ia l manufac tur ing and munic ipa l

wastes, and application of fertilizers, and

sewage sludge to land. Heavy metals like

lead, arsenic, chromium, zinc, cadmium,

copper and mercury are contaminating our

so i l and even unde rg round wa te r. The

excessive uptake of these metals from the

soil results in entry of heavy metals in our

food supply and also reduces yield (Bala and

Setia 1990; Hall 2002). Heavy metals poses

a great potential threat to the environment

a n d h u m a n h e a l t h

A large number of studies have led

the way in understanding plant activities

a g a i n s t t o x i c c o m p o u n d s l i k e

trichloroethylene and carbon tetrachloride.

In order to maintain good quality of soil and

w a t e r a n d k e e p t h e m f r e e f r o m

contamination, continuous efforts have been

made to develop technologies that are easy

to use and sustainable.

P h y t o r e m e d i a t i o n , i s t h e u s e o f

p l a n t s t o c l e a n u p p o l l u t i o n i n t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t . P l a n t s c a n t a k e u p a n d

accumulate toxic metals in their leaves

where they can be d isposed off eas i ly.

Phytoremediation is an energy efficient ,

cost-effective, aesthetically pleasing method

of remediating sites with low to moderate

levels of contamination (Schnoor 1997; Salt

e t a l . 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e t e c h n i q u e o f

phytoremediation exploits the use of either


93

naturally occurring metal hyperaccumulator

p lan t s o r gene t i ca l ly eng ineered p lan t s

(Cunningham et al. 1997; Flathman and

Heavy metal uptake, Translocation and

Accumulation T h e u p t a k e , t r a n s l o c a t i o n a n daccumulation of heavy metals in plants ism e d i a t e d b y i n t e g r a t e d n e t w o r k o fphysiological, biochemical and molecularmechanisms. The transfer of heavy metalsfrom soils to plants depend on total amountof potentially available or the bioavailabilityof the metal, the activity as well as the ionicratios of elements in soil solution, and rateof element transfer from solid to liquid

Mechanisms of phytoremediation

There are several ways by which

plants clean up the contaminated s i tes . The

uptake of contaminants in plants occurs

primari ly through the root system, in which

the principle mechanisms for preventing

toxici ty are found.

The root system provides an enormous

surface that absorbs and accumulates the

Phytoextraction

P h y t o e x t r a c t i o n a l s o c a l l e dPhytoaccumulation, refers to the uptake andtranslocation of metal contamination in thesoil by plant roots into the above groundportion of the plants. Certain plants calledhyperaccumulators adsorb large amounts of

Lanza 1998). This review give a broad

overview of processes involved in

phytoremediationphases and to p lant roots (Brummer e t a l .

1986) . P lants may loca l ize se lec ted meta ls

most ly in roots or shoots , or they may

accumula te and s tore o ther meta ls in non-

toxic te rms for la ter d is t r ibut ion and use .

The t ransport of heavy metals f rom

root to shoot takes place through xylem via

special ized membrane t ransport processes

(Sal t e t a l . 1995) . In leaf cel ls , metals are

taken up by specif ic membrane t ransporter

protein.

water and nutrients essential for growth

along with other non-essential contaminants.

Plant roots cause changes at the soil-root

i n t e r f a c e a s t h e r e l e a s e o r g a n i c a n d

inorganic exudates in the rhizophers. These

root exudates affect the number and activity

of microorganisms, the aggregat ion and

stability of the soil particles around the root

and the availability of the contaminant. Root

exudates by themselves can increase or

decrease the availability of the contaminants

in the root zone of the plant through changes

in soil characteristics, release of organic

s u b s t a n c e s , c h a n g e s i n c h e m i c a l

composition and/or increase in plant assisted

microbial activity. There are five different

technologies for the remediation of metal

polluted soils , sediments or water. They

i n c l u d e p h y t o r e m e d i a t i o n ,

p h y t o s t a b i l i z a t i o n , r h i s o f i l t e r a t i o n ,

phytovolatization and phytotransformation

metals in comparison to other plants. Plants

are selected at a particular site based on the

type o f me ta l s p re sen t and o the r s i t e

conditions. After the growth period of the

p l a n t s , t h e y a r e h a r v e s t e d a n d e i t h e r

incinerated or composted to recycle the


94

metals . I f the plants are incinerated, ash is

disposed off in a hazardous waste landf i l l .

The volume of ash wi l l be less than 10% of

the volume tha t i s c rea ted , i f the

contaminated so i l i t se l f were dug up for

t rea tment . Meta ls such as n icke l , z inc and

cooper a re the bes t candida tes for removal

by phytoext rac t ion .

Tr a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d s t h a t a r e u s e d f o rcleaning up heavy metal contaminated soild i s r u p t s o i l s t r u c t u r e a n d r e d u c e s o i lproductivity, whereas phytoextraction canclear up the soil without causing any kind ofharm to soil quality. It is less expensive thanany clean up process. As this process iscontrolled by plants, it takes more time thananthropogenic soil clean up methods.

Table 1: Plants with Metal Concentration

Plants Metal Concentration (mg metal/kg dry matter)

Eichhornia crassipes Fe 14400 Minuartia verna Cu (roots)

Pb (roots) Cd (leaves)

1850 26300 348

Jasione Montana As (leaves) 3100 Mechovia grandiflora Mn (leaves) 7000 Acrocephalus robertii Co (leaves) 1490 Psychotria douarrei Ni (roots) 92000 Pearsonia metallifera Cr (roots) 1620 Astragalus preussi U (leaves, roots) 70 Astragalus acemosus Se (leaves) 1500 Alyssum bertholonii Ni (shoots) 13400 Miconia lutescens Al (shoots) 6800

Phytostabilization

Phytostabilization is the use of

c e r t a i n p l a n t s p e c i e s t o i m m o b i l i z e

contaminants in the soil and ground water

through absorption and accumulation by

roots, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation

with in the root zone of plants. This process

reduces the mobility of the contaminant and

prevents; migration to the ground water, and

it reduces bio-availability of metal into the

food chain. This technique can also be used

to reestablish vegetation cover at sites where

natural vegetation fails to survive due to

high metals concentrations in surface soils

or physical disturbances to surface materials.

Metal tolerant species is used to restore

vegetation at contaminated sites, thereby

d e c r e a s i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l m i g r a t i o n o f

p o l l u t a n t s t h r o u g h w i n d e r o s i o n a n d

transport of exposed surface soils and


95

teaching of soil contamination to ground water

Thus, phytoremediation is a low cost, solar

e n e r g y d r i v e n a n d n a t u r a l c l e a n u p

technique, which are most useful at sites

Rhizofilteration

Rhizofilteration is the adsorption or

precipitation onto plant roots or adsorption

of contaminants in the solution surrounding

the root zone.

Phytovolatization

Phytovolatization refers to the uptake

and transpiration of contaminants, primarily

o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s , b y p l a n t s . T h e

contaminant, present in the water taken up

Phytotransformation

Phytotransfromation, also referred to

as phytodegradation, is the breakdown of

organic contaminants sequestered by plants

via:

1. Metabolic processes with in theplant, or

with shallow, low levels of contamination.They are useful for treating a wide varietyof env i ronmenta l con taminan ts and a reeffective with or in some cases, in place ofm e c h a n i c a l c l e a n u p m e t h o d s .Environmentally sound technologies (ESTs)e n c o m p a s s t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t h a v es i g n i f i c a n t l y i m p r o v e d e n v i r o n m e n t a lperformance release to other technologies.ESTs pro tec t the envi ronment , a re lesspolluting, use resources in a sustainablemanner, recycle more of their wastes andproducts, and handle all residual wastes inan environmentally sustainable manner.

R h i z o f i l t e r a t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o

phytoextraction, but the plants are used

primarily to address contaminated ground

water rather than soil. The plants to be used

for cleanup are raised in green houses with

their roots in water rather than in soil. To

acclimatize the plants, once a large root

system has been developed, contaminated

water i s co l lec ted f rom was te s i t e and

brought to the plants where it is substituted

for their water source. The plants are then

planted in the contaminated area where the

roots take up the water and the contaminants

also with it. As the roots become saturated

with contaminants, they are harvested.

by the plant , passes through the plant or isreleased to the atmosphere. Resul ts of onestudy confirmed that popular t rees volat ize90% of the t r ichloroethylene (TCE) theyextracted from the ground.

2. The effect of compounds. Such as enzymes produced by the plant.

The o rgan ic con taminan t s a r edegraded into simpler compounds that areintegrated with plant tissue, which in turn,foster plant growth. Remediation of a site byphytotransformation is dependent on directuptake of contaminants from the media and


96

accumula t i on i n t he vege t a t i on . D i r ec tuptake of chemicals into plant t issue via ther o o t s y s t e m i s d e p e n d e n t o n u p t a k ee f f i c i e n c y , t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e , a n dconcentration of the chemical in soil water.Uptake efficiency depends on chemical

speciation, physical/chemical properties, and

plant characteristics, whereas transpiration

r a t e d e p e n d s o n p l a n t t y p e , l e a f a r e a ,

nutrients, soil moisture, temperature, wind

conditions and relative humidity.

Genetic Engineering and

Phytoremediation

Natural metal hyperaccumulators

such as Thalaspi spp. Can accumulate and

tolerate high concentration in their tissues

t h a t t h o s e u s u a l l y f o u n d i n n o n -

accumulators without any visible toxicity

symptoms . However, mos t o f he meta l

hyperaccumulators have a limited potential

phytoremediation because of their small size

and slow growth (Lasat 2002). Thus, to

overcome this limitations and to improve the

potential for metal phytoextraction, Brown

et al. (1995) proposed the transfer of the

hyperaccumulator phenotype from small and

slow growing hyperaccumulator species to

f a s t g r o w i n g , h i g h b i o m a s s p r o d u c i n g

n o n a c c u m u l a t o r p l a n t s . R e s e a r c h d a t a

indicates that tolerance to toxic metals is

regulated by one or few major genes. The

most important application of biotechnology

h a s b e e n t h e b i o e n g i n e e r i n g o f p l a n t s

capable of removing methyl-mercury from

the contaminated soil. Methyl-mercury, is

biosynthesized in Hg-contaminated soil, and

to detoxi fy th is compound, Arabidopsis

thaliana plants were genetically manipulated

to express bacterial genes mer A and mer B

(Rugh et al. 1996).

