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Question 10/2: Communications for rural and remote areasFocus Group 7: Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new

telecommunication technologies for rural applications

STUDY GROUP 2

SOURCE: RAPPORTEUR FOR FOCUS GROUP 7

TITLE: FINAL REPORT OF ITU-D FOCUS GROUP 7: NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR RURAL APPLICATIONS

________

This document has been modified following the discussions at the Fourth Meeting of the Telecommunication Development Advisory Group (TDAG), Geneva, 12-13 October 2000, and the Editorial meeting of Focus Group 7, Geneva, 13 November 2000.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION

TELECOMMUNICATIONDEVELOPMENT BUREAUITU-D STUDY GROUPS

Document 2/179(Rev.1)-E19 December 2000Original: English

THIRD MEETING OF STUDY GROUP 1: GENEVA, 11 - 15 SEPTEMBER 2000THIRD MEETING OF STUDY GROUP 2: GENEVA, 18 - 22 SEPTEMBER 2000

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______________

Contact point: Mr. Yasuhiko Kawasumi, Japan Telecom Co. Ltd/Tel. +81 3 55408012/Fax: +81 3 55431969/e-mail: [email protected]

R:\REFTXT00\ITU-D\SG-D\SG02\100\179R1V2E.DOC(119235)

mailto:[email protected]

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New Technologies for Rural Applications

Final Report of

ITU-D Focus Group 7

“Bridging the digital divide, providing digital opportunities for all”


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Message from Sir Donald Maitland, Chairman of the Independent Commission for World Wide Telecommunications Development

In the early days of the cinema an enterprising American company produced a series of documentaries under the title The March of Time. Each of these short informative films concluded with the resounding statement of the obvious: “Time marches on”. Yes, of course. And so does mankind.

In 1968 the Canadian academic Marshall McLuhan foresaw the emergence of the global village. In the autumn of 1973 the Yom Kippur war precipitated a world oil crisis. This in turn led to the demand by the leaders of the developing world for a new international order. The campaign which followed focused the attention of the international community on the economic and social gap between industrialized and developing countries and, in the immediately following years, much effort was devoted to the task of defining in what ways such a new order might be created.

In 1981 the General Assembly of the United Nations drew attention to the “fundamental importance of communication infrastructures as an essential element in the social and economic development of all countries”. This prompted the International Telecommunication Union at its Plenipotentiary Conference at Nairobi in 1982 to decide to set up an Independent Commission with the task of recommending ways in which the expansion of telecommunications across the world might be stimulated.

Since The Missing Link – the report of the Independent Commission – saw the light of day in January 1985, much valuable work has been done to reduce the telecommunication gap between the industrialized and developing worlds. The Commission recognized that new technologies could enable developing countries to replace their outdated and inadequate networks with systems, which would offer opportunities hitherto unavailable to them. At the time the Commission acknowledged that extending national networks to rural and remote areas posed a particular challenge. The world Telecommunication Development Conference at Valetta in March 1998 addressed this challenge when it determined that a new and more radical approach was needed. The aim would be to identify those new technologies, which took account of the particular conditions of developing countries. Once identified these could be made available to the relevant developing countries. In March 1999 a Focus Group was formed to carry out this task.The final report of the ITU-D Focus Group 7 is by any standards an impressive document and its members deserve the gratitude of all those who look forward to the final closing of the telecommunication gap. At the outset, the Group defined rural as including isolated and poorly served areas where, for a variety of reasons, it is not easy to establish telecommunication services. Having considered the special characteristics of such areas, the Group set about examining existing projects, which serve the needs of the inhabitants in such fields as telemedicine, support for small businesses and emergency relief, among others. Their researches covered the world – from Sri Lanka to Georgia, from Peru to Greenland, and virtually everywhere in between. In the process the Group have compiled, largely by electronic means, an extensive library of invaluable information. This, together with their comprehensive recommendations, will constitute an essential element in the programme for the achievement of the goal of universal access to basic communications set out in the Action Plan adopted at Valetta in 1998. Mankind marches on.

Limpley Stoke, Bath (England)7 September 2000


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Foreword by the ITU Secretary-General

In 1998, the World Telecommunication Development Conference at Valleta, Malta adopted Topic 7, the study of new technologies for rural and remote applications, as a component of its Action Plan. To address this directive, TDAG and ITU-D Study Group 2 decided, in the spring of 1999, to create a focus group to study Topic 7 and report its findings. Focus Group 7 fulfilled its mission and now, one and a half years after the group was first set up, its Report is available.

How well I recall my own involvement as a delegates of my country in launching the study of this far-reaching topic during WTDC98. For this reason I have read the Focus Group 7 Report with particular interest. As we fully anticipated two years ago, the Report reveals a wide and ever-increasing array of low-cost information and communication technologies (ICTs) capable of supporting sustainable and socially beneficial services in rural areas. We also foresaw the complex challenges and strategic choices that now face developing countries in their efforts to grasp and make full use of these technologies.

The ITU's “Missing Link” report, issued 15 years ago, set a goal to bring telephone services within easy reach of all humankind before the 21st Century. Thanks to new technologies and innovative schemes, we are closing some of the gaps. Access to a telephone will soon be within walking distance of us all. But as one gap narrows, others are widening. These are the gaps between people who are connected to the global information infrastructure and those who are not. As I remarked in my opening speech at TELECOM '99, we must bring Internet-style services to all humankind within the first decade of the new millennium, and apply all the new technologies and impulses so that the gaps in connectivity to the Internet can be reduced.

To meet this goal, solutions for providing services to rural areas are sorely needed. Many existing solutions, as well as some which are under development, are presented in this Report. Sections 2 and 3 of the Report describe a range of telecommunication-based applications that are being implemented in rural and remote areas, such as telemedicine and disaster management. In Section 4, the Report profiles new noteworthy technologies and technology combinations for establishing access to telecommunications in rural areas, including satellite-based Internet access and IMT-2000 cellular systems. Section 5 discusses the need for renewable and off-grid energy systems to support telecommunications in rural areas where there is no electricity. Finally, Section 6 points towards new directions in the development of information technology systems for meeting the specific needs of rural areas, such as remote terminal maintenance and configuration, and shared or communal forms of access to IT services.

All of these considerations must be fully addressed in the development of rural communications services as we strive to bridge the digital divide. The need for closer integration of information technology and development programs in the service of poverty alleviation has been recognized in several global forums this year, including the G8 Summit in Okinawa and the subsequent UN Millennium Summit in New York. The ITU is expected to play an important role in furthering the goals established at these global events and this Report is one of our first contributions towards this end.

Yoshio UTSUMISecretary-General, ITU

Geneva, 22 September 2000


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Foreword by Mr. Hamadoun I. Touré, Director, Telecommunication Development Bureau

The developments in communication and information technologies contain both opportunities and challenges. When properly implemented they offer unique opportunities to leapfrog over traditional stages of development. On the other hand, if no action is taken, they will give rise to new forms of exclusion. The possibilities and opportunities surrounding such developments have now been firmly placed on the global agenda. The issue of digital divide was the focus of attention of the most recent G-8 summit in Okinawa and the theme of the United Nations Millennium Summit. The resulting momentum should give a further fillip to ITU activities in this area.

The development of telecommunications in rural and remote areas forms an important mission of the ITU Development Sector as emphasized at the last World Telecommunication Development Conference. The activities geared to enhancement of telecommunication systems and services through support for building of infrastructure, advising on appropriate institutional structures, assisting in mobilizing financial and human resources, and applications of new technologies all have the central objective of achieving universal access to telecommunication and information services.

This report of the Focus Group 7 is a timely and valuable contribution in the context of the current concerns on digital divide. While addressing the issue of new technologies to meet the needs of rural and remote areas of developing countries, the Focus Group has enumerated a series of services and technical solutions specifically suited to the technological, infrastructural, social and economic context of the developing world. This is an important resource for developing countries and its value can be only realized by continuous maintenance of the website.

The Focus Group has also come up with a series of concrete and action-oriented recommendations that can be immediately followed up by the Telecommunication Development Bureau. The recommendations encompass facilitating development of information appliances for rural use, renewable energy sources for telecommunication appliances, collaboration with micro-finance organizations, implementation of pilot projects based on application of new technologies, continued maintenance of the website to gather and update case studies on technologies suited for rural applications and holding symposia on new technologies. BDT will endeavour to implement the recommendations and calls on all partners to help in implementing them.

The work of the Focus Group 7 is a testimony to the innovation adopted at the World Telecommunication Development Conference (Valletta, 1998) of addressing questions in a short period of time. The BDT has appealed, in this context that efforts must be made to complete studies in time for concrete implementation to be achieved and reported to the subsequent World Telecommunication Development Conference (2002).

While congratulating the Focus Group 7 and its participants for the work done, particular mention must be made of the role played by Mr. Yasuhiko Kawasumi who chaired the group with distinction and great devotion. We also place on record our gratitude to the Administration of Japan whose voluntary contribution has made the work of the Focus Group 7 possible.

We now call upon all our Members and sector members to work closely with us to ensure that the digital divide is tackled in a practical and efficient manner.

Hamadoun I. TOURÉDirector BDT, ITU

Geneva, 21 September 2000


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Acknowledgements

Focus Group 7 gratefully acknowledges the voluntary financial contributions of the Japanese Administration, whose generous assistance enabled this focus group on new technologies for rural and remote applications. The focus group would like to thank all of the information and resource providers who furthered the work of Focus Group 7, including the contributors of the case reports, participants in Focus Group 7 meetings and activities, moderators of the on-line discussion groups, the editorial committee, and all of the focus group members. The Rapporteur of FG7 would like to express his special thanks to Ms. Rebecca Mayer, BDT research officer, for her excellent research including collection of the case library reports and exhaustive report writing; to Mr. Phillip Trotter for his work on web site construction, technology research and report writing; and to members who contributed to the final report including Mr. Roberto Bastidas-Buch, ITU-D Zone Administrator for Central America, Mr. Chris Rovero and Mr. Eberhard Roegner. Finally, the Rapporteur of FG7 would like to express his appreciation for active cooperation by Mr. Hamadoun I. Touré, Director of BDT, Mr. Nabil Kisrawi, Chairman of Study Group 2, and the many BDT staff members who furthered the focus group's progress from time to time.

Rapporteur of Focus Group 7

Mr. Yasuhiko Kawasumi, Japan Telecom Co., Ltd

List of moderators for on-line discussions

Mr. Leonid AndrouchkoMr. Guy Girardet, BDTMr. Jacques Rostenne, Perwit International Management ConsultantsDr. Yoshiyori Urano, Global Information and Telecommunication InstituteMr. Mark Wood, Disaster Relief Communications Foundation

BDT support for Focus Group 7

Ms. Fidelia AkpoMs. Petra BravenboerMr. Vishnu CalindiMr. Pierre GagneMr. Claude GarnierMr. Guy GirardetMs. Rebecca MayerMs. Sylvie Pitt-DunandMs. Sylvie RaposoMr. Walter RichterMr. Phillip Trotter


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Forewords.............................................................................................................. 5

Acknowledgements............................................................................................... 8

Acronyms and abbreviations................................................................................. 11

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................... 13

SECTION 1: BACKGROUND AND GOALS OF FOCUS GROUP 7 (FG7)..... 18

1.1. Mission statement........................................................................................... 18

1.2 Objectives........................................................................................................ 18

1.3 Definition of rural and remote areas................................................................ 18

1.4 FG7 work methodology................................................................................... 19

1.5 Activities 1999-2000....................................................................................... 19

1.6 Report scope and methodology....................................................................... 20

SECTION 2: TRENDS IN RURAL AND REMOTE APPLICATIONS............. 22

2.1 The role of telecommunications in rural areas................................................ 22

2.2 Developers of communications-based applications........................................ 23

2.3 End-user skills and training............................................................................. 25

2.4 Installation, operation & maintenance............................................................. 26

2.5 Information technology and microfinance institutions.................................... 27

SECTION 3: APPLICATION AREAS................................................................. 28

3.1 Community and small business development................................................. 28

3.2 Telemedicine/telehealth................................................................................... 28

3.3 Distance education/tele-education................................................................... 32

3.4 Emergency support and disaster relief............................................................ 34

3.5 Environmental monitoring and protection....................................................... 35

SECTION 4: ACCESS INFRASTRUCTURE...................................................... 35

4.1 Narrowband packet radio................................................................................ 35

4.2 GSM 400......................................................................................................... 36

4.3 Combined point-to-multipoint/wireless local loop systems............................ 38

4.4 CDMA450....................................................................................................... 42

4.5 Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs)....................................................... 49

4.6 Satellite-based Internet access......................................................................... 51

4.7 Digital satellite radio....................................................................................... 54

4.8 Meteor burst communications......................................................................... 55

4.9 IMT-2000........................................................................................................ 57


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4.10 Wireless routers............................................................................................. 59

SECTION 5 : RENEWABLE AND OFF-GRID ENERGY SOLUTIONS.......... 63

5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 63

5.2 Powering telecommunication and IT systems in rural areas........................... 64

5.3 Balance of system components....................................................................... 64

5.4 Solar power...................................................................................................... 65

5.5. Wind energy................................................................................................... 66

5.6 Micro-hydro power.......................................................................................... 67

5.7 Hybrid power systems..................................................................................... 68

5.8 Clockwork power............................................................................................ 69

SECTION 6: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY................................................. 71

6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 71

6.2 Integrated telephone/e-mail devices................................................................ 73

6.3 E-mail appliances............................................................................................ 74

6.4 Handheld computers........................................................................................ 75

6.5 Internet client appliances................................................................................. 78

6.6 Internet server appliances................................................................................ 80

6.7 Video game systems........................................................................................ 82

6.8 Thin client systems.......................................................................................... 84

6.9 Interactive voice response systems.................................................................. 86

6.10 Transaction cards........................................................................................... 89

6.11 Computer add-ons and accessories................................................................ 91

SECTION 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................... 93

7.1 Concluding discussion and remarks................................................................ 93

7.2 Recommendations........................................................................................... 96

References............................................................................................................. 100

GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................... 103

Annex 1: Terms of reference of ITU-D Focus Group 7........................................ 104

Annex 2: The Open Source Definition (Version 1.7)............................................ 107

Annex 3: Guidelines for Designing ICTs for Rural Areas of Developing Countries................................................................................................................ 108

Annex 4: List of Focus Group 7 Members............................................................ 110

Annex 5: Outline of proposed BDT training course on information appliances... 113

Footnotes............................................................................................................... 114


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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AC Alternating Current

ADPCM Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation

ASIC Application Specific Integrated Circuit

BOS Balance Of System Components

CPU Central Processing Unit

CS Cell Station

DC Direct Current

DCTS Digital Cordless Telephone System

DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications

EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute

FG7 Focus Group 7

FT Fixed Terminal

HSCSD High Speed Circuit Switched Data

HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

ICT Information and Communication Technologies

IMT-2000 International Mobile Telecommunications-2000

IP Internet Protocol

IRC Internet Relay Chat

ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network

ISP Internet Service Provider

IT Information Technology

IVR Interactive Voice Response

kW Kilowatt

LAN Local Area Network

LCD Liquid Crystal Display

LVD Low Voltage Disconnect

MBBS Meteor Burst Base Station

MCT Multipurpose Community Telecentre

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

MPTC Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Cambodia

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

OS Operating System


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PAD Packet Assembly and Disassembly

PC Personal Computer

PHS Personal Handyphone System

PMP Point to Multipoint

POTS Plain Old Telephone Service

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network

PTP Point To Point

RAM Random Access Memory

ROM Read Only Memory

RU Repeater Unit

SLIP Serial Line Internet Protocol

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

SSL Secure Socket Layer

TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol

TDAG Telecommunication Development Advisory Group

TDMA Time Division Multiple Access

TGW Transit GateWay

TNC Terminal Node Controller

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

VAP Valetta Action Plan

VMU Visual Memory Unit

VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol

VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal (used with satellite systems)

WAN Wide Area Network

WAP Wireless Access Protocol

WARC World Administrative Radio Conference

WLL Wireless Local Loop

WTDC World Telecommunication Development Conference

WWW World Wide Web


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

More than 2.5 billion people - over 40% of the planet's population - live in rural and remote areas of developing countries. Of the small fraction that has any access to telecommunications, radio broadcasts and voice telephony have traditionally been the main services provided. Today, a wide variety of new telecommunication applications such as e-mail, e-commerce, tele-education, telehealth, and telemedicine, among others, has made access to interactive multimedia services as important for rural and remote communities as voice connectivity alone. Since each rural district or community requires a different mix of voice, text, image, video and audio communications to best meet its needs, today's telecommunication network operators must be able to support a wide range of services, applications and bandwidth levels at a reasonable cost.

The Valetta Action Plan (VAP), formulated at the second ITU World Telecommunication Development Conference in March 1998, sought to promote universal access to basic telecommunication, broadcasting and Internet as tools for development in rural and remote areas. Focus Group 7 has spent a year researching technological developments that have the potential to support telecommunication applications which are commercially viable, or sustainable through other transparent financing mechanisms, in rural and remote areas of developing countries.

Rural and remote (or just "rural") areas exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:

scarcity or absence of public facilities such as reliable electricity supply, water, access roads and regular transport;

scarcity of technical personnel;

difficult topographical conditions, e.g. lakes, rivers, hills, mountains or deserts, which render the construction of wire telecommunication networks very costly;

severe climatic conditions that make critical demands on the equipment;

low level of economic activity mainly based on agriculture, fishing, handicrafts, etc.;

low per capita income;

underdeveloped social infrastructures (health, education, etc.);

low population density;

very high calling rates per telephone line, reflecting the scarcity of telephone service and the fact that large numbers of people rely on a single telephone line.

These characteristics make it difficult to provide public telecommunication services of acceptable quality by traditional means at affordable prices, while also achieving commercial viability for the service provider.


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Focus Group 7 Findings on Applications

Focus Group 7 found that the Internet is the most widely used platform adopted to deliver multimedia applications in rural areas of developing countries. While much negative attention in developing countries has been focused on the use of the Internet as an illegal bypass mechanism in the international traffic arena, the long-term importance of the Internet for developing countries lies in its potential to improve the domestic flow of economic and educational resources between isolated rural communities and urban centers. Areas of application for Internet- and other communication-based applications include tele-medicine and public health education, coordinating regional food security efforts, making government-sponsored agricultural extension services more effective and accessible to rural farmers, and enabling more rural children, adolescents and post-secondary students to receive an education, among others.

Applications development: Communication-based applications are being designed and implemented in rural areas of developing countries by a wide variety of actors in addition to public telecommunication operators (PTOs). A significant portion of the expertise required to develop sustainable, connectivity-enabled applications for rural areas is located within the professional, academic, business and agricultural sectors, among others. Not only do schools, universities, government departments, international organizations and NGOs routinely design and implement customized applications, they also independently purchase and set up information technology (IT) equipment. As a result, public telecommunication operators are increasingly required to support a heterogeneous mixture of networks, protocols and bandwidth requirements away from urban centers.

The need for basic literacy, computers skills and training in the use of ICT applications remains a significant challenge for rural areas. Language barriers and the complexity of personal computer (PC) operation have been shown to hinder Internet diffusion. Many innovative schemes have been devised in rural areas to overcome these barriers. Although not widely utilized, techniques such as voice mail, translation of content, and icon-based telephones indicate that foreign languages and illiteracy are not necessarily barriers to the use of communications services, if the end user's needs are comprehended and addressed. Relevant content is extremely critical to the success of any rural application.

Community and business development: A great deal of progress is being made in rural community and business development through the introduction of telephony, telecenters, e-mail, and radio broadcasts. For example, an infoDev-sponsored organization named PeopLink has established an e-commerce program allowing local artisans in developing countries to bypass middlemen and market their products directly to first world consumers. Two of the key requirements for the success of community and business development applications were found to be local language support and the availability of relevant content.

Telemedicine: The motivation and commitment to telemedicine in developing countries is very strong. This motivation is often backed by a willingness to pay for systems which are expected to improve health outcomes and lower medical costs in the long run. Telemedicine services may be perceived as more of a necessity in developing countries than they are in the industrialized countries, resulting in a greater willingness among the former to change established methods of doctor-patient interaction and health care administration.

Telemedicine and telehealth applications are not limited exclusively to expensive, high bandwidth services. As long as the local medical community remains motivated and committed to implementing telemedicine and telehealth programs, there are a wide range of health benefits that can be achieved through remote patient monitoring and diagnosis, multimedia communication links between urban and remote facilities, and broadcast of health information over radio and television.


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Distance Education: Unsurprisingly, the focus group found that university-level distance education programs lend themselves to cross-border implementation. Using distribution by satellite or Internet, the adminstrative costs of running distance education courses can be spread over a very wide potential student base. A number of existing programs, such as the African Virtual University (AVU) and the distance education network of the University of the South Pacific (USPNet), are already based on the concept of cross-border educational access.

Focus Group 7 Findings on Technologies

Problems with installation and maintenance of wire plant have prompted the widespread use of wireless systems in rural areas. Nine types of wireless access systems were identified through the case studies and ITU activities, illustrating existing and emerging access options for reaching rural communities. Given the trend toward shared facilities such as telecenters, university extension centers, post office kiosks, etc., as well as the variety of revenue models associated with social services in the health, educational and e-commerce fields, the focus group considered technologies which expanded the number of supportable applications as well as those which demonstrated lower per-line costs.

Demand for Internet-based telecommunication applications in rural areas, particularly e-mail, has resulted in new applications of old technologies, such as VHF radio systems and meteor burst communications, for non-real time services. In addition, new combinations of existing technologies are extending the reach and flexibility of wireless access systems, as well as reducing total costs through the integration of shared systems and components. In particular, many rural operators are deploying very small aperture terminals (VSATs) and point-to-multipoint terrestrial radio systems integrated with wireless local loop systems based on standards such as PHS and DECT.