CONCLUSIONS

The contamination of heavy metals

to the environment, i.e. soil, water, plant and

air is of great concern due to its potential

i m p a c t o n h u m a n a n d a n i m a l h e a l t h .

Cheaper and effec t ive technologies a re

needed to p ro tec t the p rec ious na tu ra l

resources and biological lives. Substantial

efforts have been made in identifying plant

species and their mechanisms of uptake and

hyperaccumulation of heavy metals in the

last decade. There are genetic variations

among plant species and even among the

c u l t i v a r o f t h e s a m e s p e c i e s . T h e

mechanisms of metal uptake, accumulation,

exclusion, translocation, Osmoregulation

and compartmentation vary with each plant

species and determine its specific role in

phytoremediation.

Variations exist for hyperaccumulation of

different metals among various plant species

and within populations. These variations do

n o t c o r r e l a t e w i t h e i t h e r t h e m e t a l

concentration in the soil or the degree of

metal tolerance in the plant. In order to

develop new crop species /plants having

capabilities of metal extraction from the

polluted environment, traditional breeding

t e c h n i q u e s , h y b r i d g e n e r a t i o n t h r o u g h

p r o t o p l a s t f u s i o n s , a d p r o d u c t i o n o f

mutagens through radiation and chemicals

are all in progress. With the development of

b i o t e c h n o l o g y t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f

hyperaccumulators may be greatly enhanced

through specific metal gene identification

and its transfer in certain promising species.

This can play a s igni f icant ro le in the

extraction of heavy metals from the polluted

soils


97

REFERENCES

Bala R, Setia RC (1990) Some aspects of

cadmium and lead toxicity in plants. In:

Malik CP, Bhatia DS, Setia RC, Singh P

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Brown SL, Chaney RL, Angle JS, Baker

AJM (1995) Zinc and cadmium uptake

b y h y p e r a c c u m u l a t o r T h a l a s p i

caerulescens and metal tolerant Silene

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Environment Science Technology 29:

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Brummer G, Gerth J, Herms U (1986)

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Chunningham SD, Shann JR, Crowley DE, Anderson TA (1997) Phytoremediation of Contaminated Water and Soil. In: Kruger EL, Anderson TA, Coats JR (eds.) Phytoremediation of soil and water contaminants. ACS symposium series 664. Am. Chem. Soc. Washington, D.C. 2-19.F l a t h m a n P E , L a n z a G R ( 1 9 9 8 )

Phytoremediation: Current views on an

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120.Rugh CL, Wilde HD, Stack NM, Thompson

DM (1996) Mercuric ion reduction and

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Sci. USA, 93: 3182-3187. Salt DE, Blaylock M, Kumar PBAN, Raskin I (1995) Phytoremedia t ion: A novel strategy for the removal of toxic metals f rom the envi ronment us ing p lan ts . Biotechnol. 13: 468-475.S a l t D E , S m i t h R D , R a s k i n I ( 1 9 9 8 )

P h y t o r e m e d i a t i o n . A n n u . R e v. P l a n t

P h y s i o l . 4 9 : 6 4 3 - 6 6 8 .Schnoor JL (1997) Phy to remed ia t ion :

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Ground Water Remediation Technologies

Analysis Center. Pittsburgh


98

Obesity in Menopausal Women: A New Nutritional Emergency

* 1 2 3Harmanjot Kaur , Geetakshi Grover , Roopjot Kochar1 Associate Professor, School of Hotel Management, Desh Bhagat University

2Dietician, IVY Hospital, Khanna

3 Medical Officer, 78/13 Near Triveni Mandir, Khanna


ABSTRACTs t

Obesity in India has reached epidemic proportions in the 21 century and is following a

trend of other developing countries that are steadily becoming more obese. It is a complex

multifactorial disorder affecting 20 per cent to 40 per cent of adults in India. The prevalence of

obesity is more among women. The prevalence of being overweight and obesity is higher among

postmenopausal women. Menopause is associated with several alterations in fat deposits, leading

to changes in the distribution of body fat from gynoid to android pattern. Menopause affects the

quality of life of a woman and besides causing commonly reported symptoms including hot

flushes, night sweats, sleep disturbances, urinary frequency, vaginal dryness, poor memory,

anxiety and depression. A balanced diet rich in calcium, iron, fiber, soybeans, vitamin B, vitamin

E, potassium, omega 3 fatty acids and phytoestrogens can relief menopausal symptoms including

obesity.

Keywords: Obesity, Menopause, Balanced diet, Calcium, Phytoestrogens.

INTRODUCTION

O b e s i t y i s t h e m o s t p r e v a l e n tn u t r i t i o n a l d i s o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e r e i sexcessive storage of energy in the form offat as per height, weight, race and gender(WHO 2006). Just over 10,000 years ago,o b e s i t y w a s n o n e x i s t e n t i n h u m a npopula t ion . In the span o f t ime i t has

s tbecome pandemic of 21 century (Chowbey2009). Now, this pandemic is so great thatthe new word is coined to cover this i .e.“Globesity” or World Wide Obesity. WHO(2000) describes obesity as one of the majoryet most neglected public health problemsthat threatens to overwhelm both developedand under developed countries. Globally,obesity has reached epidemic proportionswi th more t han 1 b i l l i on adu l t s be ingoverweight and at least 3000 million areclinically obese (WHO 2003).

The prevalence data from individual

national studies collected by the

In t e rna t iona l Obes i ty Task fo rce (2005)suggested that obesity ranges from 10 to 20per cent for men and 10 to 25 per cent forw o m e n . T h e r e h a d b e e n a w o r l d w i d eincrease in obesity among people of all ages.I n m o r e a f f l u e n t c o u n t r i e s , o b e s i t y i scommon not only in the middle-aged, but isalso becoming increasingly prevalent amongyounger adults and children (Bindah andOthman, 2011). Pi-Sunyer (2002) states thato b e s i t y c a n o c c u r a t a n y a g e , o l d e rindividuals are more likely to become obese.It has been found that obesity reaches itspeak at around 55-64 years of age anddecreases afterwards. Mohsen and Warsy(2002) also found significant increase inprevalence of obesity and overweight withage in both males and females of Saudipopulation. In all age groups, obesity wassignificantly more in females compared tomales. Overweight was more prevalent infemales 20-29 years of age as compared to


99

males but the 30-49 years old males had a

higher prevalence of overweight. Males and

females aged more than 50 years had almost

an equal prevalence of overweight.

malnutrition has become a double-headed

monster. It is not uncommon to find under

nutrition co-existing with obesity, especially

in urban settings. It is estimated that at the

beginning of this century, more people will

die from complications of over nutrition

than of starvation.

Ironically, developing countries,w h i c h h a v e b e e n s a d d l e d w i t hcommunicable diseases and under-nutri t ionfor generations, are now facing an upsurgeo f o b e s i t y a n d i t s a d v e r s e h e a l t hc o n s e q u e n c e s . A f r i d i a n d K h a n ( 2 0 0 4 )r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e su n d e r g o i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f e c o n o m i cmodernization demonstrate rapid increasesin prevalence of obesity. I t has been notedthat one consequence of nutri t ion transit ionin developing countries is decline in undernutri t ion in associat ion with increase inobesity (Popkin et al . 2001). El Rhazi et al .(2011); Guerrero et al . (2008) found that inlow and middle-income countries,

W H O n o w a c c e p t s a b o d y m a s s2 index (BMI) of 25.0 kg/m or higher as

abnormal and overweight category is now

classified as obese. With the new Asian BMI

criteria of overweight at a lower cut off of223.0 kg/m , the number i s even h igher

reaching 1.7 billion people (Haslam and

James 2005; James et al. 2004). So, the

obesity is not restricted to industrialized

societies rather this increase is often faster in

developing countr ies than in developed

world.

Obesity and its association with

Menopause

M e n o p a u s e i s d e f i n e d a s f i n a l

menstruation. It is the final stoppage of

menses in a middle aged woman. Normally

wi th age , the ovar ies s tar t to s low the

p r o d u c t i o n o f h o r m o n e l i k e e s t r o g e n ,

progesterone and testosterone. Menopause

occurs due to decline in female hormone

levels during their late 40's or early 50's,

signaling the end of the fertile phase of a

woman's life. Menopause occurs naturally,

o r i t c a n b e c a u s e d b y s u r g e r y ,

chemotherapy or radiation. The average age

of the natural menopause is 47.8 yrs in India

and 51.4 yrs in western countries (Pathak

and Prashar 2010) . The t rans i t ion f rom

regular menst rual cycle to cessa t ion of

menstrual period is sudden phenomenon.

Natural menopause is recognized to have

occurred after 12 consecutive months of

amenorrhea without any pathological and

physiological causes. Induced menopause is

the cessation of menstruation through either

surgical removal of both ovaries with or

wi thout hys te rec tomy or by the use of

med ic ine . P rema tu re menopause i s t he

menopause occurring before the age of 40.

The menopause is such a striking event in

the life of a woman that tends to overshadow

all other aspects of l ife associated with

reproductive decline because it marks the

termination of woman's reproductive cycle.

In other words, fertility in woman ends with

o n s e t o f m e n o p a u s e w h i c h i n v o l v e s a

process of complex changes that occur in

body with aging. Menopause affects the

quali ty of l ife of a woman and besides

c a u s i n g c o m m o n l y r e p o r t e d s y m p t o m s

including hot flushes, night sweats, sleep

disturbances, ur inary frequency, vaginal

dryness, poor memory, anxiety, depression

(Aaron et al. 2002) and psychological and

rheumatic complaints (Bairy et al. 2009), it

proves as major cause of obesity in post-

menopausal women (Sharma et al. 2008).