Access options on the horizon for rural areas include a number of technologies that are new to the rural marketplace or still under development.

Cdma450 and GSM400 cellular base stations implemented in the 450 MHz range are scheduled for commercial introduction in 2001. The use of the lower frequency bands will enable each base station to cover approximately double the area achieved by existing digital cellular base stations operating in the 800-900 MHz frequency range.

Third generation cellular systems, known as IMT-2000, are designed to deliver a wide range of traffic types and volumes more efficiently and inexpensively than the current generation of wired and cellular telephony networks.

Gateways based on ITU-T Recommendation H.323 support real-time, two-way communications between local area networks (LANs) and the PSTN. Such gateways offer developing countries the option of constructing local and wide area networks to deliver telephony and other services in rural areas, without undermining existing investments in the PSTN.

Wireless router networks, integrated with IP telephony software, have the potential to provide significant cost savings and social benefits as multi-service application platforms for telecenters, government offices, schools and other organizations in rural areas. Since these technologies are largely untested in rural areas, Focus Group 7 recommends that BDT conduct pilot projects aimed at confirming the technologies' robustness in rural environments and effectiveness in dealing with multimedia applications such as telemedicine, distance learning and so forth.

Information technology and multimedia terminals: It is of the utmost importance that ITU-D strive to raise awareness of the rural information and communication needs of developing countries within the computing and information technology industry. Unlike the telecommunications industry, which has been doing business in underdeveloped rural areas for several decades,


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companies in the IT sector are generally unfamiliar with the environmental and social requirements of rural areas of developing countries. Multimedia systems profiled by Focus Group 7, some of which were only launched during the period in which the report was written between June and August 2000, demonstrate many features with potential lifetime cost savings for rural areas. For example, information appliances supporting e-mail, World Wide Web (WWW) browsing and e-commerce applications provide simplified user interfaces in packages with fewer maintenance requirements than traditional PCs. Internet client network solutions can offer Internet service providers (ISPs) the ability to upgrade their rural customers' browser and applications software remotely, reducing the skills requirements for telecenter operators and rural schools. Finally, technical institutes and R&D organizations in developing countries such as India and Indonesia are developing their own custom, low cost IT terminals and devices.

Renewable energy solutions: The lack of mains energy supply in many rural and remote areas is a major obstacle to deploying telecommunication infrastructure. Many governments, agencies, and NGOs are currently working to support broader or massive use of telecommunications and IT systems in unelectrified rural areas As a result, Focus Group 7 recommends that governments, administrations and recognized operating agencies consider closely linking renewable energy specialists with rural telecommunication and ICT initiatives.

In the past two decades, the most important use of renewable energy and hybrid systems in telecommunications has been for off-grid telecom repeaters. Due to the high cost of the repeater equipment, the critical role the repeaters play in the larger telecom networks, and the unattended nature of the systems, these power systems have been very carefully sized and designed using highly capable and experienced engineers. In contrast, the power requirements for user-side installations -- such as wireless local loop terminals, PCs and cellular handsets -- are relatively small. For such user-side equipment it will generally not be possible to rely upon the same approach to power system design as has been used for telecom repeater systems. Therefore, Focus Group 7 recommends that ITU-D support the efforts of the international renewable energy community by disseminating practical and useful information on small power systems for rural telecommunication installations to ITU-D members, project partners and other organizations.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The report of the Maitland Commission, issued seventeen years ago, set a goal to bring telephone services within easy reach of all humankind before the 21st century. In order to remain consistent with this goal after a decade of tremendous expansion in the social applications of information and communication technologies, an update of the target proposed by the Maitland Commission is recommended.

In support of the goal of promoting the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural applications, FG7 offers the following six recommendations:

1) Promote the development of low-cost information appliances for rural use.

2) Create a renewable energy handbook on small-scale power systems for rural ICTs.

3) Increase collaboration with micro-finance organizations to help develop communication-based rural businesses and applications.

4) Conduct pilot projects of packet-based wireless access infrastructure for multimedia applications.

5) Maintain and expand the FG7 Web site.

6) Hold a symposium on new technologies for rural applications.


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The Focus Group 7 also proposed the creation of a Task Force, consisting of a small group of volunteers among the ITU-D Study Group members to assist the BDT Director with the implementation of FG7 recommendations. The mandate of the Task Force may include:

Monitor implementation progress of all FG7 recommendations;

Formulate suggested criteria for the establishment and location of pilot projects;

Contribute to cross-communication and coordination efforts among all parties.

Based on extensive research by Focus Group 7, this report concludes that there is a need for robust telecommunication systems combining low-cost, wireless access technologies with packet-based networks for the possible delivery of Internet in rural and remote areas. Such systems are deemed likely to hold various advantages for the provision of information-based applications in rural areas. As the concept of universal access expands to include services that are more complex than traditional voice and fax telephony, the development of shared-use, easily maintained multimedia terminals for community centers must be explored in order to find socially effective solutions for providing Internet in rural areas.


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SECTION 1: BACKGROUND AND GOALS OF FOCUS GROUP 7 (FG7)

1.1 Mission statement

“Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural applications”

1.2 Objectives

The second World Telecommunication Development Conference (WTDC) at Valetta, Malta, in March 1998, called attention to the need for the development of new technologies designed to meet the needs of developing countries. Comments from the developing countries had been voiced for many years regarding the Union's allocation of resources for standardization activities with primary applicability to developed countries. It was felt that developing countries were forced to purchase unnecessarily expensive telecommunications equipment made for the high standards of developed countries. A proposal for ITU to tackle the problem was adopted in principle as Topic 7 of Chapter 2, Annex 1A, Action Plan of the Valetta WTDC.

The goal of the proposal was to create a new framework for the development of rural communications by seeking out new technologies that consider the environments, economic conditions, and needs of developing nations. These technologies would be standardized and delivered directly by the suppliers to the developing countries. In March 1999, at the meeting of the ITU-D Telecommunication Development Advisory Group (TDAG), it was agreed that Topic 7 should be executed as the task of a Focus Group (FG7). For the Focus Group's management, the Japanese Administration provided voluntary financial contributions and an expert to serve as rapporteur for the Focus Group.

The terms of reference approved by TDAG with regard to Focus Group 7 are included in Annex 1.

1.3 Definition of rural and remote areas

Focus Group 7 has based its work on the definition of rural and remote areas stated in the Report on Question 4/2 of ITU-D Study Group 2, first study period (1995-1998):

Traditionally, the term rural is applied to the countryside or anything related to it. Rural is often used in opposition to urban. However, this is not the case here. For the purpose of this Report, the expression “rural and remote” (or just “rural”) refers to rural, isolated and poorly served areas by telecommunication facilities, where various factors interact to make the establishment of telecommunication services difficult. A rural area may consist of scattered settlements, villages or small towns, and may be located several hundreds of kilometres away from an urban or city centre. However, in some cases a suburban area may also be considered as rural.

A rural area exhibits one or more of the following characteristics: scarcity or absence of public facilities such as reliable electricity supply, water, access

roads and regular transport;

scarcity of technical personnel;

difficult topographical conditions, e.g. lakes, rivers, hills, mountains or deserts, which render the construction of wire telecommunication networks very costly;


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severe climatic conditions that make critical demands on the equipment;

low level of economic activity mainly based on agriculture, fishing, handicrafts, etc.;

low per capita income;

underdeveloped social infrastructures (health, education, etc.);

low population density;

very high calling rates per telephone line, reflecting the scarcity of telephone service and the fact that large numbers of people rely on a single telephone line.

These characteristics make it difficult to provide public telecommunication services of acceptable quality by traditional means at affordable prices, while also achieving commercial viability for the service provider [41].

1.4 FG7 work methodology

The Focus Group created a global case library for the following 3 types of project reports:

a. Ongoing projects using technologies specially designed for rural and remote areas of developing countries, including Multipurpose Community Telecenters, Tele-medicine and Tele-education;

b. Planned projects that make new combinations of technologies to meet the needs of rural and remote areas, such as satellite communications linked with wireless local loop (WLL) networks;

c. Examples of how equipment has been adapted for use in particular, harsh climatic or other conditions of rural and remote areas, such as solar-powered telephones.

Based on the data gathered through its homepage, <http://www7.itu.int/itudfg7>, and taking account of the work of Study Group 2 (SG2), focus group members were requested to:

a. Select those types of projects or systems that have social or economic importance but limited commercial profitability, so that the ITU can focus special support upon such projects in helping to develop technology for rural and remote applications;

b. Recommend new measures to be taken by ITU-D to encourage manufacturers and relevant organizations to create technology tailored to the needs of developing countries;

c. Among those measures, recommend priorities that ITU-D should follow to help achieve the development of technology for rural and remote applications;

1.5 Activities 1999-2000

Three Focus Group 7 meetings were held, on 16 June 1999, 7 September 1999 and 28 February 2000, respectively. The first meeting dealt with the terms of reference of the Focus Group, its work plan and work methods as well as the database design. During the second meeting it was announced that the design of the Website had been completed. The content of the database was discussed in detail, and the Focus Group members and participants were urged to contribute reports. The third meeting reviewed the Interim Report of the Focus Group, discussed progress in the collection of case studies and considered topics for the final report and recommendations to Study Group 2.


http://www7.itu.int/itudfg7

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Focus Group 7's activities have been conducted mainly through a virtual forum based on the web site, <www7.itu.int/itudfg7>. A total of 80 people both from developing and developed countries registered in the membership of FG7, as listed in Annex 4. Visitors to the Web site generated approximately 10,000 hits per month. FG7 collected over 50 case reports of different technology applications in various countries.

From November 1999 to May 2000, on-line discussions were carried out on four topics: Community Development, Telehealth / Telemedicine, Developing Support for Small Businesses, and Emergency Support & Disaster Mitigation. A planned discussion on Tele-education was unsuccessful due to lack of participation, and a second planned discussion on Environmental Monitoring & Protection was cancelled due to the last-minute unavailability of the moderator.

On April 13, 2000 a roundtable on rural communications, established with Focus Group 7 support, was held at the ITU Americas 2000 Forum in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Focus Group 7 members assisted in the identification of experts to participate in the roundtable and the FG7 rapporteur acted as the briefing officer for the session. The roundtable discussion provided valuable information to the Focus Group regarding the profitability of rural and remote telecommunications in Latin American countries.

Based on the various technologies and their applications collected in the case library and discussions, Focus Group 7 presents its conclusions in this report on the recommended ways to promote the development of technologies for rural and remote applications, and measures to be considered by the ITU for the development of telecommunications in rural and remote areas.

1.6 Report scope and methodology

The purpose of this report is to present the essential points of the Focus Group 7 case library; canvas the technologies that have been used, or are anticipated for use, in rural and remote areas; and recommend refinements, enhancements and new directions in the development of such technologies.

Access networks and terminal equipment are the network segments most strongly impacted by the characteristics of rural and remote areas. Therefore, this report focuses on access and end-user equipment and their interfaces, leaving the issue of core networks to ITU-D Study Group 2, Question 10: Communications for rural and remote areas; and to ITU-D Study Group 1, Question 13/1: Promotion of infrastructure and use of the Internet in developing countries. A number of computing terminals are profiled in this report but, in keeping with the ITU focus on telecommunications, we have included only those information technologies that are enabled for connectivity.

Methodology

Focus Group 7 chose applications as the starting point for its identification of information and communications technologies used in rural and remote areas. From the list of applications, on the one hand, and the available technologies, on the other, this report seeks to identify gaps between the information and communication services needed in rural and remote areas, and the technical solutions offered by existing technologies at the low end of the cost spectrum (see Figure 1.1).

The technologies mentioned in this report were identified through the case studies as well as supplemental research efforts by BDT staff. The inclusion or omission of any specific technology(-ies) does not imply any judgement, either positive or negative, on the part of Focus Group 7 or the ITU. Suggestions for technologies not covered would be gratefully accepted by the BDT secretariat for consideration in future updates of this Report.


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Figure 1.1: FG7 conceptual approach

It is an assumption of this report that the selection of technologies for rural applications ought to be based on criteria weighted according to the needs, culture, budget and physical environment, among other characteristics, of each planned deployment. The focus group identified a number of criteria along these lines, including:

Infrastructure

Ease of Installation

Ease of Operation & Maintenance

Tolerance of environmental extremes

Energy

Level of power consumption

Compatibility with off-grid energy solutions

Social Benefit

Variety and flexibility of service applications

Support for local language(s)

Skills and/or training required by end users (including literacy)

Cost

Modularity and scalability

Compliance with recognized standards

Initial and lifetime costs

"Future proof" technology evolution

The affordability of services to the end user, while extremely important to the realization of social benefit, is not primarily a function of technology, so it is not included among the criteria in the social benefit category.


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SECTION 2: TRENDS IN RURAL AND REMOTE APPLICATIONS

The Focus Group 7 case library, consisting of some 50 papers, contains examples of the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to support rural economic development, health, distance education, emergency support, and disaster relief. Although the nature of the case library is anecdotal, several trends present themselves for possible future study and examination.

2.1 The role of telecommunications in rural areasi

Of more than 3.5 billion inhabitants in the world's low income countries, approximately 72% live in rural areasii [25]. Rural areas can generally be characterised by low population density and long distances between settlement areas. Due to unfavourable geographic and climatic conditions, access from urban centres to rural areas, and vice versa, is often difficult.

Further disadvantages of rural areas are:

Low educational level, high illiteracy rate

Hardly any job opportunities

Low income per capita and per family

Increasing migration of the young to urban centres

Unreliable and badly functioning (public) transport

Irregular, if any, power supply

Poor health care and medical services

Lack of other government services

Little participation in national affairs.

The basic objectives to which telecommunications services have to contribute are to trigger and sustain structural and economic development, to minimize the above mentioned disadvantages and to generally improve the quality of life in rural and remote areas.

The Valetta Action Plan (VAP), formulated at the second World Telecommunication Development Conference in March 1998, sought to promote universal access to basic telecommunications, broadcasting and Internet as tools for development in rural and remote areas. Focus Group 7 has spent a year researching technological developments that have the potential to support rural applications which are either commercially viable or sustainable through other financing mechanisms.

Annual public expenditure on health and education in the world's low income countries is estimated at more than US$100 billion [25]. Where the cost and/or outcomes of these expenditures can be improved through the use of telecommunications, access to appropriate infrastructure becomes not only a human right, but a financial necessity.

New industries and other commercial operations are attracted only to places where telecommunications are at hand. Unserved rural areas will, therefore, develop only slowly, if at all, thus contributing to the acceleration of unwanted rural to urban migration. One of several preconditions to reverse this trend is the availability of telecommunication services and applications.

Other benefits of telecommunications concern security, the elimination of feelings of isolation and insecurity in rural villages as well as improvement of government administration. Public administration becomes more effective with telecommunications because it relies heavily on co-


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ordination between central headquarters, regional and local offices as well as individual government officers in outlying districts.

It has turned out, though, that the full impact of improved telecommunications comes only to bear if road conditions are also improved. Many of the most critical factors that enable rural areas to benefit from technology lie beyond the network and its elements. Sustainable business models, political will, skills training and education are just as critical - if not more so - than selecting the most appropriate technology from among a range of reasonable technology alternatives.

Focus Group 7 recognizes the prime importance of the human factor in economic development, but has limited the scope of its investigation to the segment in which ITU can provide the greatest contribution: that of raising awareness about the range and capabilities of information and telecommunication technologies.

2.2 Developers of communications-based applications

The Focus Group 7 case library indicates that telecommunications-based applications are being designed and implemented by a wide variety of actors in addition to public telecommunications operators (PTOs). A significant portion of the expertise required to develop sustainable, communications-based applications for rural areas is located within the professional, academic, business and agricultural sectors, among others. The case library contains examples of applications introduced by physicians, educators, community organizations and governments.

Table 2.1 lists over 30 applications of telecommunications services in rural areas, illustrating some of the specialized applications developed by non-telecommunications organizations. Not only do schools, universities, government departments, international organizations and NGOs routinely design and implement customized applications, they also independently purchase and set up information technology (IT) equipment. As a result, public telecommunications operators are increasingly required to support a hetergeneous mixture of networks, protocols and bandwidth requirements in rural areas.

When telephones are installed in isolated communities outside the context of a third-party project, the onus falls on the telephone service provider to raise awareness among the rural inhabitants of its potential applications. Global Village Telecom (GVT), a rural telephone operator, has found that it can take a substantial amount of time for isolated villages in South America to generate average payphone traffic levels.

When a rural village receives its first public telephone, the inhabitants often do not have many ones to call. This is particularly the case when the inhabitants have few commercial or social links outside the village, or when they believe that those they would wish to call don't have telephone access. GVT and other operators have found that both the service provider and local authorities can take steps to encourage the local population to use the telephone,

Examples of such initiatives include:

Posting the phone numbers of frequently-used local vendors in the telephone booth or telecenter;

Offering voice mail messaging to residents who cannot afford their own line;

Creating a phone-based, interactive voice response (IVR) service providing relevant market information in a local language;

Organizing inter- and intra-regional public fairs, sports events and school championships that require coordination among a number of villages;


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Creating a directory of rural telephone numbers to encourage inbound calls from relatives and friends working abroad and in urban areas.

Only the most isolated communities tend to require such basic encouragement. The opposite problem, that of demand quickly outstripping network capacity, is common in small towns and rural trading centers. For example, when cellular phone service became available in the northern Ugandan town of Gulu, which had only 30 telephone lines, more than one thousand subscribers registered for service within the first six weeks [32].


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Box 2.1: Examples of specialized rural applicationsCommunity Development Small Business Development Education

Creation and dissemination of local content, such as a multilingual web site for children

Delivery of personal messages via radio broadcasting in areas with no telephone service

Dissemination of information about government programs, subsidies and administrative matters

Enhancing regional cooperation through information exchange between local rural radio stations

Group listening to radio broadcasts: special interests, sports, entertainment

Keeping in touch with family and friends working in cities or abroad

Population registration and voting

Browsing the Internet to explore new markets & investigate new suppliers

E-commerce / tele-boutique for local artisans

Improving logistics, such as pre-arranging delivery and payment details before undertaking travel with goods

Icon-based telephone sets used to obtain market information from an interactive voice response system

Point-of-sale applications in remote tourist outposts

Recording and sending delivery confirmations

Transport vehicle fleet tracking

Delivery of multimedia content to remote areas (CD-ROM-type materials, video)

Live classroom instruction using videoconferencing facilities

On-line academic database & bibliographic access

Professional networking by educators through e-mail and online discussion groups

Radio broadcasts of educational content: environment, health, science

Submitting tests via e-mail Undergraduate degree

programs via distance education Web browsing for teaching

and learning materials

Health & Medicine Environmental Monitoring & Protection

Emergency Support & Disaster Relief

Delivery of health information to medical professionals in the field

Delivery of prevention-oriented health information to rural communities

Entry of patient data in remote databases

Access to medical specialists via tele-consultation

Teleradiology, remote ultrasound, ECG cardiac monitoring, etc.

Environmental information storage and exchange on the WWW

Remote monitoring & alarm Supervisory control and

data acquisition (SCADA) Telemetry (remote data

acquisition and recording) Satellite-based tracking of

bush fires

Calling police, fire, ambulance

Emergency assistance following vehicle breakdown

Locating & rescuing victims during an emergency

Radio broadcasts of urgent content: disease outbreaks, disaster warnings, instructions for refugees

Restablishing communications after a disaster

Remote monitoring to alert of potential natural disasters

Source: Collated from the FG7 case library

Table 2.1: Examples of specialized rural applications


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2.3 End-user skills and training

The need for basic literacy, computers skills and training in the use of information and communication technologies remains a significant barrier to uptake of telephone, e-mail and Internet-based applications in rural areas. Language barriers and the complexity of personal computer (PC) operation also hinder Internet diffusion.

Many innovative schemes have been devised in rural areas to overcome these barriers. Although not widely utilized, techniques such as voice mail, local translation of content, and icon-based telephones indicate that foreign languages and illiteracy are not necessarily barriers to the use of communications services, if the end user's needs are comprehended and addressed.

For example, radio broadcasters in Sri Lanka regularly search the Internet for interesting information and broadcast what they find to the community in the local language [26]. RiSTi, the research and development arm of Telkom Indonesia, developed a simple icon-based telephone set for use with an interactive voice response (IVR) system providing market and educational information [58].

When telephones are first introduced in very isolated rural and remote communities, villagers may require some time to become familiar with the basic functions of the telephone and the reasons to use it. Leaving the phone off the hook is one common error; developing culturally acceptable ways to converse by phone, with due attention to the need for brevity imposed by costs, is another.

Skills required for Internet access

The use of personal computers (PCs) to provide Internet access for educational, business and telemedicine applications requires on-site personnel with relatively advanced skill sets in computer operation and software configuration. A UNESCO-sponsored pilot project at teacher training colleges in Zimbabwe found that low computer literacy rates, high turnover in computer resource personnel and limited access to the PCs had a negative impact on use of the Internet for curriculum development, despite training programs offered on Windows 95, Internet browsing and e-mail [12].

Computer resource managers involved in the UNESCO pilot project identified PC hardware configuration as the most difficult task they faced. The absence of local expertise in computer operation and repair in the areas surrounding the colleges compounded the skills shortage. Given the difficulty with which computers were obtained, installed and maintained in these academic institutions, where basic literacy is a foregone conclusion, the problems associated with maintaining PCs in less specialized environments can be expected to be the same or worse.

2.4 Installation, operation & maintenance

Special shelters and temperature control systems are required to maintain electronic equipment and batteries in areas where temperatures routinely exceed 40º celsius or drop well below the freezing point. Inadequate and periodically impassable roads make travel between urban and rural areas for maintenance visits risky, time consuming and expensive.