According to recent report (Unni

2010) which is based on third consensus

meeting of Indian Menopausal society, in

India where population figures has already


100

crossed over 1 billion with 71 million peopleo v e r t h e a g e o f 6 0 , t h e n u m b e r o fmenopausal women is 43 million and it isfurther predicted that by year 2026, where

the to ta l popula t ion wi l l be 1 .4 b i l l ionpeople over 60 yrs wil l be 172 mil l ion, themenopausal populat ion wil l be 103 mil l ion.

Menopause and Leptin LevelL e p t i n , a p r o t e i n h o r m o n e p r o d u c e d

mainly by the adipose tissue, is involved in

body weight regulation and energy balance.

Leptin is believed to be an anti-obesity

hormone. The primary physiological role of

leptin is to communicate to the CNS about

the abundance of available energy stores and

t o c h e c k f o o d i n t a k e , i n d u c e e n e r g y

expenditure and decrease weight (Yang and

B a r o u c h 2 0 0 7 ) . T h e a b s e n c e o f l e p t i n

therefore results in increased appetite and

food intake that causes morbid obesi ty.

Leptin also influences follicle stimulating

hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH),

Adreno Cortico Trophic Hormone (ACTH),

c o r t i s o l a n d G r o w t h H o r m o n e ( G H )

s e c r e t i o n ( L i c i n i o e t a l . 1 9 9 8 ) .

Significant differences have been

r e p o r t e d i n l e p t i n l e v e l s b e t w e e n

premenopausal and post-menopausal

w o m e n . K o n u k o g l u ( 2 0 0 0 ) r e p o r t e d

significantly higher plasma leptin levels in

p r e m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n a s c o m p a r e d t o

p o s t m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n . O b e s e

premenopausal women had s ignif icant ly

higher plasma leptin levels in comparison

w i t h t h e l e v e l s o f t h e n o n - o b e s e

p r e m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n a l t h o u g h n o

significant difference was observed in the

plasma leptin levels between obese and non-

obese post-menopausal women. Barrios et

al. (2010); Jaleel et al. (2006) have also

observed higher plasma leptin levels among

obese post-menopausal women as compared

t o n o n - o b e s e p o s t m e n o p a u s a l a n d

premenopausal women. Ayub et al. (2006)

suggested that the menopausal status was a

more significant determinant of leptin levels.

In pos tmenopausa l women , dec rease in

estrogen level leads to increase in body fat

and BMI.

Menopause and Estrogen

M e n o p a u s e i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

d e c r e a s e i n e s t r o g e n l e v e l s w h i c h i s

responsible for heart disease, osteoporosis,

d i a b e t e s , h y p e r t e n s i o n a n d o b e s i t y i n

menopausal women are important public

health concerns. It causes an increase in

tendency to gain weight. There are several

changes in the deposition and distribution of

body fat from a gynoid to android pattern

(Rosano et al. 2007). Reduction in ovarian

hormones at the menopause leads to diverse

functional and endocrinological disturbances

resulting in decrease in basal metabolism

and greater weight gain (Mastorakos et al.

2010) The prevalence of obesity increases

significantly in American women after they

reach 40; the prevalence reaches 65 per cent

between 40 and 59 years and 73.8 per cent

in women over age 60 (Flegal e t a l . 2007) .

Accord ing to WHO (2002) repor t s , the

preva lence o f obes i ty i s g rowing mos t

rapidly in post -menopausal women. The

prevalence of obesi ty in post -menopausal

women wi th a fami ly h is tory of breas t

cancer was observed as 37 per cent wi th 40

per cent being overweight (Begum et a l .

2009) .

The endocrine changes associatedwith menopause such as low plasma levelso f e s t r o g e n a n d m a r k e d i n c r e a s e i nluteinizing and follicle stimulating hormonelevels exer t a s ignif icant effect on them e t a b o l i s m o f p l a s m a l i p i d s a n dl i p o p r o t e i n s ( U s o r o e t a l . 2 0 0 6 ) . I nmenopausal women, hormonal imbalance inthe body leads to elevated levels of


101

triglycerides and total cholesterol due tos i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n c i r c u l a t i n gc o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e s t r a d i o l r e s u l t i n g i nincrease in heart diseases and atherosclerosisafter menopause (Javoor et al. 2008). Igweh

et al. (2005) had also reported that such

changes in the lipid profile after menopause

are not friendly for the cardiovascular health

of the women.

Nutrition during MenopauseMenopause is not a disease, i t s end of

reproductive or fertile phase of life of a

woman. So, there is no specific treatment of

this phase. It's the condition to be managed

by HRT (Hormone Replacement Therapy),

multivitamin doses and dietary management.

Nutrition of menopausal women is major

concern to overcome var ious secondary

d i s e a s e s l i k e o s t e o p o r o s i s i n c r e a s e

cholesterol levels and obesity. The treatment

of postmenopausal obesity is very simple

logically but incredibly difficult- eat less and

exercise more. Recent studies suggest that

being active and fit is more important than

l o s i n g w e i g h t , h e n c e , a m a j o r

recommenda t ion i s main ta in ing hea l thy

b a l a n c e d d i e t . A s t u d y o n o b e s e

postmenopausal women shows that diet and

exercise has positive affect on health rather

that die t or exercise a lone (Pathak and

Prashar 2010).

In i t i a l goa l o f we igh t loss the rapy fo r

overweight patients is a reduction in body

weight of about 10 per cent . Combined

t h e r a p y w i t h l o w c a l o r i e d i e t ( L C D ) ,

increased physical activity and behavior

t h e r a p y p r o v i d e t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l

in te rven t ion fo r we igh t loss and wa te r

m a i n t e n a n c e . A y e a r l o n g , 4 a r m

randomized trial among 439 overweight to

obese postmenopausal sedentary women to

determine the effect of calorie reduced, low

fat diet (D), a moderate intensity, facility

based aerobic exercise programme (E) or

combination of both interventions (D+E)

versus no lifestyle change control (C) On the

change in body weight and composition.

Group based die tary in tervent ion had a

weight reduction goal of less than 10 per

cent and excessive intervention consisted of

a gradual esca la t ion to 45 min aerobic

exercise 5 days a week. This study shows

t h a t a m o n g p o s t m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n ,

lifestyle changes combined diet and exercise

over one year improves weight and adiposity

(Karen et al. 2012).

O b e s i t y i n m e n o p a u s a l w o m e n c a n b e

managed by modifying diet. Adjustments of

diet will be required to reduce calorie intake.

Dietary Guidelines for Obese Menopausal

Women

Many of the menopausal symptoms can be

managed by using appropriate diet. During

menopause, eating variety of foods rich in

calcium, iron, fiber, water and containing

fewer amounts of fats and salt can help in

relieving the menopausal symptoms and also

in reducing weight.

F o o d s t h a t n e e d t o b e e n c o u r a g e d i n t h e

m e n o p a u s e d i e t a r e :

Soya products: soybean has natural female

hormones.

Nuts: Almonds are rich in calcium and

omega 3 fatty acid.

Sesame seeds: rich in calcium and

omega 3 fatty acid.

Whole grains: rich in vitamin B and

dietary fiber.

L e g u m e s ( s o y a b e a n s , l e n t i l s ,

c h i c k p e a s ) : r i c h i n v i t a m i n B ,

I s o f l a v o n e s


102

Vegetables: dark leafy greens, bean

sprouts

Potassium rich fruits: pomegranate,

lemon, lichi, melon, amla, bel,

guava, tomato, sweet lime

Coconut water: rich in potassium, have

cooling effect

Green coriander juice: for cooling

effect and insomnia

Ghia / lauki juice: insomnia

Mulethi: rich in female hormone

Plenty of water

Use salt in moderation - avoid sauce, pickles, bakery products, papad etc

Phytoestrogens

Estrogen plays an important role not only in

reproductive system but also in functioning

of cardiovascular, central nervous, immune

and skeletal system. Estrogen also appears

to he lp con t ro l in weigh t ga in . Fa l l in

e s t r o g e n s a f t e r m e n o p a u s e l e a d s t o

detr imental effects . With lower estrogen

levels, one tends to eat more and be less

physically active leading to lower metabolic

ra te . To avoid these de t r imenta l e ffec ts

phytoestrogens can be included in diet. The

phytoestrogen rich foods include soybeans,

garl ic, apples, pumpkin, wheat, cabbage,

oats, black cohosh, flax seeds, peanut and

walnuts . Phytoes t rogens can contro l the

symptoms of menopause such as headache,

hot flushes, mood changes, sleep disorders,

heart palpitation, night sweats and vaginal

dryness (Poluzzi et al . 2014; Khajuria et al .

2008).

cardiovascular disease compared with lowcalcium intake (Sigal et al. 2007; Melanie etal. 2003). Foods rich in calcium includedairy products, almonds, sesame seeds, fish,egg, ragi, soya milk, soya paneer, Bengalgram dal, soy bean sprouts, horse gram dal,amaranth , caul i f lower greens , co locas ialeaves (dried), turnip greens, radish, lotusstem, groundnut and coconut.

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates provide us with energy and

fuel. A healthy and balanced diet should

include whole grain cereals, whole meal

pasta and bread. Intake of refined cereals

should be restricted .Complex carbohydrates

from different vegetables, fruits, and whole

g r a i n s a r e g o o d s o u r c e s o f v i t a m i n s ,

minerals and fiber. A diet high in all types of

fibers may also aid in weight management

by promoting sat iety at lower levels of

calorie and fat intake (Swinburn 2004).

Calcium

When a woman enters menopause, due to

es t rogen def ic iency which subsequent ly

increases the risk of osteoporosis, i t leads to

thinning and weakening of bones. Low daily

calcium intake is associated with greater

adiposity particularly in women. In both

sexes a high calcium intake is associated

wi th improved p lasma l ipopro te in l ip id

profile predictive of lower risk of

CONCLUSION

Fats

Reducing intake of saturated fats can really

help to protect against heart disease. Full fat

milk should be swapped for semi skimmed

or skimmed. Instead of using butter low fat

spread should be used. Also limit saturated

fat to less than 7% of total daily calories .

S a t u r a t e d f a t r a i s e s c h o l e s t e r o l a n d

increases risk for heart disease. Saturated fat

is found in fat ty meats, whole milk ice

creams and cheese (Swinburn 2004).


103

O b e s i t y i s m o s t p r e v a l e n t n u t r i t i o n a l

disorder in India and one of major problem

associa ted wi th menopause . Menopausa l

women are at high risk for obesity due to

decrease in es t rogen leve l s . Obes i ty in

menopausa l women can be managed by

modifying diet . Diet modification can prove

to the bes t way to con t ro l a l l med ica l

emergencies that r ise due to menopause. A

diet r ich in calcium, i ron, f iber, omega 3

f a t t y a c i d s , w a t e r , v i t a m i n B a n d

phytoestrogens is highly recommended in

managing menopause re la ted symptoms.

Soya products , dark leafy greens, almonds,

coconut water, sesame seeds, f lax seeds,

oats and potassium rich frui ts should be

included in diet to get maximum benefi ts .

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Magnetic abrasive finishing: A Review of Literature

* 1 1 2 3Ravinder Singh Gurpreet Singh , Harinder Singh , Sehijpal Singh

1Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Desh Bhgat University, Amloh – 141006.2Department of Production Engineering,

Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana – 141006.3Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana – 141006.


ABSTRACTMachining of hard materials with precision and superior surface characteristics is always adifficult task. Traditional machining processes like filing, grinding, lapping etc. are capable tomachine the materials but also results into surface defects like cracks. Also, these processesremove the material at macro level and uses more cutting forces results into more heatproduced that leads to the different surface characteristics than the parent metal. Later in the1940, Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF) process was introduced that is capable to removethe material at micro/nano level with less cutting forces as compared to traditional machiningprocesses. The mixture of ferromagnetic and abrasive particles forms a flexible magnetic brushthat is capable to finish the cylindrical, plain and complex shapes work pieces. This Process hasfound its application in different industries like aerospace, medical, electronics, dies andmoulds. This review provides the working principle, machining parameters of the MAF processand their fundamental effects on the work piece characteristics with the objective to select theoptimum parameters during the finishing of different materials used in manufacturing practices.

Keywords: Magnetic abrasive finishing, Non-traditional machining, optimum parameters.

INTRODUCTION-MAGNETICABRASIVES

There i s h igh demand fo r f i ne su r f ace

f in i sh i n a mode rn i ndus t r i a l wor ld . The

c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e f o r

f i n i sh ing such a s g r ind ing , debu r r i ng and

po l i sh ing e t c . a r e no t c apab l e t o p roduce

f i n e s u r f a c e w i t h o u t a n y s u r f a c e a n y

damage t o t he su r f ace . To f i n i sh t he work

p i ece w i th h igh accu racy, su r f ace f i n i sh

and ye t w i th min imum su r f ace damage , a

low l eve l o f con t ro l l ed fo r ce i s r equ i r ed .

The Magne t i c Abra s ive F in ing i s a non -

conven t iona l f i n i sh ing p roces s wh ich i s

capab l e t o mach ine t he work su r f ace w i th

l o w c o n t r o l l e d f o r c e s r e s u l t s i n f i n e

f in i sh ing w i th min imum su r f ace de fec t s

l i ke a s c r acks .

The processes such as cleaning, burnishingand deburring are being explored with theu s e o f M a g n e t i c f i e l d a s s i s t e dm a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s . A m a g n e t i cabrasive f inishing (MAF) process whichwas conceived in 1938.The countries suchas U.S.A, France, Germany and Japan areinvolved in the further development of thep r o c e s s . M A F c a n p r o d u c e v e r y h i g hquali ty surfaces at nano/micro level on themechanical and opt ical components andthere are very less chances of any surfacedefects . I t can be used for f ine f inishing ofb e a r i n g s , p r e c i s i o n a u t o m o t i v ecomponents . Both in ternal and externalsurfaces of tubes can be f inished with goods u r f a c e q u a l i t y b y u s i n g t h i s p r o c e s s(Yamaguch i and Sh inmura 1999) . A l sodue to the self - adaptabil i ty and self-


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sharpening ability of the magnetic brush, itis capable to machine complex shapes.

The method can machine ferromagnet ic

and non-ferromagnetic materials . The non-

ferromagnetic materials which have been

finished with this process are s teel , brass

and aluminum. The magnetic abrasives are

used in th i s p rocess i s the mix ture o f

f e r r o m a g n e t i c p a r t i c l e s a n d a b r a s i v e

part icles (s i l icon carbide, diamond etc .)

and are mixed by d i fferent techniques .

T h e m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y , s i z e o f

abrasives, method of mixing (s inter ing) ,

rat io of abrasive/ferromagnetic part icles ,

machining t ime, rota t ional / reciprocat ing

speed of work piece etc are the machining

parameters that affect the performance of

the MAF process.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ( S h i n m u r a e t a l . 1 9 8 5 ) c o n d u c t e d a n

e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o n p l a n e w o r k

p i e c e s u s i n g t h e M A F p ro c e s s . I t wa s

observed that the surface f in ish value

decreased with increase in the surface

finish t ime up to a certain l imit , beyond

w h i c h t h e r e w a s n o s u r f a c e f i n i s h

i m p r o v e m e n t . A d d i t i o n o f m a c h i n i n g

fluid (such as stearic acid, straight oi l

t y p e ) t o u n b o u n d e d M A P s o f a l u m i n a

b a s e d s h o w e d a re m a r k a b l e e f f e c t o n

s t o c k r e m o v a l a n d s u r f a c e f i n i s h o n

S U S 3 0 4 w i t h P I S F o f 7 6 . 9 2 % .(Shinmura e t a l . 1987) concluded that them a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t i nf in ishing of external surface of SS304 was6 1 % u s i n g a l u m i n a b a s e d m a g n e t i ca b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s ( M A P s ) . W i t h t h ec h a n g e i n t h e d i a m e t e r o f m a g n e t i cabras ive par t ic le both s tock removal andsurface f in ish was affec ted , whereas thef in ishing pressure depended only on themagnet ic f lux densi ty and was independentof the s ize of the abras ive par t ic le andm a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e p a r t i c l e s i z e .(Shinmura and Aizawa 1989) developed ab e n c h t y p e p l a n e m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v ef in ishing appara tus us ing a s ta t ionary

(Kha i ry 2001) deve loped an expe r imen ta lappa ra tus t o f i n i sh p rec i s ion s i l ve r s t ee lma te r i a l u s ing f ine a lumina powder baseds in t e red ab ras ives o f ave rage s i ze 50µm.

T h e y r e p o r t e d t o i m p r o v e t h e s u r f a c ef i n i s h o f S S 4 1 m a t e r i a l b y 9 0 % b ym a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s ( A l O a n d F e ) o f t h e2 3

m e a n d i a m e t e r o f 1 6 0 μ m .

e lec t romagne t . A suff ic ien t quan t i ty o fm a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s w a s p a c k e d i n t h em a c h i n i n g r e g i o n s o a s t o a c t u a t e a nabrasion pressure P related to the magnet icf ie ld s t rength of the machining region.

(Shinmura and Yamaguchi 1995) preparedsintered magnet ic abrasives for internalf inishing of SUS 304 s teel tubes. Theyfound that magnitude of magnet ic forcei n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e i n t h e m i x e dweight percentage of i ron part ic les but thenumber of cut t ing edges got reduced. Theo b t a i n e d m a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g ei m p r o v e m e n t f o r f i n i s h i n g o f S s 3 1 6m a t e r i a l w a s 3 0 % u s i n g WA s i n t e r e dgrains of mean diameter 80 µm.

( K r e m e n e t a l . 1 9 9 6 ) c a r r i e d o u texperiments on ceramic cyl indrical par tsus ing d i ffe ren t g ra in s i ze o f magne t icabrasives . The author s tudied that with thevariat ion in the grain s ize of diamond,there has been no effect on the surfacef i n i s h , h o w ev e r ma t e r i a l r emo v a l r a t eincreased with the increase in the diamondgrain s ize of the magnet ic abrasives .( Ya m a g u c h i & S h i n m u r a 2 0 0 0 ) u s e dloosely bounded magnet ic abrasives (2.4gm iron of s ize 510μm, 0.6 gm Al O of2 3

size 80μm and 0.36 ml s t raight oi l typegrinding oi l ) for internal f inishing of tubesusing pole rotat ion system. They reportedthat with the weaker magnet ic f ie ld on thea b r a s i v e s a n d w i t h t h e o v e r s u p p l y o fabrasives in the machining area resul t inj u m b l i n g o f a b r a s i v e s . T h e j u m b l i n gresul ted in increased mater ial removal butp o o r s u r f a c e f i n i s h . T h i s w a s c a u s e dbecause of the aggressive contact of theabrasives against the surface. The obtainedm a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t f o rf inishing of brass mater ial was reported tobe 21%.


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(Yamaguchi e t a l . 2004) f in ished a luminaceramic tubes ( in ternal ) us ing mechanica lm i x t u r e o f i r o n p a r t i c l e s , d i a m o n dabras ives and soluble type barre l f in ish ing

T h e s t u d y w a s f o c u s e d t o g e n e r a t e an o r m a l d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e s u f f i c i e n t t or e f i n e t h e s u r f a c e . T h e m a x i m u mp e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t w a s f o u n d t o b e6 5 % .(Jain et al . 2001) carried out experimentson nonmagnetic s tainless steel with the useof loose ly bounded ab ras ives by MAFprocess. The loosely bounded powder wasobtained by the homogeneous mixing ofthe magnetic powder (Fe powder of 300mesh size) , abrasive powder (Al O of 6002 3

mesh size) and lubricant cal led servo spin-12 oil . They concluded that the workinggap and the circumferential speed of thew o r k p i e c e a r e t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a ts i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e m a t e r i a lremoval and the percentage surface f inishimprovemen t . The max imum PISF wasfound to be 87.83 %.