The lack of mains energy supply in many rural and remote areas is a major obstacle to deploying telecommunications infrastructure. In addition to the cost of purchasing and installing an off-grid power system, the lifetime cost of maintaining the power supply must be absorbed by the telecommunications operator.

Problems with installation and maintenance of wire plant have prompted the widespread use of wireless systems in rural areas. Even with the use of wireless technology, however, unexpected


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logistical details encountered in the field can be responsible for significant cost overruns and delays of service activation.

For example, Telkom South Africa began implementing a large wireless local loop (WLL) rollout in underserved areas in 1997. A number of logistical challenges delayed the progress of the rollout, such as:

Finding the most cost-effective way to survey sites, select appropriate antennas, and construct towers and masts for a large number of wireless installations;

Negotiating rights-of-way with individual communities;

Ensuring that customers did not unplug WLL terminal equipment in order to use the outlet for other purposes;

Procuring sufficient solar panels, air conditioning units and equipment shelters from domestic manufacturers;

Assigning coordinates to subscribers to compensate for inaccurate census data and the lack of an address system;

Ensuring that the terminal equipment installed corresponded exactly to the identification numbers logged on the system.

Operating, powering and maintaining electronic end-user devices such as cellular phones and PCs in rural areas present additional challenges. Cellular phone batteries must be recharged on a regular basis. PCs require alternating current (AC) and protection from electricity surges in order to avoid damage to sensitive components. The facilities and expertise for handling these issues may not be available in rural areas, or they may be available but not at an affordable price for all but the largest businesses.

2.5 Information technology and microfinance institutions

The support of small business creation in poor areas through microloans - typically small loans of less than a few hundred dollars, given to poor individuals for the purpose of capitalizing small businesses - has revolutionized development practices around the world. Grameen Bank, the most widely recognized progenitor of the microlending approach, has developed a model for village phone businesses in Bangladesh.

In the FG7 case library, Grameen Telecom reported 950 village phones in service in Bangladesh as of November 1999iii [20]. In its first three years of operation, the Grameen Telecom experiment has been successful in creating profitable telephone service businesses in poor communities. According to a 1999 study, village phone operators earned a weekly profit ranging from -35 Taka (-USD0.069) to 683 Taka (USD13.42), for an average net profit of 277 Taka (USD5.45) per week [7].

Many microlending institutions look at Grameen as a model for new programs, and there is little question that other program developers in microlending agencies would be interested in the use of information technology products in conjunction with low-cost connectivity options to help fight poverty.

Dr. Muhammad Yunus, founder of the Grameen Bank microcredit program, floated a proposal before the World Bank in November 1999 to establish an "International Center for Information Technology To Eliminate Global Poverty." The technology and applications development functions of the proposed Center included:


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Creative design and implementation of prototypes of IT infrastructure, information systems and applications in the service of poverty elimination;

Conducting analyses of IT requirements for health, education and anti-poverty efforts;

Identification of the interfaces between the informational needs of the poor and IT capabilities, as the basis for proactive creation of applications.

Certain needs identified by Dr. Yunus are similar to those identified by Focus Group 7. One of the initial motivations for the Focus Group was the perception among ITU-D members that studying the technology was simply not enough to ensure a social benefit in rural and remote areas; one needed access to grassroots-level data on telecommunications applications and uses in order to design cost-effective technical solutions to real-world problems. Public telecommunication network operators also require partners at the local level to design and implement programs that encourage the beneficial use of the infrastructure that has been made available. Cooperation between microfinance institutions, the IT industry and telecommunications operators has the potential to provide significant benefits to all three parties.


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SECTION 3: APPLICATION AREAS

3.1 Community and small business development

A great deal of progress is being made in rural community and business development through the introduction of telephony, telecenters, e-mail, and radio broadcasts. Table 3.1 lists the case studies in the FG7 case library which focus primarily on community and business development applications. Case studies on access infrastructure designed to extend plain old telephone service (POTS) to rural and remote areas are included in this category.

In addition to the examples profiled in the case library, there are many other cases where the use of telecommunications has led to quantitative benefits for rural communities. For example, an infoDev-sponsored organization named PeopLink has established an e-commerce program allowing local artisans in developing countries to bypass middlemen and market their products directly to first world consumersiv. In the 1999 South African elections, electronic transmission of voter registration data and election results from rural and remote areas helped to reinforce South Africa's democratic institutionsv.

Two of the key requirements for community and business development applications were found to be local language support and the availability of relevant content. Relevant content, in particular, is extremely critical to the success of rural communications projects. A number of Internet- and e-mail-based discussion groups focus on the development of local content, such as the African web content e-mail discussion listvi and other independent discussions. The value of ICT equipment is realized only when the community is able to use it to achieve social goals.

3.2 Telemedicine / telehealth

Table 3.2 lists the reports in the FG7 case library focusing mainly on telemedicine.

One of the central lessons for the focus group on telemedicine has been that the motivation and commitment to telemedicine in developing countries is very strong. This motivation is often backed by a willingness to pay for systems which are expected to improve health outcomes and lower medical costs in the long run. Telemedicine services may be perceived as more of a necessity in developing countries than they are in the industrialized countries, resulting in a greater willingness among the former to change established methods of doctor-patient interaction and health care administration.

Telemedicine and telehealth applications are not limited exclusively to expensive, high bandwidth services. As long as the local medical community remains motivated and committed to implementing telemedicine and telehealth programs, there are a wide range of health benefits that can be achieved through remote patient monitoring and diagnosis, multimedia communication links between urban and remote facilities, and broadcast of health information over radio and television.


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Table 3.1: FG7 case library reports on community and small business development

Application Description Case study title

POTS Field trial of a VSAT-wireless local loop solution to provide service to remote areas requiring between 20-500 lines.

The Intelsat WLL/VSAT Rural Telephony Trial in Peru [24]

POTS Telephone service supplied in underserved areas using TDMA point-to-point microwave systems with DECT wireless local loop tails.

Telkom South Africa's TDMA / DECT Wireless Local Loop Deployment [16]

POTS Income generation for poor rural inhabitants through small village phone businesses financed by microloans.

Grameen Telecom in Bangladesh [20]

POTS Providing remote industrial sites with telephone service to attract and keep investors, businesses and employment.

The MPTC DCTS Pilot Project (Cambodia) [33]

POTS Providing telephone services to residents of 5,000 farming villages located throughout Thailand, using TDMA point-to-multipoint systems with PHS-based wireless local loop tails.

Rural Public Long Distance Telephone Project (Thailand) [44]

E-mail Describes a small rural telecenter based on a solar-powered handheld computer connected to a cellular handset.

"Type 0" Community Telecenters: Results of Suriname Case Study [19]

TelephonyData circuits

Improving the quality and number of telephone circuits connecting the capital of Paraguay, Asunción, with rural areas.

Paraguay: Rural Network Trial Using VSATs [39]

Data circuits Trial using wireless local loop systems to speed provision of international high-speed digital leased circuits.

Paraguay: Rural High-Speed Data Transmission Using WLL [38]

Interactive Voice Response

Telephone-accessed interactive voice response system providing information on agriculture, fishery, animal husbandry, health, education, home industry, tourism, and market prices.

IVR Application as a Voice-based Information Service for Rural Communities (Indonesia) [58]

TV, RadioPOTS

TV, radio broadcasting and POTS services supplied via a cheap, flexible, remotely-controlled satellite earth station.

Greenland's Large Remotely Located Satellite Earth Stations [31]

RadioInternet access

Use of community radio broadcasting stations as the focal point for local Internet access.

Internet Radio in Sri Lanka [26]

Telephonytraininge-commerce

Creation of rural e-businesses in conjunction with local multi-purpose community telecenters, enabling local businesses to advertise on the Internet.

Multipurpose community telecentre (MCT) pilot project (Honduras) [6]

Telephony, e-mail, Internet, IP broadcasting

Voice telephony and multimedia services delivered to rural and remote communities through a modular, IP-based wireless access system.

A Wireless IP Phone System for Rural Applications [45]

Internet accesse-commerceeducation telemedicine

Pilot projects of a business model aimed at supporting profitable business development by supplying basic renewable electric power, wireless communications and micro-finance to carefully selected villages.

Greenstar Community Centers for Economic Development [21]

ISDNCentrex POTS

Basic and advanced PSTN services provided through remote line concentrators (RLC) installed close to the areas of subscriber demand, thus reducing initial investment and copper loop costs.

Compact Remote Line Concentrator System for Rural Applications in China [11]

Source: FG7 case library


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The telemedicine reports in the FG7 case library describe two national approaches taken to provide medical care in rural and remote areas. South Africa is developing a national program of PC-based telemedicine stations to provide medical services such as ultrasound, pre-natal screening, tele-radiology and tele-optometry. The stations will contain some mobile components which can be brought into the field in a radius around the community centers where the telemedicine stations are housed [15].

Greenland's national telemedicine experience highlighted some of the factors that must be weighed when choosing the communications infrastructure to support a far-flung network. After experimenting with medical tele-consultations over ISDN lines, Greenland decided to implement a more flexible solution running on a dedicated IP-based network of routers connected with wireless links (a "routernet"). The network supports a web-style interface for information and data transmission as well as videoconferencing for live consultations [28].

Table 3.2: FG7 case library reports on telemedicine / telehealthApplication Description Case study title

Dissemination of health information

Health-oriented digital satellite radio broadcasting service designed to assist medical professionals in Africa, created by the WorldSpace Foundation and Satellife.

WorldSpace Digital Satellite Radio and Multimedia Services [57]

Cardiac monitoring and care

Transmission of electro-cardiogram (ECG) data via a simple telephone line, allowing remote diagnosis of a patient's heart condition.

Jordan: Transtelephonic electro-cardiogram (ECG) transmission [59]

Video consultations

Rural telemedicine services based on low-cost videophones, sustained without operational subsidies from the government.

Videophone Telemedicine Project in Indonesia [56]

TeleradiologyRemote diagnosis of high-quality medical images transmitted via ISDN lines to experts in major urban hospitals, nationally and abroad.

Implementation of Telemedicine in the Republic of Mauritius [47]

Remote access to medical specialists

Dedicated IP-based telemedicine network (known as a "routernet") connecting isolated towns with a primary care facility in the capital city. Services include live video consultations and store-and-forward of X-ray and ECG data.

Telemedicine in Greenland [28]

Home-based monitoring for the elderly

Regular monitoring of elderly patients in a remote village through videophone and health monitoring devices installed in their homes.

ISDN Telemedicine in Japan [27]

Primary and specialty health care in rural areas

Delivery of telemedicine services to the rural and remote population using mobile telemedicine work stations based in Multipurpose Community Centers. Planned services include teleradiology, pre-natal screening, tele-pathology and tele-opthalmololgy.

The South Africa National Telemedicine System Pilot Project [15]



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Under the auspices of the ITU, a pilot project using transtelephonic electro-cardiogram (ECG) monitoring devices was conducted in 1999 by the Guli Cardiological Clinic in Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia. The device, illustrated in Figure 3.1, typically costs between US$200 and US$700 and is used to record a patient's cardiac data, which can then be transmitted via a standard telephone line to a medical facility for evaluation.

Figure 3.1: Trans-telephonic ECG monitoring device

Source: "Telemedicine and developing countries - lessons learned," ITU-D Study Group 2, Document 2/116-E, 27 August 1999.

The pilot project in Georgia concluded that the ECG records produced in the trials were of sufficient quality for medical practitioners to interpret, even when transmitted over telephone lines considered by the users to be of low quality [52]. In Jordan, the use of similar trans-telephonic devices during a three-month trial resulted in savings of $167,500 by reducing unnecessary hospital referrals [59].

3.3 Distance education / tele-education

Basic literacy, education and vocational training are extremely critical to economic development. The potential benefits of distance education can hardly be overstated. Table 3.3 lists the case studies in the FG7 case library focusing primarily on distance education or tele-education.

Two reports in the FG7 case library indicate that degree programs offered to university-level students over satellite links lend themselves to cross-border distribution. Twelve island nations in the South Pacific jointly created a satellite-based university extension program called USPNet. Meanwhile, the African Virtual University is able to offer courses developed and taught by leading universities in twelve sub-Saharan countries.

The ITU uses distance education as a means of providing ongoing training to telecommunications engineers and regulators around the world. The ITU Human Resources Development program offers distance education courses through the Virtual Training Centre and the Global Telecommunication University/Global Telecommunication Training Institute (GTU/GTTI).


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Table 3.3: FG7 case library reports on tele-education / distance educationApplication Description Source

Teacher training and curriculum development

Promoting collaboration and skills development among the teaching community by electroncially linking educational planners, researchers, and teachers to each other and to educational resources through the Internet.

Creating Learning Networks for African Teachers [12]

Undergraduate degree programs

Provision of full-credit courses and complete undergraduate degree programs through videotaped and live classroom lectures which are broadcast from uplink facilities in the U.S. and distributed by partner institutions in sub-Saharan Africa.

African Virtual University of the World Bank [13]

Televised instruction

Televised instruction accompanied by interaction with instructors over telephone lines, supplemented by e-mail and web based materials, for students in rural and remote areas.

Rural Telecommunications for Development: Lessons from the Alaskan Experience [23]

University extension program

Closed satellite communication network implemented by the University of the South Pacific to support a full-scale distance education system for students on 12 islands, scattered over several million square kilometers in the South Pacific Ocean.

Distance Education System via Satellite Communication Network in the South Pacific USPNet [14]


3.4 Emergency support and disaster relief

The moderator of the FG7 discussion group on emergency support and disaster relief, Mark Wood, highlighted the need for advance planning on how to mitigate communications network overload under emergency or disaster conditions, such as pre-emption schemes in GSM and fixed wireline networks.

Only one case study in the FG7 case library focused exclusively on disaster relief (see Table 3.4). However, a number of case studies touched on prevention-oriented communications systems to alert inhabitants of potential disasters, communications systems that can be rapidly installed or restored after a natural or man-made disaster, and the basic utility of telecommunications for contacting police, fire, ambulance and other energency service providers.


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Table 3.4: FG7 case library reports on emergency support & disaster relief Application Description Case Study Title

Disaster communications

A multi-hazard disaster management communications system based on VSATs and VHF systems in the Indian state of Maharashtra

Maharashtra Communication Network For Disaster Management [10]

Delivering information to displaced victims

Distribution of over 7000 wind-up radios to victims of massive flooding in Mozambique for receiving vital information on weather, missing family members, government policy, location of landmines, disposal of carcasses, etc.

Emergency Communications in Mozambique [17]


3.5 Environmental monitoring and protection

Due to the last-minute unavailability of the discussion moderator for environmental issues, this online discussion was cancelled. No contributions on environmental applications were submitted to the case library. However, Table 3.5 below provides a number of environmental monitoring and protection applications which either involve or impact rural and remote areas.

Table 3.5: Examples of environmental monitoring and protection applicationsApplication Description Source

Storage and distribution of data on sustainable development

Establishment of a terrestrial and space telecommunication infrastructure supporting a distributed data system for the "Elbiiâ 21" integrated information system on the environment and sustainable development in Tunisia.

ITU/BDT Pilot Project No.1, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D-Projects/projects/environment/activities.htm

Remote monitoring of sea water quality

Establishment of a satellite-based network for the remote monitoring of sea water quality


Regional environmental information server

Internet information server on the environment of the countries of the South Mediterranean, providing data on water, air quality and solid wastes in each country.


National environmental web site

National environmental information web site to raise public awareness of environmental issues and reinforce the participation of civil society in environmental decision-making.

Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN). http://www.infodev.org/projects/ciesin.htm

Source: ITU, Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN)


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SECTION 4: ACCESS INFRASTRUCTURE

Nine types of wireless access systems, identified through the case studies and ITU activities, are presented in this section. These brief profiles are intended to raise awareness of new or recent developments in the field of access technologies for rural areas. Some profiles describe new applications of old technologies, such as using VHF radio or meteor burst communications to transmit e-mail. Others provide examples of recent technology combinations which have been tested in rural areas, such as very small aperture terminals (VSATs) integrated with wireless local loop systems. The remaining profiles introduce a number of technologies that are new to the rural marketplace or still under development, such as IMT-2000 and wireless router-based access systems. For a comprehensive technical treatment of wireless access technologies for deployment in rural and remote areas, the reader is invited to refer to the ITU-R Handbook on Fixed Wireless Access, and other ITU reference materials.

4.1 Narrowband packet radio

VHF and UHF radio systems have a long history of usage for voice communications in rural areas, due to their low cost and ease of installation. Nowadays, amateur radio clubs use narrowband packet radio systems to access the Internet in a wireless and inexpensive manner, benefiting from the volume production of radios specially designed for this purpose. Packet radio nodes are used in several countries to establish regional networks, such as the Central American Packet Radio Network (CAPRA), a wireless backbone extending from Guatemala to Panamavii.

A packet radio network uses a transceiver, a terminal node controller (TNC), an antenna and a power source as a basic repeater configuration. The radio transceiver used in packet radio is the same as that used in voice communication. Instead of a voice grade modem, however, packet radio uses the terminal node controller to adapt the signals between the personal computer (PC) and the transceiver, and to perform packet assembly and disassembly (PAD) as defined in the Amateur Packet-Radio Link-Layer Protocol (AX.25). Several manufacturers now produce TNCs at prices ranging from approximately US$50 to $400.

A second mode of TNC operation, known as Keep it Short & Simple (KISS), leaves the PAD functions to software residing in the PC. KISS mode allows the use of protocols such as transmission control protocol / Internet protocol (TCP/IP). It is also possible to establish packet radio connection to a server in serial line Internet protocol (SLIP) mode, and therefore use Internet browsers such as Netscape Navigator. These possibilities make it feasible to use packet radio for common Internet applications.

The programming and operation of the TNC is quite simple and can be done using a simple terminal program or a software application with a graphic user interface and other options that make terminal station operation much easier. Most of these applications are low in cost, ranging from US$30 to $60, and are easily downloadable from several Internet sites. For simple terminal stations, several DOS applications have been developed, allowing old PCs such as a 386 PC to be used as a terminal.

The bandwidth limitations of packet radio networks are inherent to the low frequencies employed and the channels allocated. For example, a standard 12.5 kHz channel supports a data transmission rate of up to 1200 baud. New TNCs are available which allow users to transmit and receive at higher data rates by processing multiple frequency channels simultaneously and using faster microprocessorsviii.


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Example of packet radio use in rural areas

The BDT is designing a pilot packet radio network to extend connectivity in the areas surrounding two multipurpose community telecenters (MCTs) in Central America. The MCTs, which were

deployed under the Valetta Action Plan (VAP), are located in two small villages containing 2,000 and 3,500 inhabitants, respectively. These villages are surrounded by smaller villages of less than 300 inhabitants which lack telephone service, electricity and adequate road access.

The packet radio network will link "mini-MCTs," consisting of 1-2 personal computers (PCs) in an outlying village, to one of the full size MCTs. Each mini-MCT will use a 38,400-baud packet radio node establish a wireless link to a server at the nearest MCT. The mini-MCTs will be capable of providing all of the standard Internet-based services plus a set of customized services developed by the project partners in the areas of tele-health, tele-education, agriculture, emergency management and community messaging.

The cost of a basic repeater station for the planned pilot network is US$2210. The cost breakdown by component, listed in Box 4.1, reveals that the communications equipment is responsible for only about half of the cost while the power source accounts for nearly 45% of the total expense.

4.2 GSM 400

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has established a regional standardix for the implementation of the Global System for Mobiles (GSM) in the 400 MHz band. The use of frequencies in the 400 MHz band, rather than the 900/1800 MHz bands, enables a wider area to be covered by each base station, as illustrated in Figure 4.2. Wide area coverage is better suited to low density rural populations spread over a wide area.


Box 4.1: Cost components of digital packet radio repeater for BDT pilot network (US$)

TNC $ 340.00

Radio $ 730.00

Antenna $ 100.00

Coax cable $ 50.00

Batteries $ 140.00

Solar panel $ 850.00

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Source: Ericsson

Figure 4.1: Comparitive range of GSM 400/900/1800

According to information submitted to the ITU by Ericsson, GSM 400 covers the same area as GSM 900 using approximately half the number of cell sites. A typical cell in the 400 MHz band has a 40 km radius when using 2-watt mobile phone units. Using higher gain or directional antennas, or with mobile phones of a higher power class, a longer range can be achieved depending on the geography and propagation conditions.

GSM 400 occupies frequency bands, indicated in Table 4.1, that were formerly allocated also in Europe and in many places for conventional Nordic mobile telephone (NMT) systems.

Frequency bands GSM 450 band:450.4 - 457.6 MHz uplink460.4 - 467.6 MHz downlink

GSM 480 band:478.8 – 486 MHz uplink488.8 – 496 MHz downlink

Frequency spectrum 7 MHz

Duplex separation 10 MHz

Carrier spacing 200 kHz

Coverage Up to several dozen kilometers

Source: Ericsson

Table 4.2: GSM 400 frequencies

GSM 400 systems are expected to have the capabilities to extend the range of both voice and high-speed data coverage in comparison to existing GSM systems. The specifications for GSM 400 include support for GSM Phase 2+ features such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), as well as Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution (EDGE). GPRS is the first implementation of packet switching within GSM, allowing users to send and receive data at rates up to 115 Kbit/s. EDGE increases the rate of data throughput over existing GSM infrastructure up to 384 Kbit/s using new modulation techniques. However, distance from the base station will remain an important factor in the provision of high-speed data services as the maximum achievable data rate falls the farther a terminal is located from the corresponding base station.


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As of July 2000, Ericsson and Nokia had announced plans to produce GSM 400 cellular systems, while Benefon had announced its intention of producing multi-band handsets. The systems infrastructure is scheduled to become commercially available in early 2001. Prototypes of tri-band GSM 400/900/1800 handsets, with support for high speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) and wireless application protocol (WAP), are scheduled for trials in the fourth quarter of 2000. The handsets are expected to be available in commercial volumes in the second quarter of 2001. Network infrastructure trials are planned for the fourth quarter of 2000 with commercial availability from the first quarter of 2001 [29].

4.3 Combined point-to-multipoint / wireless local loop systems

The use of TDMA-based point-to-point (PTP) or point-to-multipoint (PMP) radio systems with wireless local loop tails is a fairly recent phenomenon, having been introduced in rural areas over the past three to four years. The substitution of wireless systems for copper cables in the local loop helps reduce the maintenance costs associated with physical plant in rural areas.

The focus group received reports describing the implementation of point-to-point and point-to-multipoint systems with one of two wireless local loop technologies: Personal Handyphone System (PHS) and Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone (DECT). These technologies have been standardized on either national or regional bases, the former in Japan and the latter in Europe.

Point-to-multipoint / PHS wireless local loop

Two reports submitted to the FG7 case library described the implementation of integrated point-to-multipoint / wireless local loop (WLL) systems using PHS technology as the WLL component. The systems provide a completely wireless implementation between the local exchange and the subscriber telephone over very long distances. PHS was originally designed to offer enhanced wireless telephony services with limited mobility in urban and suburban areas. In recent years, it has been deployed as a fixed wireless local loop solution. In fact, there are more than 20 countries which have introduced PHS-WLL systems serving over half a million telephones, which enable more than 3 millions people to enjoy telephone, facsimile and Internet services.

According to the PHS MoU, the main features of PMP/PHS-WLL are as follows:

End-to-end wireless access solution;

Large service area of up to 540 km in a chain of repeaters;

Flexible system capacity expandable to 1,400 subscribers per base station;

High-quality service using 32 Kbit/s ADPCM;

Robust against natural disasters;

Low implementation and maintenance cost;

Solar cells are available for repeater (80W) and cell stations (40W).

The major specifications of PMP/PHS-WLL are summarized in Table 4.3.

(1) PMP TDMA System Typical parameters and valuesFrequency band 1.5 / 2.4 / 3.5 GHz

Voice coding 32 Kbit/s ADPCM (ITU-T G.726)Access method (modulation) TDM / TDMA (QPSK)

Interface with local exchange 2-wire analog or V5.2 digitalTransmission capacity 4 Mbit/s, 120 Time slots


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Number of subscriber lines per base station

Up to 1,400 subscribers (for call rate of 0.07 Erlang / sub.)

Subscriber unit 1 / 2 / 16 / 64 linesRadio hop distance Max. 45 km (Max. 12 hops)

Voice band data rate 9.6 – 14.4 Kbit/sUser data rate Up to 384 Kbit/s

(2) PHS-WLL System

Frequency band * 1,895 – 1,918 MHzVoice coding 32 Kbit/s ADPCM (ITU-T G.726)

Access method (modulation) TDMA / TDD (π/4 shift QPSK)Transmission capacity * 4 Time slots / RF (4RF / Cell station)

15 Traffic Channels / Cell stationNumber of subscriber lines per cell station *

Max. 128 Lines

Subscriber unit 1 line

Cell Range * Up to 5 km with 8dBi directional antenna;Up to 15 km with adaptive array antenna

Voice band data rate * Up to 14.4 Kbit/s

* These values are up to the manufacturers.

Table 4.3: Technical specifications of PMP/PHS-WLL (Source: PHS MoU Group)

As described in the FG7 case library, a pilot project of PMP/PHS-WLL was implemented in an industrial area of Cambodia. In Thailand, the Telephone Organization of Thailand (TOT) began employing PMP/PHS-WLL systems to provide unserved rural areas with 50,000 telephones in 1999. In the above examples, PMP/PHS-WLL was found to be an apt system for new residential and industrial areas as well as rural areas, due to quick implementation, low cost and the system’s flexible network structure.

A PMP/PHS-WLL system generally comprises base stations (BS), repeater units (RU), subscriber units (SU), cell stations (CS), and 2-wire fixed terminals (2W-FT), as illustrated in Figure 4.2.


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Figure 4.2 Network Configuration of PMP/PHS-WLL System (Source: NEC)

As shown in the figure before, the BS can directly access offices and apartments in suburban areas and the RU also accommodates subscribers in small villages. The combination of PMP and PHS-WLL allows flexibility in the formation of the access network to serve the requirements of suburban areas, towns and villages.

The time required for installing PHS-WLL systems is short compared with conventional copper cable networks, and the cost is relatively low (provided reasonable fees for the wireless spectrum). PHS and other wireless local loop systems have been shown to correspond with more efficient investment patterns as compared with regular cable plant (see Figure 4.3) because the modularity of the system allows for smaller increments of additional investment as the network is expanded.

Point-to-point / DECT wireless local loop

Telkom South Africa reported to Focus Group 7 on its use of point-to-point (PTP) time division multiple access (TDMA) systems with DECT stations in the local loop. DECT is a cordless access technology that has also been used as a wireless local loop solution in rural areas.

Telkom discovered several advantages to the use of DECT tails instead of copper on point-to-point TDMA systems in underserved areas, such as:

Speed of deployment is very fast, helping the company to meet annual roll-out targets;

Flexible service provisioning;

Wireless technologies avoid the problem of copper theft in outlying areas and reduce network exposure to vandalism, thus saving on material and labor costs as well as lost network time;

DECT technology is redeployable, which makes it attractive for use in fast-growing areas with significant levels of subscriber churn (cancellation of service by the subscriber). [16]

Low cost: an average of 500 US$ per line in urban areas (DECT) [4]

As reported in Telkom’s document, as well as in a Telkom WLL case study provided by Pyramid Research [4], the deployment of a WLL network faces a number of logistical challenges which delay the progress of the rollout, specially when the operator is unfamiliar with WLL deployments,


Figure 4.3: Investment increments of PHS-WLL vs. cable

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and independently of the chosen radio technology. However, nowadays, in SouthAfrica more than 140,000 WLL subscribers have been connected to the PSTN which makes, along with the DECT WLL deployed by Egypt Telecom (150,000 DECT lines), the first wireless technology used around the world for local loop applications. The PMP combination with DECT tails provides:

End-to-end wireless solution;

Large service area of up to 1,000 km, if necessary;

Flexible system capacity expandable to over 100,000 subscribers;

High-quality voice service using 32 Kbit/s ADPCM;

“Wired-like” services (voice, fax, voice band data, ISDN BA or internet access using V90 modem at 56 Kbps).

Furthermore, the DECT standard, initially developed by ETSI, has been recently selected by ITU as one of the five air interface for IMT-2000, providing data rate up to 2 Mbps and thus capable of supporting a wide range of multimedia applications.

Applicable frequency bands DECT link 1880 MHz – 1930 MHz [Note 1] PMP radio approach link 1.5 GHz (ITU-R Rec. 746 Annex-

1)2.4 GHz (ITU-R Rec. 746 Annex-2)3.5 GHz (CEPT/ERC/REC 14-03)

Voice coding 32 Kbit/s ADPCM (ITU-T G.726)Voice band data rate 9.6 – 56.6 Kbit/s Data transmission 64 – 512 Kbit/s [Note 3]Interface with local exchange 2-wire analog or V5.2 interfaceCell range up to 5 km [Note 2]Service coverage up to several hundred Km

Table 4.3: Technical specifications of PMP/DECT-WLL (Source: ETSI Standard)

Note 1; The current DECT bands available are 1880 – 1900MHz, 1900 – 1920MHz, 1910 – 1930MHz and several 25MHz sub-bands in the 3,5GHz band e.g. 3425 – 3450MHz

Note 2: Certain DECT suppliers are able to provide 16Km DECT WLL coverage around a base station thus making this solution ideally suited to providing WLL covergae in low subscriber density areas.

Note 3: ISDN BRA services (128kbit/s) services are able to be provided via the DECT WLL solution. 512 Kbit/s is the maximum data rate obtained with the standardised DECT Packet Radio Service (DPRS) with GFSK modulation.

The planning of DECT WLL systems is supported by mature computer-based tools which facilitate the planning of DECT networks in terms of the coverage footprint to be achieved, i.e. coverage of all subscribers indicated by the operator. This planning is required in all WLL networks (independently of the used radio technology) if the operator is to successfully deliver service to his customers, as Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) aims to provide an equivalent, or better, service to wireline. It is therefore necessary to perform the planning to ensure that the required Service Quality is achieved for all of the subscribers, whether they are 5 km or 16 km away from the DECT


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base station. Without planning the FWA service offered would be similar to a mobile one, i.e. service is not guaranteed.

DECT additionally offers the operator the benefit of having no radio channel planning. The same 20 Mhz band is utilised throughout the operator’s entire DECT network. The powerful Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA) mechanism, as defined in the ETSI DECT standards, handles the allocation of all the DECT radio resources internally to the system, without any intervention required from the operator.

As with all systems of this type, i.e. Point-to-Multipoint, the equipment is located in secure, weatherproof outdoor housings. Power can be supplied either via existing AC supplies or DC powers systems. Some examples of typical subscriber installations are shown below.

Solar panelRegulator & Battery

Antenna

WNT-S

Lightning

Figure 4.4: DECT Solar Powered Subscriber Installation

4.4 CDMA4501

Introduction

Spectrum in the 450 MHz band has long been also allocated for wireless services in several countries throughout the world, including a number of developing nations located in central and eastern Europe, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. The band is currently served with analog (NMT) technology and is generally underutilized and feature poor.

1 This section contains the case study prepared by Lucent and Qualcom, and submitted to the FG7 case library on 29 September 2000


= Licensed= Similar Band different duplexing

= CNetz= NMT on a limited basis

DECT AC powered subscriber Installation

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Figure 4.5: The 450 MHz Footprint

A trial is currently (4Q 2000) underway to demonstrate the use of CDMA technology in and around the 450 MHz band. This effort is identified as cdma450. The use of frequencies in the 400 MHz band, rather than 850 MHz or 1900 MHz, provides wider coverage from each base station. The comparative range of cdma450/850/1900 is shown schematically below.


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Figure 4.6: Relative Range of Cdma450/850/1900

Specifically, cdma450 covers the same area as a CDMA system at 850 MHz using approximately half the number of cell sites. In applications where very extensive coverage is required, a software adjustment to timing parameters permits a range of up to 180 km under favorable conditions.

Importantly, CDMA can be easily accommodated in the current band and license structure that serves this spectrum. The band plan for cdma450 (shown in the table below) is consistent with the existing allocations for NMT-450 and provides about 2 x 4.5 MHz to the licensee. This allocation will support three CDMA 1.25 MHz carriers (with the appropriate guard bands). Accordingly, additional spectrum is not required and rechannelization is unnecessary. Moreover, the time and expense associated with reallocating spectrum and clearing bands occupied with other services need not be incurred.

Transmit Frequency Band (MHz)System Designator Band

SubclassMobile Station Base Station

A 0 452.500-457.475 462.500-467.475B 1 452.000-456.475 462.000-466.475C 2 450.000-454.800 460.000-464.800D 3 411.675-415.850 421.675-425.850E 4 415.500-419.975 425.500-429.975F 5 479.000-483.480 489.000-493.480G 6 455.230-459.990 465.230-469.990H 7 451.310-455.730 461.310-465.730

Table 4.4: IS-2000-2 NMT-450 Band (Band Class 5) Frequency Plan

The commonality of band plans between NMT and cdma450 technology will allow operators to gracefully overlay the existing analog technology with cdma450 systems. The transition to cdma450 can therefore be made consistent with market needs and economic constraints.

The use of CDMA technology is well suited as a wireless air interface for use in this spectrum. CDMA, which currently serves 65 million subscribers worldwide, will provide operators and their end users with significant improvements in:


BTS 1900 850 450

Comparative CDMARange (Not to Scale)

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- capacity

- coverage

- voice clarity

- call quality

- privacy and security

- power consumption

- infrastructure economics

- enhanced services/data services

- fixed wireless access

These improvements will allow operators that serve rural areas to provide improved services for their subscribers. For example, services that support medical care, or offer internet access with the potential for educational services and global market access for local small businesses, will be available.

Cdma450 will be implemented based on internationally recognized standards that offer packet data service up to 144 kbps, as well as a voice traffic capacity double that of previous generations of CDMA technology. Further, the use of state of the art technology will provide operators in these environments the benefits of continuing equipment availability and potential economies of scale derived from global deployment and common platforms.

Development and testing of cdma450 technology is ongoing. A demonstration trial is now being held in Hungary, with commercial availability scheduled for 2H 2001.

Further explanation of the use of CDMA technology in the 450 MHz band is provided below.

Operation Within Existing NMT 400 Bands

Cdma450 requires 1.8 MHz, including guard bands, to operate a single CDMA carrier, 3.0 MHz for two carriers, and 4.3 MHz for three carriers. NMT operators can, thus, operate one or two Cdma450 carriers in a 4.5 MHz allocation, while reserving spectrum for NMT 450 operation. In an all-digital network, three CDMA carriers can be operated.

Coverage

Cdma450 significantly exceeds the coverage capabilities of NMT 450. Achievable maximum path loss values in cdma450 networks operating at rated capacity with 200 mw mobiles are approximately 2-3 dB greater than those for NMT 450 systems operating under similar conditions with 1 W mobiles. This translates into 50 to 70% larger cell coverage than those attainable in NMT 450 networks. Those NMT operators deploying cdma450 networks as overlays on existing NMT 450 networks can do either a 100% overlay or a fractional overlay. Using a 100% overlay, cdma450 is provisioned in all existing sites in the overlaid service area, resulting in service quality that is superior to that of the existing analog system. Using a fractional overlay, cdma450 is deployed in as few as one out of two of the NMT 450 sites. This results in coverage equivalent to that of the existing NMT 450 network, with capacity relative to that available in a 100% overlaid network.

These coverage benefits are also available to operators who implement cdma450 systems in spectrum in which analog NMT 450 has not been deployed and where the spectrum may, therefore, be previously unused.


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Radio Performance

The results of extensive performance simulation for typical radio environments demonstrate that the latest version of CDMA technology can be down-banded to 450 MHz without any loss in performance.

Capacity

Cdma450 capacity, in both full-band (all-digital) and single carrier deployments, substantially exceeds the typical requirement of 60 Erlangs per site. CDMA capacity with a single carrier will be 79.3 Erlangs per site; with 2 carriers, the capacity will be 158.4 Erlangs per site; and with three carriers, the available capacity will be 237.6 Erlangs per site. A comparison of the capacity of cdma450 with that provided by NMT is shown in the table below.

Parameters Cdma450 NMT BaselineErlangs per Sector per Carrier

26 NA

Total Erlangs per Sector 79 3.6Total Erlangs per Site 237 10.8Subs per Site (30 mE) 7900 360Percentage improvement overBaseline NMT network

2100%

Table 4.5: Cdma450 versus NMT capacity

Voice Quality

The voice quality of both the IS-127 8 kbps enhanced variable rate codec (EVRC) and the IS-733 13 kbps speech codec provide higher quality speech under clean conditions than standard 32 kbps speech. Both speech codecs also provide higher quality speech than 64 kbps PCM. Measured delay for these speech codecs is under 60 ms.

The following figure graphically illustrates the Mean Opinion Scores (MOS) for the Enhanced Variable Rate Coder (EVRC) that is employed in cdma450 networks compared to the MOS of traditional vocoders used in wireline networks. The test was performed in the presence of decreasing background noise volume (from 10 db to 30 db). The noise suppression features provided with the EVRC enhance the perceived voice quality experienced by the listener, allowing the EVRC to consistently score better than either of the wireline coding standards.


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Service Quality

Service quality is tied closely to both equipment implementation and radio network design and implementation. However, the service quality targets typically stated by operators are quite reasonably supported by cdma450.

Regulatory Compatibility

There are no known issues with regulatory approval for operating within existing NMT 450 licenses, or for obtaining type approval.

RF Compatibility

It has been demonstrated that there exist no problems with RF compatibility. In particular, coexistence between the digital and analog systems is not a problem in systems with 100% digital overlay (digital sites co-located with analog sites). In systems with fractional overlay, distance guidelines need to be followed to ensure that terminals do not operate in CDMA mode at too great a distance from CDMA base stations. In systems with cdma450 coverage over part of the service area, certain guard zone guidelines need to be followed to ensure that terminals do not operate in CDMA mode too far away from CDMA base stations. These guard zone guidelines are no more restrictive than those required for any digital technology.

Roaming and Handover - Infrastructure Support

National roaming and international roaming between cdma450 and other CDMA-based systems operating in other bands has been considered. This can be done using a Home Location Register (HLR) that is common between the systems. Current numbering plans can be maintained, and home network services can be supported in visited networks, to the extent that the services are offered or available in the visited network. Further, ongoing efforts within the ITU are engaged in the development of standards that will support network to network interconnection (NNI). These standards will describe the interface that will permit roaming between systems that support ANSI-41 and GSM-MAP networks.


4.0

3.5

3.0

10 20 30

G.711 PCM

IS-127 EVRC

G.726 ADPCM

“toll quality”

MOS

Figure 4.7: Acoustic Signal to Noise Ratio (dB)

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Minimum Services/Feature Support

The cdma450 solution offers a wide range of features and services substantially exceed the requirements for bearer services, supplementary services, Wireless Intelligent Network (WIN) services, and other related services.

Standards Base

Cdma450 is based entirely on an existing standards base. The air interface is based on IS 2000, and the network on TIA/EIA-41. Standards have been developed that describe the use of IS 2000 with a GSM-MAP network. Such an arrangement has been considered and could be made available subject to market demand.

Evolutionary Implementation

Dual-mode deployments could be used to accomplish evolutionary network implementations, which would allow the operator to deploy cdma450 technology within their existing coverage area, while providing digital subscribers area-wide service through the use of dual-mode, dual band mobile stations (MS). This can be accomplished while reusing a substantial portion of existing network infrastructure and also continuing the use of the existing subscriber directory numbers.

Open Standard

The cdma450 product is being built in accordance with ITU recognized standards available to any manufacturer. Using an open standard will allow operators to realize the benefits associated with a competitive market for the supply of infrastructure and subscriber equipment.

Handset Functions, Capabilities and Features

Ultimately, plans call for the development of dual mode, dual band cdma450/GSM 900 handsets, thereby allowing roaming between areas served by these technologies.

Time-to-Market

Cdma450 mobile phones, base stations that operate in the NMT 450 band, base station controllers, and analog to digital network elements will be commercially available in 2H 2001.

Wireless Local Loop Services

Cdma450 systems also support fixed Wireless Local Loop (WLL) services

Smart Antenna Support

Numerous Smart Antenna technologies currently under development have the potential to enhance the already superior coverage and capacity of cdma450 systems. However, it is believed that the superior capacity and coverage attainable by using cdma450 technology without smart antennas will significantly delay the need to adopt Smart Antenna technology. Switched beam antenna systems can further increase capacity. In addition, an auxiliary pilot is included to fully support beam forming and smart antenna applications.

Security and Fraud Prevention

The cdma450 solution offers substantial facilities for security and fraud prevention. The technology supports comprehensive solutions for validation and authentication of subscribers, as well as signaling message encryption and voice privacy. Fraud detection and prevention are also supported.


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4.5 Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs)

VSATs are playing a growing role in the provision of telephony, distance education and data services in remote areas. VSATs are small satellite communication earth stations, typically less than 5-6 m in diameter. They can be installed directly at the user's premises and left unattendedx. Due to falling equipment prices and the large footprint offered by communications satellites, VSATs are being deployed in areas where terrestrial telecommunication infrastructure is either uneconomical or too difficult to install.

Prices for VSATs have fallen rapidly over the past decade, allowing manufacturers to expand sales of VSAT systems into low-end applications such as rural telephony. In the early 1990s, prices typically ranged from US$10,000 - $12,000 per VSAT. As of the year 2000, entry-level VSAT telephony stations typically start at US$3500 - $4000, although prices can range anywhere between US$2,000 and $8,000, depending on the volume purchased and added features.

The costs of acquiring and operating VSAT systems continue to be driven down by:

Economies of scale. Annual VSAT sales have increased five-fold since 1990;

Falling prices for electronic components, such as application specific integrated circuits (ASICs);

Efficiency improvements in satellite transmission techniques;

Lower space segment costs due to increased competition;

Use of high-power satellite spot beams which allow smaller ground terminals.

In addition to remote terminals, many VSAT network configurations employ a Master Hub, consisting of a large earth station antenna, network management facilities and associated systems. The cost of a new Hub station can be as much as US$500,000 to $1 million. According to at least one case study in the FG7 library, considerable savings can be achieved through the use of existing or refurbished Hub stations.

VSAT-based rural telephony

Peru's Fund for Investment in Telecommunications (FITEL) submitted a case study to the FG7 library describing a 1998 tender to award a 20-year, subsidized concession to provide rural payphones in the remote regions of Tumbes, Piura, Cajamarca and Amazonas. Participants in the tender submitted "bids" indicating the lowest government subsidy they would be willing to accept in order to build the network.

The solution selected by FITEL was based on VSAT technology. The cost-reducing principles behind the winning solution, submitted by GVT del Peru, included the following:

VSAT-based thin route telephony with up to three voice channels per VSAT;

Low power consumption of approximately 40 watts per VSAT, since 90% of sites lacked commercial electricity supply;

Star network topology using 7.6m Hub station in the capital city and a 1.2m or 1.8m remote VSAT station in each town;

Use of simple, rugged payphones with a prepaid system instead of coins, to reduce the number of field trips to payphone installations;

Centralized network management system at the Hub.