(Chang et al . 2002) described the processprinciple and the f inishing characterist icso f u n b o n d e d m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s o nc y l i n d r i c a l w o r k p i e c e . A m e c h a n i c a lmixture of SiC abrasive and ferromagneticpart icles with a SAE30 lubricant was used.Experimental results indicate that s teel gri ti s more su i t ab le fo r magne t ic abras ivefinishing because of i ts superior hardnessand the polyhedron shape.(Mori et al . 2003) studied different typesof forces i .e . normal and tangential forcesacting on the work piece during f inishingof nonmagnet ic SUS 304 mater ia l . Thealumina based magnet ic abrasives wereused during the process and the polishingmechanism was explained for the magneticabrasive f inishing of f lat work pieces. Am a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h w a s f o r m e dbetween a magnetic pole and a work piecematerial , in which the summation of threek i n d s o f e n e r g y n e c e s s a r y f o rmagnetizat ion of abrasives, i .e . repulsionbetween bundles (Faraday Effect) and l inet e n s i o n o f o u t e r c u r v e d b u n d l e w a sconsidered to be minimum.

(Mul ik e t a l . 2011) des igned a se tup whichused d i fferent des igns of e lec t romagnethaving a l te rna te nor th and south poles . Int h e s t u d y m e s h n u m b e r , r p m o fe lec t romagnet and percentage weight ofabras ive were found to be the s igni f icant

compound . They r epo r t ed t ha t ma te r i a lr emova l and su r f ace roughnes s bo th werea ff ec t ed by quan t i t y o f f i n i sh ing l i qu id ,s i ze o f i r on pa r t i c l e , s i ze o f d i amondp a r t i c l e a n d t i m e . T h e m a x i m u mpercen t age improvemen t i n t he su r f acef in i sh o f SS304 was r epo r t ed t o be 61%.( L i n e t a l . 2 0 0 7 ) c o n d u c t e d f r e e - f o r ms u r f a c e a b r a s i o n o f s t a i n l e s s S U S 3 0 4m a t e r i a l . T h e o p e r a t i o n s w e r edemons t ra ted us ing a permanent magne t icf in i sh ing mechanism ins ta l l ed a t the CNCmachin ing cen t re . The bes t su r face f in i shof about 60% was ob ta ined a t a work inggap of 2 .5 mm, a feed ra te o f 10 mm/min ,and a lumina based abras ive mass o f 2grams .(Wang e t a l . 2009) s tudied the Magnet icf in ish ing wi th ge l abras ive (MFGA) topol i sh the cyl indr ica l rod of mold s tee l .T h e r e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s u r f a c eroughness reduct ion in MFGA was 3 t imesof sur face roughness reduct ion in MAFusing the un-bonded magnet ic abras ive asm e d i u m . T h e m a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g eimprovement in the sur face f in i sh wasfound to be 85 .22% us ing ge l based SiCmagnet ic abras ives .( S i n g h e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) h i g h l i g h t e d m a j o rexis t ing technologies tha t were used tomanufac ture the magnet ic abras ives . Theys ta ted tha t the s in tered magnet ic abras ivesgive h ighes t sur face f in ish on most of thework mate r i a l s . They repor ted tha t thepercentage improvement in sur face f in ishwas s igni f icant ly affec ted by the magnet icf l u x d e n s i t y , q u a n t i t y o f a b r a s i v e s ,in terac t ions be tween ro ta t ional speed oft h e w o r k p i e c e a n d t h e m a g n e t i c f l u xdens i ty, ro ta t iona l speed and g r i t s i ze ,ro ta t ional speed and quant i ty of abras ives ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d g r i t s i z e ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d q u a n t i t y o fabras ives .


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( M i s r a e t a l . 2 0 1 3 ) i n v e s t i g a t e dt e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n d u r i n g M A Foperation at the interface of work piecea n d f l e x i b l e m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h(FMAB) interface. In this analysis, f initeelements based ANSYS software was usedt o m o d e l a n d s i m u l a t e m a g n e t i c f i e l dd i s t r i b u t i o n , m a g n e t i c p r e s s u r e a n dtempera tu re d i s t r ibu t ion a t work -b rushinterface during the process. In this workthe maximum magnetic f lux density wassimulated of the order of 0.223 T at 0.91 Aof current in electromagnet coil . Magneticpressure on MAPs due to magnetic f ield ofelectromagnetic coil has been calculated toevaluate the frict ional heat f lux generateda t t h e w o r k - b r u s h i n t e r f a c e . Tr a n s i e n tthermal analysis of work piece domain hasbeen performed to predict the temperaturer i s e d u e t o f r i c t i o n a l h e a t f l u x . T h epredicted temperature on work-brush

p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a f f e c t i n g s u r f a c eq u a l i t y . T h e y f i n i s h e d h i g h c a r b o nant i f r ic t ion bear ing s teel work piece (AISI52100) having hardness value of 61 HRCus ing unbounded MAPs and conc ludedthat the possible mechanism of f inishing ismicrochip format ion by shear ing and alsobri t t le f racture to some extent .

interface was found in the range of 34–51◦C.

CONCLUSIONSFrom the l i t e ra ture , i t can be conc ludedtha t t he re i s r ea sonab ly vas t l i t e r a tu reava i lab le on Magnet ic abras ive f in i sh ingprocess which revea ls the exper imenta t ioncar r ied ou t for the op t imum parameters ,f in i sh ing of d i ffe ren t shape mater ia l s .

1. MAF process removes the material

at micro/nano level with precision

c o n t r o l o n s u r f a c e q u a l i t y .

2. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o m a c h i n e t h e

complex/odd shape work-pieces.

3. The sintered magnetic abrasives

give highest finishing among all

other techniques of the preparation

o f M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s .

4. T h e p r e d i c t e d t e m p e r a t u r e o n

work-brush interface is in the range

o f 3 4 – 5 1 ◦ C d u r i n g M a g n e t i c

a b r a s i v e f i n i s h i n g .

5. M a g n e t i c a n d N o n - m a g n e t i c

materials can be finished with the

h e l p o f t h e M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e

finishing process.

REFERENCES

Chang HY, Tzong H (2002) S tudy on

cylindrical magnetic abrasive finishing

using unbounded magnetic abrasives.

International Journal of Machine Tools

& Manufacture (42):575-583.Jain VK, Kumar P, Behra PK, Jayswal SC (2001) Effects of working gap and c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s p e e d o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e f in ishing process . Wear 250: 384–390.

Kang J George A, Yamaguchi H (2012) H i g h - s p e e d I n t e r n a l F i n i s h i n g o f Capillary Tubes by Magnetic Abrasive Finishing . Junmo Kang et al. / Procedia CIRP 1: 414 – 418

Kha i ry AB (2001) Aspec t s o f su r f ace and edge f i n i sh ing by magne to ab ra s ive p a r t i c l e s . J o u r n a l o f M a t e r i a l s P roces s ing Techno logy 116 :77 -83 .

Kim JD (2003) Polishing of ultra-clean inner surfaces using magnetic force. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A d v a n c e d Manufacturing Technology (21):91–97.

Kremen GZ, Elsayed EA, Rafalovich VI (1996) Mechanism of material removal in the magnetic abrasive process and accuracy of machining. International Journal of Production Engineering. 34: 2629-2638.K w a k J S ( 2 0 0 9 ) E n h a n c e d M a g n e t i c Abras ive Po l i sh ing o f Non-Fer rous Metals Util izing A Permanent Magnet. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49:613–618.

Lin YD, Chow (2007) Study of magnetic abrasive finishing in free-form surface operations using the Taguchi method. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A d v a n c e Manufacturing Technology 34:122-130.

January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015 January to May,2015IJSTD vol. 1: 2015

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(Yamaguchi e t a l . 2004) f in ished a luminaceramic tubes ( in ternal ) us ing mechanica lm i x t u r e o f i r o n p a r t i c l e s , d i a m o n dabras ives and soluble type barre l f in ish ing

T h e s t u d y w a s f o c u s e d t o g e n e r a t e an o r m a l d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e s u f f i c i e n t t or e f i n e t h e s u r f a c e . T h e m a x i m u mp e r c e n t a g e i m p r o v e m e n t w a s f o u n d t o b e6 5 % .(Jain et al . 2001) carried out experimentson nonmagnetic s tainless steel with the useof loose ly bounded ab ras ives by MAFprocess. The loosely bounded powder wasobtained by the homogeneous mixing ofthe magnetic powder (Fe powder of 300mesh size) , abrasive powder (Al O of 6002 3

mesh size) and lubricant cal led servo spin-12 oil . They concluded that the workinggap and the circumferential speed of thew o r k p i e c e a r e t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a ts i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e m a t e r i a lremoval and the percentage surface f inishimprovemen t . The max imum PISF wasfound to be 87.83 %.

(Chang et al . 2002) described the processprinciple and the f inishing characterist icso f u n b o n d e d m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s o nc y l i n d r i c a l w o r k p i e c e . A m e c h a n i c a lmixture of SiC abrasive and ferromagneticpart icles with a SAE30 lubricant was used.Experimental results indicate that s teel gri ti s more su i t ab le fo r magne t ic abras ivefinishing because of i ts superior hardnessand the polyhedron shape.(Mori et al . 2003) studied different typesof forces i .e . normal and tangential forcesacting on the work piece during f inishingof nonmagnet ic SUS 304 mater ia l . Thealumina based magnet ic abrasives wereused during the process and the polishingmechanism was explained for the magneticabrasive f inishing of f lat work pieces. Am a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h w a s f o r m e dbetween a magnetic pole and a work piecematerial , in which the summation of threek i n d s o f e n e r g y n e c e s s a r y f o rmagnetizat ion of abrasives, i .e . repulsionbetween bundles (Faraday Effect) and l inet e n s i o n o f o u t e r c u r v e d b u n d l e w a sconsidered to be minimum.

(Mul ik e t a l . 2011) des igned a se tup whichused d i fferent des igns of e lec t romagnethaving a l te rna te nor th and south poles . Int h e s t u d y m e s h n u m b e r , r p m o fe lec t romagnet and percentage weight ofabras ive were found to be the s igni f icant

compound . They r epo r t ed t ha t ma te r i a lr emova l and su r f ace roughnes s bo th werea ff ec t ed by quan t i t y o f f i n i sh ing l i qu id ,s i ze o f i r on pa r t i c l e , s i ze o f d i amondp a r t i c l e a n d t i m e . T h e m a x i m u mpercen t age improvemen t i n t he su r f acef in i sh o f SS304 was r epo r t ed t o be 61%.( L i n e t a l . 2 0 0 7 ) c o n d u c t e d f r e e - f o r ms u r f a c e a b r a s i o n o f s t a i n l e s s S U S 3 0 4m a t e r i a l . T h e o p e r a t i o n s w e r edemons t ra ted us ing a permanent magne t icf in i sh ing mechanism ins ta l l ed a t the CNCmachin ing cen t re . The bes t su r face f in i shof about 60% was ob ta ined a t a work inggap of 2 .5 mm, a feed ra te o f 10 mm/min ,and a lumina based abras ive mass o f 2grams .(Wang e t a l . 2009) s tudied the Magnet icf in ish ing wi th ge l abras ive (MFGA) topol i sh the cyl indr ica l rod of mold s tee l .T h e r e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t s u r f a c eroughness reduct ion in MFGA was 3 t imesof sur face roughness reduct ion in MAFusing the un-bonded magnet ic abras ive asm e d i u m . T h e m a x i m u m p e r c e n t a g eimprovement in the sur face f in i sh wasfound to be 85 .22% us ing ge l based SiCmagnet ic abras ives .( S i n g h e t a l . 2 0 1 0 ) h i g h l i g h t e d m a j o rexis t ing technologies tha t were used tomanufac ture the magnet ic abras ives . Theys ta ted tha t the s in tered magnet ic abras ivesgive h ighes t sur face f in ish on most of thework mate r i a l s . They repor ted tha t thepercentage improvement in sur face f in ishwas s igni f icant ly affec ted by the magnet icf l u x d e n s i t y , q u a n t i t y o f a b r a s i v e s ,in terac t ions be tween ro ta t ional speed oft h e w o r k p i e c e a n d t h e m a g n e t i c f l u xdens i ty, ro ta t iona l speed and g r i t s i ze ,ro ta t ional speed and quant i ty of abras ives ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d g r i t s i z e ,m a g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y a n d q u a n t i t y o fabras ives .


109

( M i s r a e t a l . 2 0 1 3 ) i n v e s t i g a t e dt e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n d u r i n g M A Foperation at the interface of work piecea n d f l e x i b l e m a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e b r u s h(FMAB) interface. In this analysis, f initeelements based ANSYS software was usedt o m o d e l a n d s i m u l a t e m a g n e t i c f i e l dd i s t r i b u t i o n , m a g n e t i c p r e s s u r e a n dtempera tu re d i s t r ibu t ion a t work -b rushinterface during the process. In this workthe maximum magnetic f lux density wassimulated of the order of 0.223 T at 0.91 Aof current in electromagnet coil . Magneticpressure on MAPs due to magnetic f ield ofelectromagnetic coil has been calculated toevaluate the frict ional heat f lux generateda t t h e w o r k - b r u s h i n t e r f a c e . Tr a n s i e n tthermal analysis of work piece domain hasbeen performed to predict the temperaturer i s e d u e t o f r i c t i o n a l h e a t f l u x . T h epredicted temperature on work-brush

p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a f f e c t i n g s u r f a c eq u a l i t y . T h e y f i n i s h e d h i g h c a r b o nant i f r ic t ion bear ing s teel work piece (AISI52100) having hardness value of 61 HRCus ing unbounded MAPs and conc ludedthat the possible mechanism of f inishing ismicrochip format ion by shear ing and alsobri t t le f racture to some extent .

interface was found in the range of 34–51◦C.

CONCLUSIONSFrom the l i t e ra ture , i t can be conc ludedtha t t he re i s r ea sonab ly vas t l i t e r a tu reava i lab le on Magnet ic abras ive f in i sh ingprocess which revea ls the exper imenta t ioncar r ied ou t for the op t imum parameters ,f in i sh ing of d i ffe ren t shape mater ia l s .

1. MAF process removes the material

at micro/nano level with precision

c o n t r o l o n s u r f a c e q u a l i t y .

2. I t i s p o s s i b l e t o m a c h i n e t h e

complex/odd shape work-pieces.

3. The sintered magnetic abrasives

give highest finishing among all

other techniques of the preparation

o f M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e s .

4. T h e p r e d i c t e d t e m p e r a t u r e o n

work-brush interface is in the range

o f 3 4 – 5 1 ◦ C d u r i n g M a g n e t i c

a b r a s i v e f i n i s h i n g .

5. M a g n e t i c a n d N o n - m a g n e t i c

materials can be finished with the

h e l p o f t h e M a g n e t i c a b r a s i v e

finishing process.

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Kang J George A, Yamaguchi H (2012) H i g h - s p e e d I n t e r n a l F i n i s h i n g o f Capillary Tubes by Magnetic Abrasive Finishing . Junmo Kang et al. / Procedia CIRP 1: 414 – 418

Kha i ry AB (2001) Aspec t s o f su r f ace and edge f i n i sh ing by magne to ab ra s ive p a r t i c l e s . J o u r n a l o f M a t e r i a l s P roces s ing Techno logy 116 :77 -83 .

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Kremen GZ, Elsayed EA, Rafalovich VI (1996) Mechanism of material removal in the magnetic abrasive process and accuracy of machining. International Journal of Production Engineering. 34: 2629-2638.K w a k J S ( 2 0 0 9 ) E n h a n c e d M a g n e t i c Abras ive Po l i sh ing o f Non-Fer rous Metals Util izing A Permanent Magnet. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49:613–618.

Lin YD, Chow (2007) Study of magnetic abrasive finishing in free-form surface operations using the Taguchi method. I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f A d v a n c e Manufacturing Technology 34:122-130.


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Mulik RS, Pandey PM (2011) Magnetic

abrasive pol ishing of hardened AISI

52100 steel . Internat ional Journal of

Advanced Manufacturing Technology

(55): 501-515.Shinmura T, Aizawa T (1989) Study of magnetic abrasive finishing process – D e v e l o p m e n t o f p l a n e f i n i s h i n g a p p a r a t u s u s i n g a s t a t i o n a r y t y p e electromagnet. Bulletin of Japan society of Precision Engineering, 23(3):236- 239.

Shinmura T, Aizawa T (1989) Study on I n t e r n a l F i n i s h i n g o f a N o n - Fer romagnet ic Tubing by Magnet ic Abrasive Machining Process. Bulletin, J a p a n S o c i e t y f o r P r e c i s i o n Engineering, 23(1): 37-41.

S h i n m u r a T, Ta k a z a w a K , H a t a n o E (1985) S tudy of magnet ic abras ive process- Application to plane finishing. Bulletin of Japan Society of Precision Engineering, (19)4:289-291.

S h i n m u r a T, Ta k a z a w a K , H a t a n o E (1985) Study on magnet ic abrasive process. Bull Japan Society of Precision Engg. 19(5):218-220.

S h i n m u r a T, Ta k a z a w a K , H a t a n o E (1987) Study of magnet ic abras ive process- effects of various types of abrasives on f inishing characterst ics . Bullet in of Japan Society of Precis ion Engineering,20 (2):79-84.

Sh inmura T, Takazawa K, Ha tano E , Aizawa T (1984) Study on Magnetic Abrasive Process. Bull Japan Society of Prec. Engg. 18(4):347–348.

Shinmura T, Takazawa K, Hatano E, Aizawa T (1985) Study On Magnet ic Abras ive Process – Process Pr inciple And Finishing Poss ib i l i ty. Bul le t in J a p a n S o c i e t y f o r P r e c i s i o n Engineer ing, 19(1) : 54-55.Shinmura T, Takezawa K, Hantano E

(1987) S tudy on magnet ic abras ive

process. Bull Japan Society of Precision

Engg, 21(2):139-141.

Shinmura T, Wang F, Aizawa T (1994) S tudy on a New Finish ing Process of F ine Ceramics by Magnet ic Abras ive Machining . Japan Socie ty of Prec . Engg, (28)2: 99–104.Shinmura T, Yamaguchi H (1995) Study On A New Internal Finishing Process B y T h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f M a g n e t i c A b r a s i v e M a c h i n i n g . J S M E I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l , S e r i e s C , 38(4)798-804

Singh L, Singh S, Mishra PS (2010)

Per formance of abras ives used in

magnetically assisted finishing: a state

of art review. International Journal of

Abrasive Technology 3(3):215-227.

Wang AC, Lee SJ (2009) Study of the

characteristics of magnetic finishing

with gel abrasives. International Journal

of Machine Tools and Manufacture

49:1063-1069.

Wang Y, Hu D (2005) Study on The Inner

S u r f a c e F i n i s h i n g o f Tu b i n g B y

M a g n e t i c A b r a s i v e F i n i s h i n g .


& Manufacture 45: 43–49.Ya m a g u c h i H , H a n a d a K ( 2 0 0 8 )

Development of Spherical Magnetic

A b r a s i v e M a d e b y P l a s m a S p r a y .

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Engineering (130)031107-1-9Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T (1999) Study of the Surface Modification Resulting from an Internal Magnetic Abrasive Finishing Process Wear 225–229: 246– 255.Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T (2004) Internal

finishing process for alumina ceramic

components by a magnetic field


111

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28:135–142

Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T (2004) Internal

Finishing Process For Alumina Ceramic

C o m p o n e n t s B y A M a g n e t i c F i e l d

Assisted Finishing Process. Precision

Engineering 28:135–142

Yamaguchi H, Shinmura T, (2000) Study

o f A n I n t e r n a l M a g n e t i c A b r a s i v e

F inishing Using A Pole Rotat ion

S y s t e m . J o u r n a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a lSocieties for Precision Engg. And NanoTechnology (24):237-244.