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Based on this configuration GVT del Peru proposed to cover the costs of building, installing and operating the network with a government subsidy of US$4,909,292 over five years. The remaining costs would be born by the operator and recovered from service revenues. According to FITEL, the subsidy amounted to public expenditure of US$11 per inhabitant.

Integrated VSAT / WLL systems

Intelsat provided the Focus Group with a set of general guidelines for selecting the most economically feasible VSAT solution based on the population distribution, subscriber density and other characteristics of the rural area being served (see Table 4.4). According to Intelsat's findings, a VSAT connected directly to subscribers is most likely to be a viable solution when serving geographically scattered populations requiring fewer than 20 lines per site.

VSATs with wired or cordless local loop systems are generally feasible for clusters of population requiring between 20 and 300 lines per site. Finally, Intelsat's studies showed that VSAT plus macrocellular wireless local loop (up to 30km radius) could be a feasible solution to serve medium density populations requiring more than 300 lines per site.Table 4.4 Comparison of rural VSAT telephony solutions

Variables VSAT alone VSAT & Wired Loop

VSAT & Wireless Loop / Cordless Access Solution

VSAT & Wireless Macrocellular Solution

Population Distribution

Scattered Concentrated & clustered

Clustered Uniform

Subscriber Density

Very low (<0.1/sq. km)

Low to medium Low to medium Medium (<0.1/sq. km)

Traffic Capacity (erlang)

Low Low to high Low to high Low to medium

Applications Voice, data, fax Voice, data, fax Voice, data, fax Voice, data, faxData Rate Broadband Broadband Up to 64 Kbit/s Narrowband, up to

14.4 Kbit/sMobility None None Limited YesArea of Coverage < 300 m < 5 km < 5 km < 30 kmPower Supply - Equipment

Low (<250 watts) Medium (< 600 watts)

Medium (< 700 watts)

High (~2000 watts)

Power Supply - User Terminal

None None Low (< 5 watts) Medium (< 30 watts)

Voice Compression

Selectable (4.8 to 32 Kbit/s)

Selectable 32 Kbit/s 8 to 13 Kbit/s

Access to Switching Facilities

Required Not required Optional Not required

Terrain Insensitive Sensitive Insensitive (No tower required)

Insensitive except tower installation

Installation Rapid (2-3 days) Lengthy (wired network)

Rapid (2-3 days per site)

Rapid except tower installation

Maintenance Very Low Medium Low LowSecurity issues Antennas and

shelterWire theft and shelter

Antennas and shelter

Antennas, tower and shelter

Regulatory Issues VSAT license (C or Ku band)

VSAT license Cordless and VSAT licenses

Cellular and VSAT licenses

IS-2000-2 NMT-45 Band (Band Class 5) Frequency Plan (Source: Intelsat)

After demonstrating the technical feasibility of using wireless local loop to extend VSAT coverage in Senegal and Peru, Intelsat argued in the FG7 case library that significant cost savings could be


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achieved by integrating VSAT and wireless local loop systems. The areas identified by Intelsat for cost savings included:

Integration of the base station controller functionality into the VSAT baseband processing functionality

Simplification of local switching within the VSAT/WLL terminal to avoid use of the space segment for local calls

Elimination of channel banks and digital-to-analog signal conversion

Ruggedization of the equipment

Intelsat's pilot studies and research resulted in the creation of an integrated VSAT/DECT solutionxi. According to Intelsat, the integrated product is about 40% less expensive than it would be if all of the components were purchased off the shelf. A basic system includes a VSAT antenna, RF electronics, voice channel units, WLL base station, control unit for WLL frequencies and equipment for analog to digital conversion. The basic integrated system is priced in the range of $20,000 to $25,000. However, this price does not include DECT end-user terminals or any of the hub equipment.

4.6 Satellite-based Internet access

Many rural areas lack a terrestrial infrastructure link for dial-up access to the nearest Internet point of presence. Accessing the Internet via a two-way satellite connection may be a feasible option in these areas. However, as with all satellite-based applications, the ongoing costs of the space segment can represent a considerable expense. Therefore it is important to carefully model the lifetime costs of the total solution for comparison with terrestrial connectivity options.

Space segment pricing is based on complex formulas involving many parameters, which makes it difficult to generalize about the ongoing costs of two-way, satellite-based Internet access. The sections that follow are provided as starting points for examining the ongoing costs involved in establishing rural Internet access via satellite links in various regions of the world.

In the absence of any case studies on the feasibility of a two-way VSAT network for rural Internet access, two hypothetical scenarios were created with the assistance of an ITU-D Sector Member. Both scenarios are based on the establishment of a large, two-way VSAT network providing Internet access to rural telecenters in Southern Africa. This scenario was created for the Focus Group 7 report and does not refer to any actual network, existing or planned. However, the space segment prices are accurate approximations with respect to the given system specifications and the June 2000 transponder market.

Scenario #1

The hypothetical network for which transponder capacity is being priced in this scenario employs a 7 meter hub station and 1.8 meter dishes at the remote end. When fully operational, it will comprise between 50 and 200 remotes. Resource-sharing arrangements among the telecenters will result in an even distribution of users accessing e-mail and web browsing services across the working day. Two to ten users are expected to be logged on at any one time, a user being defined as a PC attached to any remote terminal sharing the inroute. In addition to web browsing and e-mail, the satellite-based Internet link will also be used to deliver video material for distance education classes.

Using a simple cost model, the carrier pricing structure detailed in Box 4.2 is possible.


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Three year contract Cost per month (USD)Real-time video delivery via Internet DVB* carrier 2 Mbit/s $28,000Inroute Carrier (shared by 50 - 200 remotes) 64 Kbit/s $4,000Outroute Carrier (shared by 50 - 200 remotes)International Internet Connection (64/128 Kbit/s) 128 Kbit/s $4,500

Total (approx.) $36,500Box 4.2 Carrier pricing structure for satellite Internet access, Scenario #1

* Digital video broadcasting

Discussion: Since the backhaul circuits gaining access to the Internet backbone in Europe or the U.S. constitute international links, the price component associated with these satellite links constitutes a large portion of ongoing service costs. It is possible to combine the video carrier and the outroute together via correct equipment choice and save approximately 10% on the combined bandwidth cost. If it is acceptable to stream the video at a slow rate to a storage device at the remote site (typically at night) for later viewing, the video carrier can be eliminated altogether and the outroute used to deliver the video data.

Scenario #2

An alternative architecture would employ a master hub with direct access to the Internet backbone, in conjunction with slave hubs in the main cities of the region being covered. All remote terminals would be capable of talking to both master and slave hubs, and the master hub would manage traffic throughout the entire network. A typical cost scenario for this type of network, servicing 1,000 heavy users out of a master hub in Europe, is detailed in Box 4.3.

3-year contract including Teleport and Internet Port Cost per month (USD)Outroute of 3 Mbit/sInroutes 2 x 128 Kbit/s

Total (approx.) $200,000

Box 4.3 Carrier pricing structure for satellite Internet access, Scenario #2

Discussion: In this case, the international backhaul is reduced to backbone port charges only and ALL remote terminals will be able to share bandwidth, taking advantage of fewer carriers, staggered time zones (and usage peaks), and optimised intranetwork routing. A further advantage is that countries wishing to start with less than 50 terminals and no hub can start service using another country's video material, then grow seamlessly and as needed from one terminal to a full in-country network. As an alternative to a full national hub, a terminal can be configured as a local point of presence (POP) and non-real time video delivery system, and service local Internet traffic and video via the master hub. This choice would depend upon the volume of local traffic to international traffic.

Two-way satellite Internet access service providers

There are several two-way, satellite-based Internet access providers beginning to offer service in North America, Europe, and Latin America. Tachyon, a U.S.-based wholesaler of two-way satellite IP links, began offering service in January 2000. Two digital satellite television networks in the


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U.S., Hughes (DirecTV) and EchoStar (DISH network), are also planning to offer two-way satellite Internet service.

The implications of these market developments for rural areas of developing countries are not uniform. Plans by several of the above operators to offer service in parts of Latin America are well advanced, and some services will be available in Mexico, Brazil and a few other countries this year. Rollout of similarly priced services in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia are not guaranteed and may depend on the level of demand perceived by each service provider.

Brief profiles are provided of two 2-way satellite Internet access providers with actual or expected commercial availability in the year 2000.

Tachyon

Services:

Two-way, satellite-based IP communication links;

Services targeted at ISPs for resale to business market;

Multiple service levels (downstream/upstream Kbit/s): 400/64, 800/128, 2000/256;

Announced partnership with mPower3, Inc. to jointly market satellite Internet access and Internet-based agricultural data systems in the U.S. and U.K. (March 2000).

Technology:

Proprietary software optimizes TCP/IP traffic for transport over satellite links (no spoofing);

Satellite capacity is leased from Ku-band geostationary satellite operators;

A customer access point consists of a satellite dish (<1 m), a satellite modem and an indoor server with a 10/100BaseT Ethernet interface;

All hardware and software components, except the satellite modem, are commercial off-the-shelf products.

Availability:

North America and Europe as of January 2000;

Mexico and Central America service awaiting regulatory approval as of June 15, 2000;

Service launch in Brazil and Argentina planned by the end of 2000;

Other regions: Service rollout will depend on demand.

Retail pricing*:

Customer access point: approximately US$5000;

Installation and setup: between US$950 and $1250;

Monthly service fees: see Table 4.5.

* For U.S. customers as of July 2000.


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Gilat-to-Home (GTH)

Services:

two-way satellite-based, broadband, asymmetric Internet access

speed "on par with other broadband offerings such as ADSL and cable delivered service"xii

500-channel digital television on same dish

Technology:

24x36-inch (approx. 61x91cm) VSAT dish equipped with a satellite transmitter and receiver

PC equipped with GTH transmit/receive cards or satellite modem

Cables between roof-mounted dish and PC, TV

Availability:

Scheduled to begin 4Q 2000 in the United States

Latin America commercial launch planned in 2001

Pricing:

Not available

Broadband satellite low earth orbit systems

Anticipated broadband satellite internet operators Skybridge and Teledesic are planning to deliver broadband, two-way satellite services on a near-global basis. However, these operators are not expected to launch service until 2003, and therefore no reliable pricing information is available on which to assess the implications for rural applications.

Skybridge, an Alcatel-backed project, is scheduled for full capacity service in 2003. As of June 2000, efforts were underway to merge the planned Teledesic system with New ICO, formerly known as ICO Global Communications. Investor Craig McCaw, a founding partner in Teledesic, announced plans to combine the two companies. According to Teledesic, New ICO services are expected to begin in 2003.

4.7 Digital satellite radioxiii

Digital direct-to-receiver satellite audio technology was developed by the WorldSpace Corporation, founded in 1990 by Chairman and CEO Noah A. Samara. The company delivers digital audio and multimedia programming directly to listeners using specially manufactured, portable receivers. Since its inception, WorldSpace has been serving developing countries by making audio broadcasts available where there are no terrestrial radio stations. In May 2000, the WorldSpace Foundation and Satellife announced a new health-oriented broadcasting service designed to assist medical professionals in Africa, beginning with Zimbabwe, Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia.


Table 4.5: Sample U.S. retail pricing for Tachyon.net satellite IP linksService Level Monthly service

fee (US$)Downstream / upstream data rates (Kbit/s)

Monthly traffic cap (GB)

Excess traffic fees

1 $300 400 / 64 1 $0.20 - $0.30 per MB2 $450 800 / 128 1 $0.20 - $0.30 per MB3 $650 1000 / 128 2 $0.20 - $0.30 per MB4 $900 2000 / 256 3 $0.20 - $0.30 per MB

Source: A Tachyon.net retailer

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WorldSpace developed the technologies that lie at the heart of the satellite service in cooperation with other companies including Alcatel Espace, Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte Schaltungen, Micronas Intermetall, Matra Marconi Space, and SGS-Thompson Microelectronics. Digital satellite radio-enabled receiver sets were designed and built by four consumer electronics manufacturers: Hitachi, JVC, Matsushita (Panasonic) and Sanyo. The receivers are sold by distributors worldwide and typically retail at prices between US$200 and $400.

Upon completion, the WorldSpace network will consist of three geostationary satellites covering Africa, Asia and Latin America. The first two, AfriStar™ and AsiaStar™ , were successfully launched in October 1998 and March 2000, respectively. AmeriStar™ is scheduled for launch in 2001. The satellites use on-board processing to enable program reception from many stations. Content providers can uplink their programs via the traditional hub method, sending broadcast signals to a central location for transmission to the satellite. A second mode enables use of smaller, more mobile Feeder Link Stations (FLS). Onboard processing technology converts these multiple signals at the satellite, combining them into a single downlink signal before transmitting them back to earth.

The WorldSpace digital satellite system broadcasts in the "L" band frequencies (1467-1492 MHz), which were allocated for Direct Audio Broadcast Service at the World Administrative Radiocommunication Conference of 1992.

4.8 Meteor burst communications

Meteor burst communication is a type of wireless transmission based on the reflection of signals off small meteors entering the Earth's atmosphere. With the meteors' angles of incidence, illustrated in Figure 4.4, large regions can be covered with minimal infrastructure installations. A meteor burst communications systems manufacturer, MBC Europe BV, described the technology in a contribution to Focus Group 7 as follows:

Meteor burst or meteor scatter refers to a unique means of long-distance communication via reflections by ionized gas trails in the upper atmosphere (Figure 4.4). These gas trails are generated by the burn up of small meteors impacting on the Earth's atmosphere. The typical meteor trail is only available for a few hundred milliseconds.

Figure 4.4: Radio reflection by ionized meteor gas trail

As communication is only possible in very short intervals, the term 'burst' is introduced. Due to the nature of the phenomenon used, waiting times are introduced. The delay between the appearance of two consecutive trails ranges from seconds to minutes, depending on the time of year, the time of day and design factors of the system.

Most meteor scatter applications operate between 30 and 50 MHz. At frequencies below 30 MHz absorption and noise, both galactic and artificial, increase drastically. Furthermore, the antenna size and cost increase at lower frequencies. The data communication capacity will decrease when frequencies above 50 MHz are used,


Source: MBC Europe BV

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as the average burst length decreases with increasing frequency. Additionally, radio and television allocations preclude meteor burst operation above 50 MHz.

Using meteor trails, a meteor burst base station (MBBS) can communicate with remote stations, either mobile or fixed, over distances between 500 and 1500 km. Using meteor burst technology, a few tens of base stations provide the infrastructure for the pan-European data communication network. The data exchange between a base station and a remote station is initiated by a test signal (probe) transmitted into space by the base station. If and when a meteor trail is in the right position and reflects the signal back to Earth, the remote station answers the call by the base station and data is exchanged. The base stations are connected directly to the Data Center of the network. [55]

For Europe, the harmonized frequency band for meteor scatter applications is allocated to 39.0-39.2 MHz. In total, four operators can be assigned within this harmonized band.


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Rural applications

Current users of meteor burst technology include the U.S. National Water and Climate Center (NWCC), a unit of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. NWCC has been using meteor burst communications since 1975 to collect data on climate and snowpack levels for use in forecasting the water supply. NWCC's meteor burst communications network, called SNOTEL, consists of over 600 sites in 11 western U.S. states including Alaska. The sites are unattended, solar-powered, and designed to require maintenance only once per year, since many are located in remote mountain

Figure 4.5: Applications of meteor burst communications

watersheds accessible only by hiking, skiing or helicopter.

According to MBC Europe, a wide range of rural applications, illustrated in Figure 4.5, are possible using meteor burst communications. Meteor burst communications can be used to provide short messaging service (SMS) and mobile e-mail transmission in areas outside GSM coverage. As of July 2000, the first meteor burst communications network in South Africa was being installed for Marstec, an engineering and consulting company.

4.9 IMT-2000

International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) is the ITU vision of global mobile access in the 21st century. IMT-2000 is an advanced mobile communications concept intended to provide telecommunication services worldwide regardless of location, network, or terminal used. The first fully commercial systems are scheduled to start service in 2001.

IMT-2000 specifies radio (air interface) and core network (CN) technologies while providing for evolution to the third generation of mobile services by incumbent operators. The frequencies identified for IMT-2000 systems worldwide are below 3 GHz. At WARC-92, 230 MHz of spectrum was identified for IMT-2000 in the bands 1885 - 2025 MHz and 2110 - 2200 MHz. At WRC-2000,


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the 806-960 MHz, 1710-1885 MHz and 2500-2690 MHz bands were identified for the terrestrial component of IMT-2000 with the same status as those identified by WARC-92, with some differences between additional boards, below 1 GHz and between 0-3 GHz.

IMT-2000 and Developing Countries

The ITU envisioned IMT-2000 with a number of features that would lower equipment costs by:

Specifying a highly modular design enabling incremental network investment;

Establishing well-defined radio and network interfaces to allow full interoperability of equipment from different manufacturers;

Creating a global market to realize economies of scale.

In addition, there have been a number of steps taken specifically for the benefit of developing countries.

IMT-2000 features geared for developing countries: Use of bands under 1 GHz High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS) Fixed wireless access

Bands Under 1 GHz

The cellular base stations of the IMT-2000 systems operating around 2 GHz provide a radius of coverage somewhat comparable to other digital cellular systems in the 1800-1900 MHz range. Supporting the evolution of first and second generation systems and recognizing that the cost to cover sparsely populated rural areas would be less expensive with larger cell sizes, WRC-2000 identified additional spectrum for IMT-2000 under 1 GHz, –Region 1 (862-960), Region 2 (806-892/928-960), Region 3 (610-960) MHz (Resolution 224 WRC-2000).

High Altitude Platform Stations

WRC-2000 approved the use of High Altitude Platforms (HAPS), at an altitude of 20 to 50 km, as base stations within the terrestrial component of IMT-2000 in the 2 GHz bands (Resolution 221). HAPS, as they are known, can potentially be used to provide service to a large footprint together with a dense coverage. The resolution specifies operating parameters to ensure that such base stations do not cause co-channel interference in neighboring countries, as well as the development of appropriate regulatory provisions for coordination with the countries.

Fixed Wireless Access

The ITU-R Working Group on Developing Countries (WG-Dev) of Working Party 8F (WP8F) is examining adaptations to IMT-2000 radio technologies for fixed wireless access. WP8F is actively interested in input from developing countries in this process. WG-Dev is preparing a handbook on the deployment of IMT-2000 systems.

Timeframe for IMT-2000

The ITU-R Recommendation M.1457 that provides the IMT-2000 radio interface specifications was approved at the Radiocommunication Assembly 2000 in May 2000. Future updates of this ITU-R Recommendation are expected to be made regularly, and to include support for packet switching and IP protocols. Commercial IMT-2000 systems are expected to go into operation beginning in the


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second half of 2000 in Japan, in Europe in the first part of 2001, and with much of America following in 2002.

Implications of IMT-2000 for Rural Areas of Developing Countries

There are many opportunities for the application of IMT-2000 technologies to improve universal access in rural, remote and underdeveloped areas of developing countries. The cost of IMT technology will depend on economies of scale resulting from the global market's acceptance of IMT-2000 systems.

A number of factors make it unlikely that IMT-2000 technologies will be deployed in rural areas of developing countries until, at least, the year 2005. The first round of commercial IMT-2000 systems are designed to utilize the 2 GHz band identified at WARC-92, along with the 800 MHz/1900 MHz bands currently used by some second generation mobile systems. Systems operating in the higher frequency bands are ill-suited for rural areas due to their small cell sites. Based on anticipated market demand, some equipment suppliers are planning to provide IMT-2000 base stations for fixed and mobile systems operating in bands below 1 GHz around mid 2001, which could be used to support service in rural areas.

4.10 Wireless routers and voice over IP (VOIP)

While traditional telephone networks rely on a local exchange to route a call along a set path from its origin to a destination, packet switched networks such as the Internet break up the data to be transmitted and send it in the form of packets along various routes to the destination. Whatis.com offers the following explanation of how a router functions in a packet switched network:

On the Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that determines the next network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. The router is connected to at least two networks and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router creates or maintains a table of the available routes and their conditions and uses this information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet.xiv.

It is technologically possible, using available products, to establish an access network in rural and remote areas using routing technology rather than circuit-switched local exchanges. When combined with wireless technology in the local loop, such a network may provide an affordable solution for rural areas, particularly when the primary services delivered over the network will employ multimedia. Router-based local access networks using TCP/IP in the network and transport layers (OSI layers 3 and 4) can be interconnected with the public switched telephone network using gateways that comply with ITU-T Recommendation H.323.

Real-time voice calls can be transmitted at any quality over closed router networks with the use of voice over IP (VoIP) software. The quality of service can be maintained on a properly configured and managed network because traffic is controlled from the subscriber to the PSTN gateway by a single service provider. In this way, a router-based access network using IP is more analogous to a local area network (LAN) than to the global Internet.

Routers have been installed with wireless access technology in rural areas of developing countries, typically for the provision of Internet access in schools and businesses where wireline infrastructure is unavailable. One example is the Manguzi Wireless Internet project in South Africa, which won an award in the 'Equal Access' category of the Stockholm Challenge Award 2000xv. In the Manguzi project, the router software was installed at a rural telecenter with a wireless connection to sites approximately 5 km away.

Example of router-based wireless access system


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Focus Group 7 received one report, submitted by KDD Corporation, describing the use of a wireless router network to create an IP-based, wireless local loop option for developing countries. Although this solution has been implemented in Japan, it had not been field tested in rural areas of developing countries as of the report's submission in May 2000.