Ya m a g u c h i H , S h i n m u r a T, I k e d a R

(2007) Study of Internal Finishing of

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112

CONVENTIONAL AND SMART TEACHING ENGINEERING METHODS

* 1 2 1 3Gurinder Kaur Sodhi KamalKant Sharma Mandeep singh Jaspreet singh

1Dept. of ECE, Desh Bhagat University ,

Mandi Gobindgarh2Department of EE, Chandigarh University,

Gharaun (Punjab)3Department of Food Technology,


*Email : [email protected]

ABSTRACTFrom the very beginning of software engineering we have some pre defined steps tod e v e l o p i n g s o f t w a r e w h i c h i s t e r m e d a s C o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s f o r s o f t w a r ee n g i n e e r i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e a l l f r o m a n a l y z i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , d e s i g n i n g ,implementing the software and last ly test ing i t for bugs. But such software used to havesome weak points concerning the quali ty, originating from the method i tself so now somenew steps were defined called as Clean room software engineering method which givesmore preference to the quali ty and reliabil i ty factor as compared to the previous one buthas st i l l not been accepted by all software developers due to i ts diff icult approachand high resource requirement. So both the methods are used but at some specific placeaccording to the need of the software and i ts developer. In this paper we will comparethem on some basic yet important parameter to decide which approach is effective forwhich scenario.

Keywords: IBM, COBOL, Testing, Clean room.

INTRODUCTION

C o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s f o r s o f t w a r eengineering in general have the followingsteps-: analysis , design , implementation ,, testing and then maintenance . but theses t e p s w e r e c h a l l e n g e d b y t h e n e we m e r g i n g m e t h o d f o r s o f t w a r ed e v e l o p m e n t i . e C l e a n r o o m s o f t w a r ee n g i n e e r i n g w h i c h u s e s t h e i n c r e m e n tprocess model for i ts working. Here thes t e p s m a y b e b i t d i f f i c u l t a n d t i m econsuming but the software we get fromthis method are very high on quality andresultantly less on errors . In this paper wewill be giving a short comparison betweenthe two methods which in usual si tuationput a software engineer in a dilemma ofw h i c h o n e t o c h o o s e . W e w i l l b ecompar ing them on the parameters l ikereliabili ty , code correctness proof , qualityof the product and lastly why clean room

i s n o t u s e d c o m m o n l y f o r s o f t w a r e

development . Then the paper i s d ivided

i n t o 3 p a r t s

Fi rs t ly we wi l l g ive a br ief on methods and

t h e i r s t e p s t h e n s e c o n d w e w i l l g i v e

c o m p a r i s o n o n p a r a m e t e r s a s d e f i n e d

above and then conclus ion .

Conventional Methods for Software

EngineeringT h i s i s a m e t h o d t h a t h a s b e e n m a yb e t h e v e r y f i r s t a p p r o a c h t os o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r i n g w i t h f e w o ft h e v e r y s e q u e n t i a l a n d p r e d i c t a b l es t e p s . H e r e w e f i r s t l y a n a l y z e t h er e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e s o f t w a r e h a st o s a t i s f y a n d s t a r t w i t h t h ed e s i g n i n g a n d t h e c o d i n g p r o c e s sw i t h o u t p a y i n g e m p h a s i s o nc o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e c o d e a s i t i s


113

c h e c k e d w h e n d e s i g n i n g s t e p i so v e r a n d w e m o v e t o t e s t i n g o fs o f t w a r e [ 1 ] . M o s t o f t h e s o f t w a r e sa r e t e s t e d u s i n g t h e t e s t c a s ea p p r o a c h w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b ee f f e c t i v e u n d e r c o n v e n t i o n a la p p r o a c h w h e r e w e m a k e a s e t o fs t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h w h i c hw e c o m p a r e t h e c o d e a n d t e s t c o d eo n s o m e p a r a m e t e r s a n d s o m e t i m e sw e m u t a t e t h e c o d e t o s e e i t sb e h a v i o u r i n s o m e r a n d o ms i t u a t i o n s t o m a k e t h e t e s t i n ga p p r o a c h m o r e p r a c t i c a l . A f t e r t h et e s t i n g i s o v e r s t i l l t h e s o f t w a r e i sn o t c o n s i d e r e d e r r o r f r e e s o i t i sp u t i n m a r k e t a s a b e t a v e r s i o nw h i c h h a s e r r o r s a n d w h e n t h e y g e tf e e d b a c k s f r o m c u s t o m e r s t h e ym a k e s o m e f i n a l c h a n g e s a n ds o f t w a r e i s l a u n c h e d a n d i s s t i l lf o u n d t o b e h a v i n g t h e b u g s . I nt h i s f i g u r e b e l o w w e s e e h o ws o f t w a r e i s d e v e l o p e d u s i n gC o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o s o f t w a r ed e v e l o p m e n t . W h e n w e m a d e s a m es o f t w a r e f r o m b o t h t h e m e t h o d s t h es o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e r o f c l e a n r o o ms a i d t h a t t h e y d o m i s s t h es a t i s f a c t i o n o f p r o g r a m e x e c u t i o nof Conventional method after test ing butconventional software had less quali ty thenclean room [2]

Fig. 1. Explaining the path to software

d e v e l o p m e n t i n a c o n v e n t i o n a l

approach using a flow graph

Clean Room Software Engineering

T h i s a p p r o a c h i s n o t n e w i t ' s b e e n t h e r ef r o m m i d 8 0 s a n d f o u n d u s e i n m i l i t a r yp r o j e c t s i n 1 9 9 0 s . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i sm e t h o d w a s d e f e c t p r e v e n t i o n t h e nd e f e c t r e m o v a l . A s t o l d ' D o i t r i g h t t h ef i r s t t i m e [ 1 ] . T h e m a i n e m p h a s i s i s o nt h e p r e v e n t i o n o f a n y k i n d o f e r r o r t h e nr e m o v i n g i t l a t e r o n . T h i s m e t h o d i su s e f u l i n s i t u a t i o n s l i k e s p a c e p r o g r a m sw h e r e l a rg e a m o u n t o f i n v e s t m e n t a n dh u m a n l i v e s a r e a t s t a k e t h e n w e n e e d am e t h o d t h a t w i l l a v o i d a n y k i n d o f e r r o ra s w e c a n ' t t e s t i t b e f o r e u s e . I n s u c hs i t u a t i o n c l e a n r o o m p r o v e s t o b ee x t r e m e l y u s e f u l . N o w i n c l e a n r o o mw e u s e i n c r e m e n t p r o c e s s m o d e l w h e r el i n e a r c o l l e c t i o n o f s m a l l s t e p s g i v e s o u tc o m p l e t e s o f t w a r e b u t e a c h i n c r e m e n tb e f o r e i n t e g r a t i o n t o t h e w h o l e g o e st h r o u g h a s e t o f s t e p s .

Fig. 2. Increment process model

Firstly we plan the size of each increment

then we make the sequence in which those

inc remen t s wi l l be added fo l lowed by

introducing the customer level requirement

f o r t h a t i n c r e m e n t . T h e n u s i n g b o x

structure the formal design is made. After

t h a t w e u s e m a t h e m a t i c a l ( f o r m a l )

methods to check the design thoroughly

a n d w e p a s s a t h e o r e t i c a l p r o o f o f

verification of its correctness [5] [4]. Then ,

we conduct statistical use testing where

the increment is tested using some finite

test cases depending on the requirement

that increment is satisfying . Once the


114

inspect ion , ver if icat ion and test ing is donethe increment is added to the whole [1]This way there is very less probabil i ty thatany bug or error is s t i l l there and we gethigh qual i ty products .

Fig. 3. Explaining the steps in the clean

room software engineering method.

The above d iag ram exp la ins the s t eps o f

c l ean room so f tware eng inee r ing and how

the so f tware i s compi l ed in th i s me thod

Clean Room Versus ConventionalNow we wil l compare these two methods

on some basic yet important parameters on

w h i c h s o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e r c h o o s e s a

method for sof tware deve lopment . We

wil l judge them on these parameters and

see which one is bet ter for which s i tuat ion.

ReliabilityAs we have exp la ined above when weare ta lk ing about re l iab i l i ty there i s nocompar ison wi th c lean room method[6] .I t has proven i t s level of re l iab i l i ty and i t si n c r e m e n t p r o c e s s d e c r e a s e d t h e e r r o rra te to one tenth of usual and tha t was thefac tor which made c lean room a prefer reda p p r o a c h f o r s p a c e p r o g r a m s a n dm i l i t a r y p r o j e c t s b e c a u s e i n t h e s ep r o j e c t s w e h a v e a l o t o f r e s o u r c e sinvo lved i nc lud ing t he re a r e l i ve s a ts t a k e w h i c h m a k e s n o p l a c e f o r a n ymis take . So we use c lean room there andthere wouldn ' t be any doubt in sayingt h a t c l e a n r o o m i s f a r m o r e r e l i a b l et h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l d u e t h e a c c u r a c y i tprovides .

Correctness Proof

N o w w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t t h e c o r r e c t n e s s

p r o o f w e m e a n w h a t w e h a v e t o c o n v i n c e

u s t h a t t h e s o f t w a r e i s c o r r e c t o r t h e c o d e

u s e d i s c o r r e c t f o r t h a t m a t t e r [ 5 ] . S o w e

m i g h t w a n t t o t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e

c l e a n r o o m m e t h o d a b o v e w h e r e w e h a v e

e x p l a i n e d t h a t e a c h i n c r e m e n t b e f o r e

b e i n g i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e w h o l e i s f i r s t l y

v e r i f i e d f o r c o r r e c t n e s s a f t e r f o r m a l

d e s i g n i n g u s i n g m u l t i p l e m e t h o d s l i k e

m a t h e m a t i c a l ( f o r m a l ) m e t h o d s w h i c h

g i v e t h e p r o o f i n t h i s p o i n t . B e c a u s e t h i s

p r o c e s s o f v e r i f i c a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e l y

t h e o r e t i c a l s o w e c a n s a y a t t h e l e v e l o f

c o r r e c t n e s s p r o o f c l e a n r o o m p r o v i d e s

i t w h i l e c o n v e n t i o n a l d o e s n ' t .