KDD's solution was designed to support basic voice communications (telephony) using standard telephone sets, with full interconnection to the PSTN. The main features of KDD's system are described below using excerpts from the case library. The inclusion of this material is for instructional purposes only and does not imply any endorsement or recommendation by ITU of the products described therein. There are a large number of options in terms of wireless router equipment, wireless access to routers, and voice over IP (VoIP) software, firmware and hardware. The technical features of KDD's system should not be taken as necessarily representative of all wireless routers or IP telephony systems.

A Wireless IP Phone System for Rural Applications [45]

The wireless IP phone system is based on the integration of two advanced products: the RTB2400 wireless router and the IP Phone 323. The RTB2400 is manufactured by Root, Inc. (www.root-hq.com/e/index.html), a Tokyo-based R&D firm founded in 1993, of which KDD-NS is a shareholder. IP Phone 323 is a software product of OSI Plus Corporation, a KDD subsidiary (www.osiplus.co.jp).

The wireless IP phone system consists of multiple Client Stations managed and monitored by computers located at a Center Station as illustrated in Figure 4.6.

At the Client Station, the wireless router equipment consists of an antenna, a main unit, a junction unit, and interconnection cables. An IP phone gateway (GW) is connected to the router equipment using a 10Base-T interface. The gateway contains two ports, each of which connects a standard telephone set.

The main Center Station houses a management server for the IP phone network and an SNMP server to monitor the wireless router network. As with a PC-based local area network, an SNMP server is required for each unit system (comparable to a closed LAN). However, the IP phone management server has the capacity to serve a large number of unit systems and more than one is unlikely to be needed. Therefore local Center Stations can be established at appropriate client sites, such as public office buildings, to house local SNMP servers. A client site is used in order to make the full set of wireless routers available to support customer lines.

Wireless IP phone concepts

Services


Figure 4.6: Minimum configuration of a KDD wireless IP phone system

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The wireless IP phone system provides voice communication as its basic service. Since the network system is based on IP technology, however, normal PCs and other electronic devices which use TCP/IP can easily be operated on the network. With these devices, the network can provide the community with multimedia communication services including data, video, audio and image transmission as well as open or closed broadcasts. These multimedia functions may be used to enable rural access to distance education, health information services, and e-commerce, as well as telephony.

Flat Connectivity

In general, wireless LAN systems form hierarchical connectivity among nodes as shown in Figure 1-a of Figure 4.7. In contrast, the RTB2400 wireless router, which functions as a receive/transmit terminal as well as a repeater, creates a LAN system with flat connectivity, as in Figure 1-b. In Figure 1-a, for example, there is only one path between nodes 1 and 8, namely 1–3–8. In Figure 2-b, there are several paths between nodes 1 and 8, such as 1–2–7–8, 1–4–3–10–9–8, and so on. The network in Figure 1-b shows greater resiliency, more flexible node locations,

and better traffic distribution than the network in Figure 1-a. This flexibility is crucial in a rural wireless system, particularly where the radio conditions are unstable.

Wireless Coverage

The wireless router provides circular coverage with a radius of 3km (5km using a uni-directional antenna) when configured in compliance with Japanese regulations on frequency use and maximum transmission power. In general, if higher power is allowed the wireless reach can be much longer. Depending on the location of the client and the geographical conditions of the area, users may select the most suitable types of antennas to achieve the desired coverage. Presently 5 types of

antenna are available. Additional types are under development.

Unit System

In a closed LAN, a maximum of 100 slots are available for registration of the wireless routers. In practice, however, the number of routers in a closed LAN depends on various factors including traffic volumes, traffic types, traffic profile, and the locations where routers are set. In the case of IP phone use, it is generally recommended that the number of client routers be no more than 20 in order to maintain communication quality. Thus, a system of 20 client routers (supporting up to 40 client handsets) can be regarded as a unit system for expansion of the network.

PSTN Interconnection

The wireless IP phone system can be easily interconnected with public networks through the use of a transit gateway (TGW) installed at the local exchange. All necessary signal conversions, including PSTN signaling, are performed at the TGW. The transit gateway gives rural communities the means to communicate with the outside world, in addition to its own community members, when connection to the PSTN or another network is available.

Cost considerations

To estimate the per-line costs of the system, we consider a community that requires 200 telephone lines for voice communication. Five complete unit systems, each supplying up to 40 telephone lines, would be required. Based on this rough configuration, the estimated cost per telephone line is shown in Figure 6. Due to the fixed cost of the Center Station, the minimum network size presents a very high cost of US$16,085 per line. But if the network is expanded, cost per line is significantly reduced to $2644 as network size reaches 198 lines.


Figure 4.7: Hierarchical vs. Flat Connectivity

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While the Center Station equipment accounts for 40% of the total cost of the first unit system, it contributes only 16% of the total cost of five unit systems. Based on the current pricing assumptions, the central management and monitoring stations would account for a lower limit of approximately 9% of total system cost once the fixed costs are fully distributed, while the Client Station equipment accounts for the remainder.

The per-line cost of US$2,644 is higher than that reported by the 1999 APT Handbook2 for most rural communication systems. The reported cost of various rural communication systems ranges from US$500 to US$750 per line. But the lower unit costs are generally based on full utilization of large capacity networks. If a very small network is proposed, for example 40 client terminals, [KDD considers] the wireless IP phone system to be competitive.

According to Root Corporation, the manufacturer of the wireless router described in the case study abbreviated above, a new version of the wireless router is scheduled to reach the market in April or June of 2001. The new version will present a TCP/IP platform allowing transmission speed of 11 Mbit/s at a shorter range of 1-2 km, as well as the present speed of 2Mbit/s over 3 km. It will also employ a UNIX operating system with a view of quality of service (QoS) in the transmission level and Ipv.6.


Figure 4.8: Estimated Cost per Line of KDD's wireless IP phone system

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SECTION 5: RENEWABLE AND OFF-GRID ENERGY SOLUTIONS

5.1 Introduction

An adequate and reliable energy supply is a prerequisite for the deployment of any modern telecommunication or information technology (IT) system. This is a fundamental problem in rural and remote areas of developing countries, where approximately two billion people lack electric service. A recent World Bank report, entitled Meeting the Challenge: Rural Energy and Development for 2 Billion People, found that even the liberalization of energy markets in developing countries would most likely fail to provide rural areas with electricity. The expense associated with extending the electricity supply grid into rural areas is often prohibitive.

Beyond the reach of the electricity grid, most people rely on kerosene or other fuels for lighting needs and dry cell batteries for low-power appliances such as cassette tape players and small FM, AM, and short wave radios. Many individuals rely upon privately owned, decentralized power sources such as diesel or gasoline-fueled generator sets and small solar energy systems. In addition, many communities have established their own rudimentary electricity generation and distribution systems. Such community generation and distribution systems are known as mini-grids. To an end user such as a business or household, a mini-grid serves energy needs in the same way as a regular grid, possibly at times being subject to voltage fluctuations, power outages or blackouts.

Fuel-powered generator sets, although common, have some drawbacks with regard to electricity provision in rural areas. Ensuring regular delivery of fuel to rural areas can be difficult, particularly remote and inaccessible areas. Equipment that is associated with continuous or long operating hours is often incompatible with affordable use of generator sets, whose operating costs are directly related to the number of hours of operation. Finally, the power requirements of many small systems are far below the scale at which generator sets can be cost-effective.

In contrast, renewable power technologies such as solar photovoltaics (PV), small wind-electric turbines, and micro-hydro systems are often ideal for providing electricity in rural areas, ranging from a few watts up to thousands of watts. In particular, PV systems can cost-effectively provide modest amounts of electricity, from a single watt-hour per day to several kilowatt-hours per day, and for lower life-cycle cost than alternatives such as dry cell batteries and generator sets. Personal power generation technology, such as clockwork induction motors, can power small devices such as radios.

Each renewable power technology has its own limitations, technical restrictions and maintenance requirements. Inappropriate designs or overly-standardized system choices, where local resources or actual usage were not taken into account, have led to some failed systems. However, even when the restrictions are taken into consideration, renewable energy sources can have significant advantages over fossil fuels in terms of cost, reliability, and sustainability.

In addition to the above advantages, renewable energy technologies also offer environmental protection advantages, although these may generally not be readily apparent or deemed important at the local level in rural areas of developing countries (e.g. certain emmissions such as CO2 are only a problem at the global level). Increased attention worldwide to environmental concerns including greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change has led to an increased focus on renewable energy generation technologies worldwide. For example, the United States, Japan and the European Union have made political commitments to help over one million homeowners convert to solar energy by 2005. Such developments can accelerate progress in developing country use of these technologies, by catalyzing technological improvements and increases in manufacturing capacity, thereby reducing costs.


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5.2 Powering telecommunication and IT systems in rural areas

The electricity needed to power remote telecommunication infrastructure sites can range from less than 100 watts to tens of kilowatts. In the past two decades, the most important use of renewable energy and hybrid systems in telecommunication has been for off-grid telecom repeaters. Due to the high cost of the repeater equipment, the critical role the repeaters play in the larger telecom networks, and the unattended nature of the systems, these power systems have been very carefuly designed. The organizations involved - both telecommunication companies and their turnkey power system providers - have paid great attention to power system design. Using highly capable and experienced engineers, they have designed and sized power systems for extremely high levels of reliability (99.9%).

In most instances, the power requirements for end-user terminals are much lower, as is the cost of the power systems. Cellular handsets and cordless telephones typically consume less than five watts of power. These devices can be powered using dry cell or lithium ion-type batteries. Table 5.1 lists the power requirements of some other typical communications, video and computing devices.

The rest of this section will discuss off-grid or mini-grid power generation technologies and their potential use to power telecommunication installations in rural and remote areas. Since, in general, the telecommunication system provider will not be able to determine electrification choices for entire regions or communities, the focus will be on dedicated off-grid power systems for installations using telecommunication and/or information technology systems, such as schools, clinics, telecenters, enterprises, households, community and government buildings.

5.3 Balance of system components

A complete power system may include, in addition to a generator, a battery charge controller; a bank of batteries; an inverter; safety disconnects; fuses; a grounding circuit; supporting structures; and wiring. Taken together, these items comprise the balance of system (BOS) components. The combined expense of the BOS components can often exceed the price of the generator.

Three BOS components, described below, have a particularly strong effect on the life cycle performance and maintenance requirements of the power system: batteries, charge controllers and inverters. Many problems associated with renewable energy systems in developing countries can be


Table 5.1 Power requirements of communications, video and computing equipment

Device Typical power consumption

(watts)

Typical use per day (hours)

Voltage rating / type

Black and white TV 12 - 18 2 - 6 12V / DC or 110/240V / ACColour TV 40 - 120 2 - 6 110/240V / AC or 12V / DCVideo casette player 20 - 40 1 - 4 110/240V / AC or 12V / DCRadio cassette player w/speakers 5 - 80 2 - 12 6 - 12V / DCDesktop computer and monitor 350 - 500 4 - 8 110/240V / ACLaptop computer 20 - 40 4 - 8 9 - 18V / DC or 110/240V /

ACTwo-way radio (standby) 5 - 10 12 variesTwo-way radio (transmitting) 40 - 50 0.5 - 3 variesFax/answering machine 30 - 60 continuous 110/240V / AC

Sources: World Bank, Users' Guide to Off-Grid Energy Solutions. (http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/energy/off_grid)

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traced to these devices. For example, using a low quality square-wave or modifed sine-wave inverter instead of a sine-wave inverter may result in alternating current (AC) that generates electrical interference, exhibited as a buzz on telephone lines or glitches in the operation of information technology (IT) devices.

Batteries

A battery stores energy created by a generator. During normal operation, a percentage of a battery's capacity is lost in each charge-discharge cycle. The battery's capacity eventually drops to a level at which it must be replaced, and costs are incurred to dispose of the battery in an environmentally safe manner. The costs of environmentally safe disposal must be taken into account in figuring the lifetime costs of any battery-powered energy system in rural areas.

The battery industry has developed deep-cycle (also known as deep charge) batteries that have a very low sensitivity to cyclic operation, and are usually guaranteed to last between five and ten years. However, deep-cycle batteries are expensive and must usually be imported.

According to the FG7 case library, problems with the use of batteries in rural areas include maintenance issues as well as "unscrupulous" use of battery power by unidentified individuals2. If it is not certain that routine battery maintenance will be performed, it is advisable to select sealed "maintenance free" batteries for which it is not necessary to check electrolyte levels and add electrolyte from time to time.

Charger Controllers / Regulators

In order to ensure that battery installations last over several years, a high quality charge controller must be employed. A charge controller, or regulator as they are also known, protects the battery against overcharging and deep discharging, either of which can be harmful to the battery's functional life span. If a battery is fully charged, the regulator reduces the current delivered by the generator, thus preventing the battery from overcharging. If the battery has discharged itself to a critical level, an electronic circuit in the charge regulator known as a low voltage disconnect (LVD) prevents power being supplied to the load appliances, until the battery has recharged to a pre-set level. Some charge controllers support remote monitoring or data logging of batteries and overall system performance, enabling the identification of malfunctions or theft of power.

Inverters

Batteries, solar panels, wind turbines and other off-grid energy sources provide direct current (DC). Modern office equipment, including personal computers, fax machines and photocopiers, require alternating current (AC). A device called an inverter is used to convert low voltage DC power into standard AC power (120 or 240V). Inverters for remote power systems come in various sizes and range from 100 watts, for powering notebook computers and fax machines, to 11,000 watts, for powering an entire house or small commercial operation.

5.4 Solar power

The term solar power refers to the production of electricity through photovoltaics (photo = light, voltaic = electricity). Photovoltaics (PV) are a semiconductor-based technology which convert light energy into direct current (DC). PV modules, also known as solar panels, contain no moving parts, consume no conventional fuels and provide electricity without creating pollution at the point of production3.

2 "Rural Communications in India: Technology Options," submitted by the Asia-Pacific Telecommunity on 30 September 1999.

3 As with all semiconductor manufacturing, some pollution occurs as part of the fabrication process.


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A PV module, the basic building block of a solar energy system, comprises a number of small photovoltaic cells that are electrically connected together. PV modules are manufactured with electrical outputs ranging from a few watts to more than 100 watts. A typical PV module measures about 0.5 square meters (about 1.5 by 3.5 feet) and produces about 75 watts of DC electricity in full sun. Such a module has a lifetime of over twenty years, and retails for approximately US$300 - $400. In general, PV systems are most economical when modest levels of electricity--a few watts to hundreds of watts--are required in an area where grid service is not available.

Numerous companies are working on developing lower cost PV technology through improved manufacturing processes, improvements to traditional crystalline silicon technologies, and more recent innovations such as advanced thin films. Portable solar-powered charging systems such as solar-powered battery rechargers, folding PV modules and flexible PV modules are now available to power notebook computers, radios, cellular phones, and other portable electronic devices.

Due to the interest in the U.S., Europe, and Japan in promoting domestic household use of solar power, several companies, with government R&D support, have developed self-contained solar panels which combine the PV module, inverter and electricity meter. These panels were designed to supply the AC power requirements of a domestic household. Products based on this concept are starting to emerge on the market. In general, however, these are intended for use in buildings connected to electric utility grids.

Installation and maintenance issues

The performance of photovoltaic modules is affected by temperature conditions. Some modern charge controllers support a feature called maximum power point tracking (MPPT), which can make a considerable difference to the performance of solar panels in cold weather. Traditional charge controller designs transfer the current from the solar cell directly to the battery, without taking into account the change in performance of the solar cell due to environmental conditions4. Charge controllers equipped with maximum power point tracking are capable of optimising the current transfer and this can account for significant overall performance improvements.

Pre-assembled systems can reduce the risk and expense associated with sourcing individual components and installing a custom configuration. They typically comprise a photovoltaic array, deep cycle batteries, charge controller, sine wave inverter, and remote monitoring capabilities. Factory pre-testing helps ensure compatibility and reliability of the individual system components, tending to increase overall system integrity. Pre-assembled power systems range in size from small (100 to 300 watt hours per day) to large (5 to 20 kilowatt hours per day). Small pre-assembled power systems providing 100 to 200 watt hours per day are available for less than US$1000.

5.5 Wind energy

Wind power is based on transformation of the wind's kinetic energy into electricity. This is achieved through the use of a wind turbine. As the wind flows against the rotor blades of the turbine, the blades are forced to spin. As the rotor blades spin they turn a shaft that is attached to an electric generator. Through a process of induction, the generator converts the physical movement of the rotor shaft into electricity. All wind systems consist of a wind turbine control system, a tower, wiring, and the "balance of system" components: controllers, inverters, and/or batteries.

The United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory has estimated that a 1.5-kilowatt (kW) wind turbine will meet the needs of an installation requiring 300 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per month, in a location with annual average wind speed of 6.26 meters per second (14 miles per hour).

4 For a technical discussion on MPPT – please see Homepower Magazines, issue 72, September 1999 <http://www.homepower.com>


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Wind-based power systems are highly susceptible to location and placement. In many developing countries national governments have compiled wind resource maps. These maps can show whether wind speeds in a given area are sufficient to justify investing in a wind power system. Where such maps are not available, data on the available wind resource must be obtained by measuring wind speeds at the proposed site over a period of time.

Wind energy systems are non-polluting and help reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Although wind energy systems involve a significant initial investment, lifetime costs can be competitive with conventional energy sources. In general, wind turbines cost less than their equivalent solar counterparts, though in terms of electricity generation they are more restricted in where they can be placed.


Unlike solar panels, wind turbines are relatively straightforward in terms of maintenance in case of failure. With the exception of computer-based turbine management systems, routine maintenance can generally be accomplished by a skilled mechanic. Most wind turbine manufacturers are small engineering companies and their warranties range from 3 to 20 years, depending on the size of the turbine.

Wind turbines are normally equipped with automatic speed-governing systems to keep the rotor from spinning out of control in very high winds. Some systems use computer control to automatically deploy and retract air brakes in response to changing wind speeds. Older systems may require manual setting of brakes.

Lightning can also be a problem. Most manufacturers would advise disengaging the system from the battery installation during lightning storms. In areas where lightning is common this makes wind power systems less attractive.

5.6 Micro-hydro power

Hydro power systems generate electricity using the same principle as wind turbines. The force of flowing water is used to turn a propeller or water wheel connected to an induction motor, producing an electric current. Micro-hydro power systems are generally defined as hydro power systems that produce less than 100 kilowatts (kW) of power. Micro-hydro systems of less than 1 kW are often referred to as pico-hydro systems.5

Of the numerous factors which affect the capital cost of micro-hydro systems, site selection and basic layout are among the first to be considered. System configuration is designed according to the available head of water. Most micro-hydro installations are of the “run-of-river” type, meaning simply that they do not have any sizeable reservoir (i.e. water is not stored behind a dam) and produce electricity only when the water provided by the river flow is available. Electricity generation in such cases ceases when the river dries up.

The environmental impact of micro-hydro power systems is usually small. When water resources with sufficient head and flow are available, micro-hydro can be a least-cost source of electricity for community mini-grids and individual facilities. Other advantages of micro-hydro power systems in rural and remote areas include:

Safe and secure investment demonstrated over several decades;

5 The distinctions between large hydro, small hydro, mini-hydro, micro-hydro and pico-hydro are not consistent from country to country or user to user. The most common definition of micro-hydro is that of systems producing less than 100 kW.


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Potential for individual, co-operative or communal ownership, requiring only semi-skilled labour and co-operative administration for maintenance and construction;

A short gestation period when local materials and skills are available;

Flexibility in adapting to quick load variations;

Long lifespan.

Some micro-hydro power systems are more than 70 years old and still in operation. Micro-hydro power systems are suitable for many rural areas that can not easily support solar or wind energy systems. Because they are reasonably simple to maintain and cost less to deploy than either solar or wind systems, micro-hydro systems represent an attractive option for powering rural telecommunication systems.


Micro-hydro systems are not technically complex and can often be implemented and managed by the local community. However, micro-hydro systems typically require more frequent maintenance than comparable wind or photovoltaic systems. The bearings and brushes of micro-hydro systems require regular maintenance and replacement, and the turbine must be kept free of debris.

Because the turbine in a micro hydro installation is generating power all the time, batteries are constantly recharged. This means that micro-hydro systems are suitable for use with shallow-cycling batteries, such as automotive batteries, without undue performance constraints. Expensive deep cycle batteries will make little difference in overall system performance. In a micro-hydro installation it is important that the length and diameter of the feeder pipe are specified to suit the water situation and the turbine, otherwise the installation will be inefficient.

5.7 Hybrid power systems

Hybrid power systems use both renewable energy and fossil-fueled electricity generation techniques. A hybrid power system combines a renewable energy system - typically based on photovoltaics or wind generation - with battery energy storage, an inverter, and an engine-driven generator set fueled by diesel, gasoline, or another fuel. For many years the leading application of hybrid systems has been for telecom repeaters, although they are also used for other industrial applications such as cathodic protection of pipelines, isolated research stations or facilities, and in some cases for community electrification.

One of the basic concepts behind a hybrid system is that for large power requirements in a remote area, the size and costs of the renewable energy system and the battery bank can be significantly reduced if one incorporates modest use of an engine-driven generator. For example, FG7 members have seen how TELE Greenland has developed a computer-controlled hybrid power system which has been used to power unmanned radio relay repeater sites in Greenland for the past five years. Using solar panels with output power of 4800 watts each, batteries with capacity of 4500Ah, and a small diesel generator, TELE Greenland's hybrid power concept was designed to support remote telecommunication installations with power consumption of up to 1.5kW.

TELE Greenland's system includes a power distribution board, supervision equipment and a fuel tank. The batteries are the primary power supply for the telecommunication equipment and are charged from the solar cells on a daily basis. The size of the batteries and the number of solar panels are dimensioned according to the power requirements of the equipment. The system elements are combined to minimize both fuel and maintenance costs: in the FG7 case library, TELE Greenland reports fuel savings of 80% compared to a permanently running diesel-powered generator, and has reduced maintenance trips to once per year. Depending on configuration, the price of a complete system as described above generally falls between US$215,000 and US$470,000xvi. In the case of


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TELE Greenland, such a system can be economical due to factors including high transportation cost to very remote areas (both of fuel and personnel), and the higher savings from reduced maintenance due to higher industrialized country wage scales.

5.8 Clockwork power

In the early 1990's, British inventor Trevor Baylis invented a clockwork radio. The radio, now produced by the Freeplay Energy Group, opened the door for clockwork-based induction motors to be used to power small devices. Requiring only that a special form of spring be manually wound, clockwork power has been used by Baygen as a replacement for batteries in small devices such as radios and flashlights.

The Baygen Freeplay radio

The Baygen Freeplay radio marks one of the first commercially successful communication devices to employ a clockwork mechanism as its power supply. It is sold on a commercial basis for approximately $75 and has been used extensively by a number of non-governmental organisations as a key element in community education programmes and disaster relief efforts. For instance, Freeplay radios were distributed by the National Institute for Disaster Management (INGC) in Mozambique so that flood victims could receive broadcasts on the weather, health issues, government policy toward the displaced, missing family members, the activities of the aid community and the location of land minesxvii. In Ghana, the government distributed 30,000 Freeplay radios so villagers could follow elections. Rotary International is currently examining the use of Freeplay radios for information broadcasts about child immunisation in a project in India.

How a clockwork radio works

Image : courtesy of the British Council and Freeplay, South Africa.

Power is input into the radio by turning the external crank handle. As the handle turns, a spring inside the radio is wound up tightly on to a spool and in the process converts the mechanical energy gained from turning the handle into a reservoir of potential energy. The spring itself is a type of tensator, or constant force spring, which unwinds at a constant rate.

Powering other devices

In 1997, Freeplay publicly demonstrated that it was possible to use the micro-generator part aspects of the radio to power other devices such as small laptop computers. In the field trails and public demonstrations in Africa, an Apple Computer E-mate educational computer was used as the test computer system. An Apple E-mate, though now withdrawn and no longer for sale, corresponds closely with a Jupiter class handheld in terms of power requirements and overall functionality (for a definition of "Jupiter class," see Section III, Part C2). By winding the generator for one minute, the Apple E-mate computer - excluding the display terminal - was supplied with sufficient power to operate for 30 minutes. While the trials and public demonstrations publicised the potential of


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clockwork power to support the operation of small appliances other than radios, Baygen has neither released nor announced any other clockwork-powered communications devices.

Spanish inventor Gerardo Alsina Perez demonstrated a small manual current generator for recharging a mobile phone in Geneva in April 2000. Perez' micro-generator works on an induction principle but differs from Baylis's design and patents. Although at this point in time the generator has yet to find a manufacturer, its development highlights the continued application of clockwork power supplies to meeting the power requirements of small devices.


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SECTION 6: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

6.1 Introduction

Rural programs in distance education, e-commerce and telemedicine have begun to exploit the capabilities of information technology devices to support a wide range of multimedia functions, including digital image manipulation, voice communications and messaging services. However, as illustrated in the case library, the personal computers typically installed to support these services are difficult to operate and maintain in rural areas. Therefore, Section 6 was designed to provide a brief introduction to different types of information technology devices and applications which, if adapted by manufacturers and systems integrators, would present fewer obstacles than PCs to effective use in rural areas.

The three interrelated concepts of information appliances, client/server applications, and thin client systems characterize the devices and applications introduced in this section. Following a brief introduction to these terms, sections 6.2 to 6.11 provide examples of devices in these categories, illustrating the features of primary interest to rural areas of developing countries. Because many of the devices are likely to be unfamiliar to ITU-D members, pictures and product descriptions have been included in each section. The inclusion of product information is purely illustrative and does not represent any form of endorsement by the ITU. In the selection of products to use as illustrations, preference has been given to the products of ITU-D Sector Members wherever possible.

Information appliances

An appliance is an instrument designed to accomplish a single task simply and efficiently. For example, kitchen appliances such as food blenders and mixers perform specialized tasks in order to save time and simplify the cooking process. The term information appliance is increasingly used to describe a diverse range of IT products and multimedia terminals which help to simplify and reduce the costs of information processing. Information appliances reduce costs by optimizing design for a

particular application and eliminating unnecessary components from the software and hardware configuration.

The world market for information appliances comprised 11 million units in 1999, according to IDC’s Review and Forecast of the Worldwide Information Appliance Market, 1999-2004. Worldwide sales are anticipated to grow rapidly and reach 89 million units in the year 2004 (see Figure 6.1). Information appliances typically possess features that are well-suited to the needs of rural areas, such as low cost (often US$200 - $300 per unit), battery powered operation and simplified operating systems. Manufacturers of certain types of information appliances offer software development kits for use with their products to encourage third parties to develop new


Figure 6.1: Forecast of worldwide information appliance units

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end-user applications. These tools can be used to implement local language-, audio- and icon-based interfaces.

Client/server applications

The client/server model of computing describes an approach to organising and distributing resources within a networked computer environment. Clients are computing terminals or software applications that send requests in order to access computing resources on a network. Servers are the computer or software counterparts which respond to client requests and provide the resources. The order of process of interaction between client and server is governed by a formal set of rules known as a protocol. Normally, the connection between client and server requires several different protocol suites staked upon one another.

The client/server approach developed in the 1980s to reduce the costs of deploying and managing networks of personal computers in corporate environments. In a local area network (LAN), a server is typically a centralised computer configured for the management of network resources including files, databases, and software applications. PCs connected to the network act as clients and request access to resources managed by the server, including physical devices such as printers.

The client/server model is also the design paradigm of the World Wide Web (WWW). In the context of the WWW, a software application known as a ‘browser’ is the client. Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer are two examples of Web browsers. As illustrated in Figure 6.2, the browser requests images, text and other stored information from servers connected to the Internet. The process of submitting and handling requests is governed by the Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

One advantage of the use of client/server applications in rural areas of developing countries is that the server need not be physically located in a rural area. Instead, the server can be located in an urban area, domestic or international, where electricity, maintenance and configuration services can be provided at lower cost.


Figure 6.2 Client/server interaction in the World Wide Web

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Thin client systems

When applied to computing devices, the term “thin” generally indicates reduced processing or reduced overall computing capabilities. In this report, the term ‘thin client system’ is used to refer to specialized client/server systems in which nearly all processing is executed on the server, and the client terminal functions mainly as a display device. The concept is similar to the old model of mainframe computing, which allowed multiple users using “dumb” terminals to share mainframe resources. However, recently developed thin client systems arose from very different economic motivations than the old mainframe systems and make use of new protocols.

Most thin client systems available today have been developed as substitutes for PC-based local area networks (LANs) in order to reduce the ongoing support costs of corporate networks. Thin clients typically include a monitor, keyboard and mouse but do not have hard disk drives, floppy disk drives or CD-ROM players. The client terminals use a simplified operating system, while the network servers use a specially modified operating system that manages the processing tasks and transmission of display information to each of the clients.

As a result of these features, thin client terminals require less power to operate and are considerably simpler to maintain than standard PCs. In a PC network, new software applications and upgrade packages must be installed on each hard drive individually, either by a support technician or by complex network management software. In thin client systems, new software is installed once on the server and is instantly available to all users. This feature reduces the support costs associated with software installation, upgrading and troubleshooting. In addition, manufacturers claim that thin client terminals require fewer hardware upgrades over their lifetime because most of the upgrades will be done on the server.

Low-power thin clients installed in rural areas as part of a wide area network (WAN) could provide numerous cost advantages over a comparable PC-based network. The advantages would be increased if the main server could be installed in a location where technical infrastructure exists. At present, a major obstacle to this type of deployment is the high bandwidth connection required between the thin client and the server. Depending on the system, connectivity links equivalent to Ethernet speeds - ranging from 10 to 100 Mbit/s - may be required between the server and the client terminals. There are case studies of thin client systems that have been deployed on wide area networks, but these have used typically used dedicated, high-speed leased line connectionsxviii. Such networks would be too expensive to provide the basic communications systems required for the most remote and sparesely populated areas, but they could potentially address the needs of large-scale distance education, training and telemedicine networks with end users located in both urban and rural areas.

6.2 Integrated telephone / e-mail devices

A new generation of phones and fax machines support e-mail and limited Web access services along with traditional telephony applications. Because the form factors and service offerings of these devices are similar to those of traditional telephones and fax machines, they may lend themselves to use in teleshops which already offer phone or fax services. Integrated fax/e-mail devices could support the introduction of e-mail as a low cost messaging service in rural areas as well as expand the service offerings of a teleshop or telecenter without much additional capital investment.

As of July 2000, integrated fax/e-mail machines were not widely available in most developing countries. This presents a problem because import procedures add expenses, and the manufacturer's warranty may not be valid if the product is used outside the country for which it was developed. In addition, when e-mail and limited Web functionality are added to a telephone or fax machine,


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connection and authentication procedures must be established between the device and an Internet service provider. With these types of devices, Internet access is usually provided by a designated ISP affiliated with the device manufacturer or retailer.

Potential rural uses:

E-mail / messaging Real-time, interactive voice communication (telephony)

Fax

Price range: $350 - $550

Example of an integrated fax/e-mail device

The inclusion of product information below is purely illustrative and does not represent any form of endorsement by the ITU.

The Magic Vox E-mail from Philips Electronics N.V., pictured at left, supports the functions of a plain-paper fax machine, plain paper copier, digital answering machine, telephone, e-mail station and web page retrieval device. E-mail accounts, Internet-based fax transmission and web page retrieval services are provided by an Internet service provider affiliated with the product on the basis of a monthly fee. Although users cannot browse web pages on a

screen or follow hyperlinks, they can retrieve and print a web page by entering its URL (web address) in the fax machine display.

6.3 E-mail appliances

E-mail-only appliances allow users to send and receive e-mail, typically without attachments. They often have the capability of dialing up the e-mail provider at the touch of a button, and automatically disconnecting once e-mail has been uploaded or downloaded. E-mail appliances could be used in rural areas where low cost and minimal bandwidth usage are of paramount importance. When limited PC resources are utilized by a large number of individuals, several e-mail appliances may be installed for less than the cost of an additional PC in order to accommodate demand for e-mail and free up PC resources for other tasks.

To set up a pre-configured e-mail appliance, the user is required to insert batteries and plug in a telephone line. In contrast, setting up e-mail access using a personal computer (PC) requires the user to connect a hard disk drive, monitor, keyboard and mouse; boot up the hard drive; navigate the file management system; install e-mail software; configure connectivity options such as dial-up access number, modem rate and SMTP server; launch the e-mail software; initiate connection to the Internet service provider; and so on.


E-mail / messaging

Example of e-mail-only appliance



Source: Philips Electronics N.V.

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Mailstation from CIDCO, Inc.

Source: CIDCO, Inc. (http://www.mymailstation.com/)

The MailStation is an e-mail-only appliance designed for residential use. The product, pictured above, was launched in the United States on 1 July 2000. The device retails for approximately US$100, but requires a monthly subscription fee of US$10 for e-mail connectivity. Power is supplied by two AA batteries.

Each MailStation unit supports the receipt and transmission of e-mail messages for up to five different e-mail accounts. Each message can be up to 8 KB in size, equivalent to approximately 66 lines of text. An RS4-22 printer port provides connection to an external printer, enabling messages to be printed to hard copy. The service package sold with the MailStation allows users to subscribe to daily e-mail updates provided by Yahoo!, a major Internet web portal. The updates provide information on news, sports, finance, horoscopes, and lottery results. The unit also has an in-built address book, calendar and calculator.

Mailstation contains an in-built 33.6 Kbit/s fax/modem which can be plugged directly into the phone jack to support dial-up connectivity. However, users are required to subscribe to an Internet service provider (ISP) affiliated with the product. When a MailStation is purchased, information is collected from the customer in order to establish e-mail accounts and ascertain the closest dial-up access point. Based on this information, the device is pre-configured so that it can be used as soon as it is taken out of the box and plugged into a phone jack.

6.4 Handheld computers

The handheld computers product category has emerged in recent years in the market niche functionally defined between low cost pocket electronic organizers and laptop computers. Unlike larger desktop systems, handheld computers are typically battery operated. Early handheld computers were primarily launched as personal information management systems supporting to-do lists, diary and calender functions. Increasingly, these capabilities are accompanied by simple e-mail, web browsing and small application programs. Third party peripheral devices that can be attached to handheld computers, such as modems and digital cameras, are further extending the range of applications small handheld devices can support. The handheld computer marketplace is rapidly evolving and is currently divided along the lines of form factor, operating system and price. The commercial success of handheld devices has led to large scale production and falling prices.


Digital image capture Internet / multimedia information access (WWW, ftp, telnet)

E-mail / messaging Voice- or text-based database access


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Price range: US $149 to US$1000


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Development and testing of handheld computers for rural applications

The application of handheld computers to rural communication needs has been broached by a small, but growing, number of researchers in developing countries. Two open sourcexix projects, described below, have resulted in the availability of royalty-free operating systems, applications and manufacturing specifications for handheld computer devices. In addition, handheld computers have been tested or used for a number of applications in rural areas.

The Simputer

A team of professors and students in the Department of Computer Science and Automation at the Indian Institute of Science, along with a team of software engineers at Encore Software in Bangalore, have designed a handheld device for Internet access called the Simputer estimated to cost less than US$200. A prototype of the device was scheduled to be ready in August 2000. The Simputer, short for simple computer, was designed to help low-income and illiterate users in India and other developing countries gain access to resources on the Internet.

The hardware and software on which the Simputer is based have been made available by the academic team as open source technology, a step which greatly reduces the costs of producing the device as well as the costs for third-party applications developers. The Simputer is based on Intel's StrongARM central processing unit, contains 16 MB of Flash memory, a Linux-based operating system, and is expected to support a local language interface. The manufacturing plans will be released to other manufacturers via the Simputer Trust for a donation of $1000.

ITSY

In a similar, though unrelated, development, a research team at PC manufacturer Compaq, Inc. has released manufacturing plans and an operating system for a handheld sytem known as ITSY. The system specifications, which can be downloaded over the internet from http://research.compaq.com/wrl/projects/Itsy/itsy.html, provide the circuit layouts along with an optimised Linux operating system to enable construction of the device. The ITSY specifications have been released as open source technology.

Type 0 telecenters based on handheld computers

Argentina's GRUPO DE INVESTIGACIÓN EN TELECOMUNICACIONES RURALES (GTR-UNNE) developed the concept of a "Type 0" telecenter based on a low-power handheld computer connected to a cellular subscriber terminal or narrowband VHF radio. "Type 0" telecenters were designed to provide low cost messaging to small and low income communities (50-250 inhabitants) which could not sustain a full-sized telecenter.

The configuration of a "Type 0" telecenter was described by Dr. Dario Goussal of GTR-UNNE in the case study "Type 0" Community Telecentres: Results of Suriname Case Study, as follows:

The core device of Type-0 telecentres is a handheld personal computer with keyboard. These units are small (3”x 6”) and supplied with a 75-100 Mhz processor, 8 to 24 MB RAM, built-in modem of 14.4 Kbit/s to 33.6 Kbit/s, and grayscale display of 640x240 pixels. They also feature infrared ports or connectors for a docking station, if a printer or another device is further required. Battery life is about 15-20 hours, so they are expected to perform well in rural MCTs. The external link is performed by a narrowband-LEOS VHF communicator, a simple and inexpensive data terminal. [19]

In addition to rural e-mail services, GTR-UNNE envisioned the use of the handheld computer's standard software complement for training and educational purposes, such as courses in word processing, typing, drawing, graphic design, farm management and tax accounting. The authors expected these educational activities to be implemented under agreements with the government,


http://research.compaq.com/wrl/projects/Itsy/itsy.html

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international organizations and NGOs, thus providing a source of indirect funding support for telecenter-related activities.

Examples of handheld computers


Palm Computing's Pilot series

Designed as companion products to personal computers, Palm handheld computers (example pictured at left) enable mobile users to manage their personal and business information using an electronic date book, address book, to-do list, expense management software, calculator, note-taking applications and games. As of July 2000, the retail prices of Palm Pilots ranged from US$179 to $799.The Pilot series handhelds are typified by: palm-sized form factor; simple graphical user interface; data entry through handwriting recognition; docking cradle for two-way data synchronisation with a PC.

The data entry system incorporates an enhanced version of Palm Computing's Graffiti power writing software, which enables users to enter up to 30 words per minute with 100 percent accuracy. The software recognizes modified Latin alphabetic characters that users learn how to write with a stylus on the pressure-sensitive material overlaid on the display panel.

Palm provides open access to developer information. As a result, a number of hardware and software products have been introduced for the Palm platform by third party developers. These products include modems, Web browser software and small digital cameras. In 1999, the Palm VII device was launched with wireless access to the Internet. Accompanying the launch of the Palm VII, a web page summary technology called ‘web clippings’ was developed in order for Web content providers to offer low-bandwidth versions of their sites designed specifically for download to the Palm.

Palm Computing, Inc. has licensed its operating system (OS) to several manufacturers including Handspring, IBM and Sony. One of the drawbacks of the Palm platform for rural applications is the fact that its software and hardware facilities are designed around the availability of a desktop computer for software updates and data transfer.

Psion’s Organiser series

UK-based technology company Psion launched its first organiser in 1984. The company's organizers outwardly resemble a spectacle case whose top flips open to reveal an LCD panel and a 58-key keyboard inside.

In mid-1998 Psion joined forces with Ericsson, Nokia and Motorola to form a new joint venture called Symbian, with the aim of establishing Psion's EPOC 32 operating system as the de facto operating system for mobile wireless information devices. In late 1999, Psion extended the EPOC operating system to provide support for color and a complete implementation of the JAVA programming environment. This resulted in


Source: Palm Computing, Inc.

Source: Psion

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the launch of two sub-notebook models, the Series 7 (pictured at left) and netBook. Psion’s organizers typically range in price between US$275 and $799.

Psion organizers were designed to be independent of desktop environments, although they are also capable of desktop communication and data transfer. The support for Java in recent models means that custom applications developed for rural areas in the Java programming language can be ported to the Psion platform fairly easily. However, there are few companies other than Psion who provide compatible peripherals such as modems.

Windows CE-based handheld computer

Microsoft offers an operating system for the handheld computer market called Windows CE. Current hardware manufactures building Windows CE-based handheld devices include Hewlett Packard, Compaq and CASIO. Handheld computers using Windows CE typically retail between US$399 and $799.

Windows CE devices are fully functional and are capable of supporting powerful applications independent of the desktop. Microsoft currently supports two variants of Windows CE 3.0: the Handheld PC Pro (H/PC Pro), designed for keyboard-based handheld computers, and the Pocket PC (P/PC) for Palm-type devices. Both platforms can support scaled-down versions of Microsoft's popular Office applications including Word, Excel, Access, Outlook (an e-mail client) and Internet Explorer.

At the launch of Windows CE in 1996, more than 40 companies signalled their support by promising to develop CE-compatible hardware or software. There is widespread third-party support for the manufacture of compatible peripheral devices such as modems and digital cameras. Custom software application development can be undertaken in either the C++ or Visual Basic programming languages on a desktop PC, and then cross compiled to the CE system. The prevalent use of both programming languages worldwide makes the production of customized software for Windows CE devices straightforward. However, Windows CE-based devices have been subject to frequent changes in the operating system, invalidating older models quickly, and tend to have relatively higher power requirements compared to other handheld platforms.

6.5 Internet client appliances

Internet client appliances are simplified computers designed primarily to deliver access to Internet-based services such as Web browsing and on-line shopping. The e-mail stations described in Section 6.3, as well as the Internet-enabled video game systems described in Section 6.7, could be considered Internet appliances.

Recently, the Internet appliance market has seen the introduction of customizable, end-to-end solutions for Internet appliance networks which allow client software to be upgraded remotely by the Internet service provider (ISP). Such solutions are just beginning to be introduced in the marketplace to support a model of Internet service provision in which the service provider not only provides access to the Internet backbone, but also remotely manages the Internet appliances and influences, to a greater or lesser extent, the content experienced by the end user. It is this type of solution that is addressed in the rest of this section.

Using a server equipped with an on-line management software package, the service provider has the ability to create and update the "home page" seen by all appliance users upon connection to the


Source: Microsoft Europe

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Internet. The service provider could create a home page with links to the web sites of the national agricultural extension service, health care services, and local language newspapers. If national Internet infrastructure existed and there were sufficient local content available, the service provider could restrict, eliminate, or manage access to foreign Internet sites that require the leasing of expensive international links. The ISP may also have the ability to modify configuration settings for all clients on the network, individual clients, or certain classes of clients. Security safeguards such as digital certificates and secure socket layer (SSL) encryption ensure that only designated servers can modify the remote clients.

An important technological development that supports remote client management is the mass production of ROM chips that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Traditional read only memory chips were used to store essential system programs which neither the user nor the computer could erase. The instructions were incorporated into the design of the memory chip’s circuits, ensuring that the computer would be able to reboot after the power was turned off. Successive varieties of ROM were developed which could be programmed or “burned” once at the factory, or programmed and reprogrammed using a special machine. Finally, memory chips were developed which could be erased and reprogrammed multiple times using a specially applied electrical current. The last type of memory chip, known as electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), can be rewritten without being removed from the computer.

A special type of EEPROM known as flash memory (or flash ROM) can be erased and reprogrammed using the normal voltages of a PC. Since there is no need to physically remove the chip, flash memory is used in many information appliances to allow the system's basic instructions to be rewritten using software. The process can as easily be initiated over a remote connection, which has allowed solution developers to design Internet appliance solutions that exploit this capability. If applied in rural and remote areas of developing countries, this technology could reduce the need for maintenance trips to rural areas and skills training of local inhabitants in software installation.