Increment approach

T h i s a p p r o a c h o f u s i n g i n c r e m e n t a lp r o c e s s m o d e l i s a l l t h a t m a d e t h ed i ff e rence . C lean room i s so d i f f e ren tb e c a u s e i t m a k e s a l m o s t a l l i t sprocesses occur a t the increment level [4] .The inc remen t s a r e t he bas i c bu i ld ingblocks in th is method. The f i rs t s tep i sto p lan the increments of the sof twarea n d t h e i r s i z e . I n c r e m e n t p r o c e s sincreases eff ic iency of the product as wet e s t e a c h i n c r e m e n t a b o u t 4 t i m e s a td i fferent levels before adding i t to thewhole . So increment approach is a b igd i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a lapproach and the c lean room method.

Quality of product

When we ta lk about the qual i ty of productor sof tware we are ta lking about minimumno of errors or bugs and less execut iont ime and to be f lexible in a l l s i tuat ions .And we have received such qual i t ies f roms o f t w a r e d e v e l o p e d u s i n g c l e a n r o o msoftware engineer ing [4] .This method is avery accurate and as explained above thep r o b a b i l i t y o f e r r o r i s o n e t e n t h o fconvent ional method i t wi l l not be wrongto say that products f rom clean room aref a r m o r e h i g h e r i n q u a l i t y t h e n t h eproducts f rom convent ional . For eg. IBMCOBOL/SF res t ructur ing tool (85000 l ines


115

of PL/ I code [3 ] . Th is app l ica t ion when

d e v e l o p e d b y c l e a n r o o m h a d t e n f o l d

reduc t ion in to ta l de fec t s pe r thousand

l ines o f code found dur ing t es t ing . And

tha t i s why we a re pay ing emphas i s on use

of c lean room in sof tware indus t ry now.

c o n c l u d e f r o m t h e o u r s u r v e y t h a ta c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a r a m e t e r s u s e d f o rc o m p a r i s o n ( r e l i a b i l i t y , q u a l i t y o fproduct , correc tness proof e tc) c lean roomi s i n d e e d f a r b e t t e r o p t i o n t h a nc o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d b u t u s i n g i tn e e d s a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g t o t h eengineer ing wi th use of some addi t ionaltools and ext reme disc ip l ine in sof twaredevelopment . So c lean room might f indi t s p l a c e a s t h e f u t u r e a p p r o a c h t os o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r i n g b u t i n t h epresen t wor ld convent iona l methods o fs o f t w a r e e n g i n e e r i n g i s p r e f e r r e dapproach to sof tware engineer ing.

Why clean room is not as common asconventional methods?

Well there wil l be no fault in saying thate v e r y i n d u s t r y r e q u i r e s p r o f i t f o r i t se x i s t e n c e a n d t h i s i s t h e f a c t w h e r econventional method goes over clean roomm e t h o d . T h i s i s b e c a u s e c l e a n r o o mr e q u i r e s e x t r e m e e x c e l l e n c e i n a l l t h em e t h o d s u s e d i n t h e p r o c e s s s oexperienced and highly ski l led people areneeded for using this method and i t is tootheoret ical and mathematical for real worlduse (Richard W 1987) . And the industry isst i l l operat ing on adhoc level and cleanroom needs r i go rous u se o f l i f e cyc l ephases so industry is not yet ready forclean room and the techniques used in i t . I talso requires the change in view point ofsoftware being a creat ive art or craft of anengineer 's mind to a discipl ined act ivi ty .Using i t in the industry requires addit ionaltools and special t raining to the engineers .S o a l l t h e d r a w b a c k m e n t i o n e d a b o v em a k e c l e a n r o o m a n a v o i d a b l e o p t i o nins tead of be ing a re l iab le and qual i typroducing method .That is why clean roomsoftware engineering is not as common asconventional methods .

Conclusion

According to our l i t e ra ry survey, we can

c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e i s n o d o u b t t h a t

convent iona l method i s a very sequent ia l

a n d c o m p a r a t i v e l y a e a s y o p t i o n f o r

sof tware development . But when i t comes

to qua l i ty be ing pr ior i ty and accuracy in

f i r s t a t t e m p t t h e n c l e a n r o o m h a s n o

compet i t ion . There i s no doubt in say ing

tha t c lean room i s a fa r more re l iab le

m e t h o d a n d c a n f i n d i t s p l a c e a s t h e

fu ture of sof tware development . But c lean

room is too theore t ica l , mathemat ica l and

radica l fo r rea l wor ld use . So , we

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Software engineering a practitioner's approach

6th edition by Pressman.

Richard W. Selby, “cleanroom sof tware d e v e l o p m e n t : A n e m p i r i c a l evaluat ion”. member, IEEE and Victor R. Basi l i , senior member, IEEE and F . T e r r y B a k e r , 1 9 8 7 , i n I E E E t ransact ions on sof tware engineer ing Chae lynne M. Wolak , “Tak ing the Ar t

o u t o f S o f t w a r e D e v e l o p m e n t : A n

I n - D e p t h R e v i e w o f C l e a n r o o m

S o f t w a r e E n g i n e e r i n g ” . S c h o o l o f

Compute r and In fo rma t ion Sc iences

Nova Sou theas t e rn Un ive r s i ty, DISS

725 Apr i l 2001

Wa l t S c a c c h i , “ P r o c e s s M o d e l s i n S o f t w a r e E n g i n e e r i n g ” . I n s t i t u t e f o r S o f t w a r e R e s e a r c h , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , I r v i n e F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 1 R e v i s e d V e r s i o n , M a y 2 0 0 1 , O c t o b e r 2 0 0 1 , F i n a l Ve r s i o n t o a p p e a r i n , J . J . M a r c i n i a k ( e d . ) , E n c y c l o p e d i a o f S o f t w a r e

n d E n g i n e e r i n g , 2 E d i t i o n , J o h n Wi l e y a n d S o n s , I n c , N e w Yo r k , D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 1 H o n g , M . M . , “ C l e a n r o o m S o f t w a r e E n g i n e e r i n g f o r I m p r o v i n g S o f t w a r e P r o c e s s Q u a l i t y, ” 1 9 9 8 .

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GENTLE REHABILITATION OF THE BUILDING

Dr. (Er.) Aman Jain

Department of Civil Engineering,

Desh Bhgat University, Mandi Gobindgarh Amloh – 141006.

Gentle rehabilitation of the building refers to all rehabilitation, up-gradation or renovationaspects of the building or the structure to be dealt gently i.e with utmost care and planningfollowing compassionate approach. Sympathetic modification or alterations are to bepromoted so that the old distressed buildings rejuvenate with new lease of life. Evenotherwise, in all types of buildings whether new or old, the sympathetic alteration withappropriate understanding & implementation involving minimum violence, pollution, etc.help in re-modeling the building. Every movement from conceptualization to the actualconstruction of the building should necessarily be the sympathetic one. The repair,maintenance cum up-gradation project related to the building should involve 'gentle' and'righteous' attitude and framework as regards to the technicality, economics, psychology,sociology and other miscellaneous factors following compassionate way. Sometimes, abuilding is to be remodeled / rehabilitated for the new standards of the design and theprevailing loads following compassionate strategy. Simplicity and high thinking should bethe essence of such sympathetic considerations. The new era buildings should meet theenergy efficiency demand in gentle manner. e.g. optimum usage of electricity with energyand cost saving techniques, better insulated devices, etc. is the gentle contemplation andeffort towards replacing old electric wiring system in the building with the new one. Globalwarming effects are minimized in such buildings. The repair, maintenance and rehabilitationaspects are to be dealt gently with utmost care following optimal levels of being polite,generous and courteous in mannerism especially, when one is engaged in rehabilitation duty.The financial aspects of rehabilitation should be acceptable to the masses. The demolition /dismantling of the structural part of the building should be done with minimum amount ofviolence. Haphazard demolition should be avoided. Gentle rehabilitation of the buildingincludes usage of such materials and practices that are humble / compassionate in Nature.Usage of such building materials, etc. is advocated which have vegetarian content and thosewhich have been manufactured with gentle approach. Gentle rehabilitation includes gentleand righteous advancement (innovation) in building design / rehabilitation. This will dealwith the following:

Gentle construction practices as regards to deep excavations & foundations construction. Thisalso includes gentle brick masonry construction, gentle stone masonry construction, gentleaffixation and arrangement of scaffolding, shoring and underpinning, gentle proceduralpractice of damp proofing & termite proofing, gentle aspects of structural engineering, gentleconstruction and arrangement of partitions, gentle cement concrete construction, gentleconstruction of arches, lintels, doors & windows, carpentry & Joinery, stairs, roofs, floors &floorings. Advanced building construction rehabilitation deals with compassionate way todevelop and construct pile foundations, acoustics arrangement, gentle ways for fire protectionin buildings, gentle way to deal with cofferdams, caissons, mechanical and constructionequipments, formwork, pointing, plastering, painting, varnishing, distempering, etc. includinggentle planning like gentle HVAC ( Heating, ventilation and air conditioning). Advancedbuilding rehabilitation planning includes noble planning as related to the CPM (Critical PathMethod) and the PERT (Programme Evaluation Review technique) that covers different


117

stages of the building repair, maintenance and upgradation. This is the gentle network

planning dealing with the rehabilitation aspect of the building. Thus the scope includes

'Rehabilitation management & aptitude in gentle manner' . Bar charts or Gantt charts ,

milestone charts etc. are useful applications of PERT and CPM techniques to elaborate the

progress of rehabilitation of the building in gentle manner.


University School of Engineering Desh Bhagat University

Mandi Gobindgarh, Fatehgarh Sahib-147301 (Punjab), India

www.dbuijstd.org


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International Journal of Scientific and Technical Development

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