E-mail / messaging Internet / multimedia information access (WWW, ftp, telnet)

Fax Real-time interactive audio communication (telephony)

Voice mail Voice- or text-based database access

Price range: US$600 to $1000 (Per appliance)

A number of manufacturers, including Intel, Acer and Compaq, either offer or have announced intentions to offer remotely managed Internet appliance solutions. However, these solutions are typically available only for large-scale deployments. For instance, Intel requires a minimum order of 100,000 terminals, at a price per terminal of $600 for hardware plus $30 for software licensing.


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Example of an Internet appliance solution


Merinta's iBrow Internet appliance solution

Merinta, a subsidiary of New York-based Boundless Corporation, began shipping a suite of hardware, software and service products for Internet appliance systems in April 2000. The product line, called iBrow, targets Internet service providers, financial institutions and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) by providing customized Internet appliance solutions which the latter can distribute under their own brand names.

The iBrow software platform was designed to be independent of both hardware and operating systems. It supports multiple CPU chip set architectures, including Intel's Celeron and National Semiconductor's

Geode, and can run on a number of operating systems including Linux, WindRiver's VX Works, Microsoft Windows 98 and Microsoft Windows NT. The platform also offers support for corporate thin client applications via the Citrix ICA networking protocol (for more information on corporate thin client applications, see Section 6.8). Merinta offers an Internet appliance hardware solution, pictured above, for customers interested in acquiring a complete end-to-end solution.

The I-Brow Internet appliance comes with a 200 MHz processor, 32 MB of RAM, 16 MB of flash memory, a 56K v.90 modem and a 10-inch LCD backlit display. According to the manufacturer, this configuration provides sufficient processing power to support Java-based applications and the Linux-based operating system.

Merinta's target market includes corporations and ISPs looking to establish themselves in niche markets by supplying the browsing platform as part of an Internet service package. For example, Virgin Connect, an ISP in the United States, has purchased an iBrow solution. The iBrow client terminal has been re-branded and marketed as the Virgin Connect WebPlayer. For an annual fee of US$50, a Webplayer device and an Internet access connection is provided to the subscriber. After 3 years of using the service, the WebPlayer becomes the property of the subscriber. This business model, as yet unproven, assumes that revenue from sources such as advertising, on-line shopping commissions and web browsing data generated by users will make up for the cost of the hardware subsidy.

6.6 Internet server appliances

Internet server appliances are devices that come pre-configured for the provision of one or more services provided by Internet servers. Devices marketed as server appliances may support Internet requests, e-mail, dial-up routing, firewalls, internet servers or network packet routing, among other software applications. IT industry analysts expect e-mail servers, web servers and e-commerce servers to become increasingly commoditised over the next 12 to 36 months. Commoditisation of server resources will help lower the costs of entry for local content producers.

Internet server appliances are produced by a number of companies such as IBM, Oracle, Sun and GreenComputer International.

Price range: US$299 to $5000


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Examples of Internet server appliances


Encanto's E.Go commerce webstation

The E.Go commerce webstation aims to deliver an "Internet storefront in a box". This Internet server appliance arrives with most of the tools a small business needs to establish a site to sell products on the Web. The server supports secure transactions, a template-based Web site builder, e-mail, news, file transfer, naming, and addressing. In addition, the package comes with a storefront builder, a built-in payment processing engine and a relational database to record purchases. The E.Go retails for US$1295.

The server system comprises a Java Virtual Machine, a real-time operating system, a four-port Ethernet hub, and a 56K dial-up

modem. Normally, in order to support a permanent web presence, a web server must be connected to the Internet at all times via a dedicated leased line. Encanto offers a service called InstantConnect which allows small businesses to connect the E.Go server to the Internet using a standard PSTN telephone line which connects to the Internet only when a Web page is requested. When a request for an E.Go Web page reaches Encanto's always-on server, the latter sends a message to the E.Go server causing it to dial up and connect to the Internet. Therefore, telephone charges are only incurred when the site is actually accessed. Encanto charges a monthly fee of $65 dollars for this service.

Cobalt Networks' Qube 2 web server

The Cobalt Qube 2 is a small, self-contained Web server suitable for supporting workgroup and Internet applications. The platform is typical of the new approach to server appliances. It comes pre-configured and features a specialised set of server functions that require little, if any, networking knowledge to use.

The Qube 2 comes with 16 to 32MB of memory and a 2.1 or 6.4 Gigabyte hard disk. A 150MHZ RISC processor running a variation of the Linux operating system powers the server. Depending on configuration, the Cobalt Qube 2 costs from US$999 to $1500.

The Cobalt Qube can be connected via a router to the Internet or be used as an Intranet server or local content development machine. Adding the server to a network is simply a case of connecting the network cable and responding to the connection wizard's queries via a small LCD screen and buttons on the top of the case. After this point, all administration of the machine can be performed either on site or remotely via a web browser.

According to its technical specifications, the Cobalt Qube can serve up to 1 million web page requests and 400,000 e-mails per day. The pre-configured software provides the functionality to:

Create and manage a Web site.

Support individual e-mail accounts, group mailing lists, and scheduled e-mail deliveries.

Perform cross-platform file services for Windows® NT, Windows 95/98, and Mac OS®.


Source: Encanto Networks, Inc.

Source: Cobalt Networks, Inc.

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Host virtual discussion groups.

Manuals for the Qube 2 are available in Chinese, English, French, German and Japanese.

6.7 Video game systems

A video game console is a dedicated computer system whose main purpose is to support video games. A wide variety of video games stored on CD-ROMs or Read Only Memory (ROM) cartridges are available for purchase separately from the main console. Loading a game is simply a matter of placing the CD-ROM or cartridge in the request slot and turning on the machine. The games are typically displayed on a television set and controlled via a handheld device such as a joystick or joypad. The degree of technical knowledge required to operate the system is very low and the operating interface is simple.

While traditional video game consoles were incapable of use for anything but playing video games, current and next-generation* game consoles come with an in-built modem and Web browsing software. This reflects the transformation of the video game console from a restricted, single-function device into an information appliance capable of delivering graphics, workstation-level computing performance and Internet connectivity. To utilize all of these capabilities, the console requires connection to a telephone line, a power supply and a television set.

In terms of graphic displays, game consoles often exceed the capabilities of a state-of-the-art desktop PC. For instance, some video game systems employ a 128-bit microprocessor as a core CPU as well as dedicated 64-bit video and audio display circuitry.

The video game industry has added Internet connectivity and other functionality to new game systems in order to develop new revenue streams based on services such as on-line games and gaming community support services. In and of itself, this trend is of no interest to rural communities in developing countries. However, the size of the video game market means that the consoles are produced in a highly robust and low cost package. Next-generation video game systems, typically priced around US$200, are potential alternatives to PCs for providing e-mail, Internet access and multimedia applications in rural areas. This transition is most clearly demonstrated in the two leading platforms, described below.


Digital image display Internet / multimedia information access (WWW, ftp, telnet)

E-mail / messaging Videoconferencing

Voice- or text-based database access

Price range: US $75 to $400

Examples of video game systems


* Defined as those to be released over the next 12 months.


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Sega Dreamcast

The Sega Dreamcast, pictured at left, is a game platform capable of powerful multimedia displays. The Sega Dreamcast was released in 1999 as the first next-generation gaming system to use a 128-bit

microprocessor. It was designed to provide video game enthusiasts, or “gamers” as they are known, with an enhanced CD-ROM, one Gigabyte of storage space for application data and

on- line access. The basic unit retails for approximately US$200.

At its core, the Sega Dreamcast employs a 200 MHz, 128-bit RISC microprocessor and a total of 26MB of memory, of which 8MB

are reserved for storing textures and 2MB for audio. Internet access is supported by an in-built 56 Kbit/s v.90 modem. Internet access and web browsing software, developed by PlanetWeb under license to Sega, come packaged with the console. The browser software specially alters text to enable it to be easily read when displayed on a standard television set. While the initial version of the web browsing software was extremely limited, the recently released version provides support for the most widely used Web browsing applications such as:

JavaScript / ECMA Script 1.1

Secure socket layer (SSL) 2.0 / 3.0 56-bit (E-commerce security)

Frames

HTML 3.2

Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

POP3, SMTP-compliant e-mail application

A keyboard and mouse are sold as optional external peripherals. Information, primarily in the form of small games, can be downloaded to and uploaded from Sega’s Visual Memory Unit (VMU) flash memory peripheral. The Sega system is not tied to any specific Internet service provider.

Sony Playstation 2

The orginal Sony PlayStation game console shipped over 60 million units worldwide. The Sony Playstation 2 video game platform, pictured at left, was released in Japan in March 2000. It will be released in the United States in September 2000 and in Europe in November 2000. It is included here to indicate the direction in which video game platforms are heading and the capabilities to be offered in the near future.

The PlayStation 2 is designed to support digital video discs (DVDs) and online content. The system specifications include a core 128-bit CPU operating at 295 MHz, main memory of 32MB and DVD-based storage for applications and content. The custom graphics chips are capable of generating 66 million polygons per second, which is comparable to the performance of a mid-range graphics workstation such as a Silicon

Graphics O2. If released with the announced specifications, the Playstation 2 will be more powerful for video applications than most high-end personal computers sold at ten times the price.

The initial PlayStation 2 platform does not ship with a modem or other external connectivity device, although there is a PCMCIA slot. On June 8th, 2000 Sony Computer Entertainment announced that a combination hard disk drive / broadband network adapter unit would ship by the end of 2000 in


Source: Sega.com

Source: Sony Computer Entertainment

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Japan. The retail pricing of the PlayStation 2, which had not been released outside Japan at the time of writing, is expected to lie between US$300 and $450.

6.8 Thin client systems

Thin client computing is a model in which software applications are installed and executed on a server and accessed by a client. Typically, a thin client will have limited local resources and is entirely dependent on the server for applications, processing time and file storage. The thin client transmits user mouse clicks and keystrokes to the server for processing and the server processes the user input, executes the application and sends screen updates back to the client to be displayed.

The transfer of screen display information is achieved using a presentation protocol. Depending on the presentation protocol employed, screen update information can require large amounts of network bandwidth. Currently, the two most common presentation protocols are Citrix Corporation's Independent Computing Architecture (ICA) and Microsoft Corporations Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). ICA is rapidly becoming the defacto market standard due to supporting a wider spectrum of client platforms (such as Java) and network protocols (such as IP, IPX, NETBIOS). In addition, ICA out-performs RDP on low-bandwidth WAN and dial-up connections due to better data compression.

The server for a thin client network is usually a standard high-end computer server running a modified operating system. Server operating systems for thin client networks include Citrix WinFrame, which is itself an implementation of Windows NT under license from Microsoft, and the Java-based Network Station Manager V2R1 from IBM. Using Citrix's WinFrame OS, the system can execute Microsoft Windows applications.

The RDP is based on the ITU T.120 protocol, a telecommunications protocol with enhanced multicasting and broadcasting capabilities. Using RDP the content of the screen is essentially transferred as a bitmap from server to client. It is possible to cache font bitmaps on the client side, but no further compression or optimization is implemented.The protocol is platform independent in addition to being independent of the underlying network and transport layers. At present, however, RDP supports only TCP/IP as the underlying network protocol. Regarding the use of WAN connections, PPP is used to tunnel IP.


E-mail / messaging Internet / multimedia information access (WWW, ftp, telnet)

Fax Real-time interactive audio communication (telephony)

Videoconferencing Voice- or text-based database access

Price range: Clients : $350.00 to $1000.00

Servers: $2500 upwards

OS: $5000 upwards

On top of this are the costs of applications and physical networking infrastructure. Because the client only displays pictures, the only aspect of the system which needs to be upgraded is the server. In this sense, thin client terminals offer a degree of "future proofing" which is higher than the norm for computer terminals.


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Examples of thin client terminals


NeoStation 2300 by Neoware Systems

NeoStation thin client terminals from Neoware Systems can be used as ICA terminals and can run Windows CE-based appliances. Using terminal emulation software, one can connect to the Internet, mainframes, minicomputers and UNIX systems. NeoStations can also be centrally managed using existing management tools, for example CA Unicenter, Tivoli, HP OpenView, or Neoware Remote Manager. Remote management software enables the addition of new features as necessary.

Capio 325 by Boundless Technologies

The Capio II series, which includes model 325, is the basic line of next-generation thin clients produced by Boundless Technologies. New features include on-board audio, dual USB ports, 10/100 Ethernet support, and expansion options that include serial/parallel cards and 56k modem cards. Capio II terminals weigh less than five pounds. The Capio 325 runs the Windows CE operating system and supports both RDP and ICA protocols. In addition, it supports simultaneous multiple sessions. Capio II accesses Windows applications via Citrix WinFrame or MetaFrame servers, Windows NT 4.0 Terminal server Edition and Windows 2000 servers.

Winterm 3320SE by Wyse Technology

Wyse Technology’s Winterm 3320SE Windows CE-based thin client terminal can be used with servers running Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server Edition and Windows 2000. This series of thin terminals offers flexible and seamless implementation of applications via multiple session and multiple protocol access to both Windows and legacy applications. Winterm 3320SE supports RDP and ICA through Citrix MetaFrame. The Winterm also comes with stereo sound capability and 10/100 Base T network support.

Table 6.1 provides a comparison of the technical specifications and pricing of a number of thin client terminals in order to illustrate the range of features available in the market. There are many different options available for thin clients from a wide variety of manufacturers, including manufacturers in developing countries, such as India.


Source: Wyse Technology, Inc.

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Table 6.1: Specifications of selected thin client terminals

Esprit 100-TC NeoStation 2300 ThinStar 200 Capio 325 Winterm

3320SE

COSTS

List price (single unit) $379 $499 $421 $602 $749 Warranty (standard / optional) 3 years 1/3 years 3 years 2/10 years 1/3 years

COMPUTING RESOURCES

CPU (MHz) 200 66 100 180 166 Flash memory (MB) 8 8 8 8 8 RAM (MB) 16 16 8 16 32 Operating System Windows CE Windows CE Windows CE Windows CE Windows CE Presentation Protocols ICA, RDP ICA, RDP ICA, RDP ICA, RDP ICA, RDP

PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS

Dimensions (height x depth x width, inches)

11.0 x 10.0 x 2.0 9.0 x 7.9 x 2.1 9.6 x 10.9 x

1.88.75 x 9.75 x 1.75

8.9 x 6.9 x 2.4

Cooling Convection Convection Convection Convection Convection Voltage at 47-63 Hz (AC) 100 - 240V 100 - 240V N/A 90 - 264V 90 - 264V Power consumption N/A 8W 20W 25W 13.3WTemperature (Celsius) 5º - 40º 10º - 40º 10º - 40º 0º - 40º 10º - 40º Relative Humidity 20% to 80% 10% to 90% N/A 20% to 80% 20% to 80%Maximum Altitude 3050m 3050m N/A 6,096m 3050m

N/A = Not availableSources: Esprit Systems, Neoware Systems, Network Computing Devices, Boundless Technology, Wyse Technology

6.9 Interactive voice response systems

Interactive voice response (IVR) systems enable telephone users to dial a regular PSTN phone number and select information to receive in the form of recorded or computer-generated speech. Common uses of IVR in developed countries include:

Auto-attendant systems for directory assistance

Automated customer service systems

Call center forwarding

Fax-on-demand

Information lookup (e.g. movie showings, transportation schedules)

Message recording

Outbound dialing

Simple order entry transactions

Surveys and polls

Telephone banking

The path of a typical IVR session, illustrated in Figure 6.3, begins


Figure 6.3 Overview of a typical IVR system

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with a telephone call that is routed via a PBX to an IVR system. The telephony engine server runs the menu script and generates responses. As the customer navigates the menu hierarchy, requested information is extracted from the database server. The information is extracted in text form, after which text-to-speech actions performed by digital signal processing (DSP) devices convert the information into audible, spoken words. If the user needs to speak to a person they can either say a keyword or press a key on the telephone keypad at any time to be transferred to a live agent.

The IVR platform can be designed to interact with the user through a number of methods including voice prompts, SMS messages, faxes, e-mails and automatic callback.IVR applications in developing countries

Focus Group 7 received a submission describing the development of an IVR system specially designed to provide information to rural villagers from the Research Division of TELKOM Indonesia (RisTI)xx. The IVR system, called Rural Information Riched Community (RIRC), was developed to support special end-user terminals, the national language, a local language, and other features designed to fulfil the twin goals of relevant content and ease of access.

RisTI's system incorporated two particularly innovative features to adapt the IVR service for rural users. The RIRC implementation model included a person or group of persons who acted as facilitators by maintaining the information content on the server and responding to recorded inquiries from callers. In addition, RIRC was designed to recognize calls from a specially designed icon-based telephone terminal and switch to an access algorithm allowing the least experienced end users in rural areas to navigate by pressing icons rather than numbers on a keypad. This program algorithm is illustrated in Figure 6.4.

To differentiate between RIRC terminals telephones and payphones, the IVR server sends a signal (digit) to the end-user terminal. If that signal is received by the RIRC terminal, it will send a signal response so that the IVR server knows which algorithm is to be used.

The RIRC terminal was designed to dial automatically to the server when taken off hook or at the touch of a single button on the keypad. Instead of numbers on the keypad buttons, the terminal uses icons or symbols that refer to the type of information desired. For example, a symbol of a cow could be used to indicate animal husbandry information or a question mark button could be used to submit a question.


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Future directions in IVR development

Voice eXtensible Markup Language - also known as VoiceXML or vXML - is a mark-up language developed to ease the development and porting of IVR applications between platforms. The VoiceXML Forum, originally proposed by Motorola, is an industry organisation founded by AT&T, IBM, Lucent and Motorola. The VoiceXML forum has been instrumental in developing and promoting VoiceXML as a vendor-independent computer language designed to make Internet content and information accessible via speech and telephone. As a language, VoiceXML is designed for creating audio dialogs that feature synthesized speech, digitized audio, recognition of spoken and DTMF key input, recording of spoken input, telephony, and mixed-initiative conversations. VoiceXML is expected to radically reduce the software development costs associated with the deployment of IVR systems.

In addition, new tools have been developed which facilitate the creation of voice-based interfaces for on-line information repositories. An organization which has already invested in the creation of a database of text-based information for the Internet can derive additional benefit by adding a text-to-speech engine and setting up an IVR. In this way, those who do not have direct access to the Internet need not be excluded entirely from the Information Society. IVR can offer a bridging solution between those with Internet access and those without.


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Figure 6.4: Program algorithm of RisTI's RIRC IVR system

Source: RisTI

6.10 Transaction cards

There are two major types of transaction cards: magnetic stripe cards and smart cards. Both are small, plastic cards used to support a wide variety of applications in banking, security and

telecommunications, some of which are listed in Box 6.1. Of the two types, magnetic stripe cards are less expensive, but they can store only a small amount of data and are not capable of information processing. The focus in the


Box 6.1: Applications of transaction cards payphones digital set-top boxesdebit/credit cards loyalty cardsSIM cards identificationAccess/entry health information

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following discussion will be on smart cards, and recent developments that are enabling individual smart cards to be used for multiple applications.

Smart cards are typically used to store encrypted information for conducting electronic transactions. Also known as "chip cards," each card contains an embedded integrated circuit (IC) that supports memory functions and may contain a microprocessor to carry out processing functions. Like all computers, the microprocessor requires an operating system, which is stored in the card in some form of Read Only Memory (ROM).

Smart cards are used for applications such as authenticating users and storing the monetary value of services purchased by a prepaying customer. In 1996, 805 million smart cards were issued worldwide - 605 million for use with payphones and 20 million for GSM subscribersxxi. Smart cards allow the use of cheaper, off-line terminals for PIN verification because the PIN can be encrypted and stored securely on the card itself. In contrast to magnetic stripe cards, data can be written to the smart card's memory. The blank cards are estimated to cost between US$2.00 and $15.00 each, although this varies widely depending on the supplier, the volume ordered, the type of chip used, and printing options.

Smart card read/write terminals not only manipulate information stored in the cards, but also supply the power and clock to operate the embedded microprocessor. Since the microprocessing chips are custom-designed for different smart card systems, cards can only be read by compatible readers. There are two ways that card readers and cards exchange data: through direct contact, and through contactless antennas. Contact cards require direct electrical contact between the embedded chip and the card reader through a metallic interface on the surface of the plastic, which is usually made from a thin layer of gold. Contactless cards contain an embedded antenna which is activated when the card is held in close proximity to a contactless card reader.

The lack of standardization in the smart card industry, and the resulting lack of interoperability between cards and readers of different systems, was generally recognized by the industry as a major barrier to future growth in the second half of the 1990s. Different chips, operating systems, and encryption systems have typically been adopted in different vertical markets, such as banking and telecommunications. While a number of ISO standards exist with regard to smart cards and additional ones are under development, true interoperability between systems has not yet become a reality.

As of the year 2000 there are at least half a dozen open smart card standards being promoted by as many consortia in the financial, computing and software industries. Two consortia working on frameworks for multi-application smart cards are described below.

Examples of smart card frameworks

The inclusion of information on industry associations and proposed frameworks below is purely illustrative and does not represent any form of endorsement by the ITU.

PC/SC Workgroup

The PC/SC workgroup was established by an international group of smart card system developers and software companies who began working together in May 1996. The workgroup's main objective is to establish open standards for the integration of smart cards with personal computing systems by prescribing interoperability between smart cards, smart card readers and computer equipment.

As of June 2000, PC/SC had issued specifications for the integration of a smart card interface device in a PS/2 keyboard. PC/SC specification 1.0 was issued in 1997, and the workgroup has announced plans to publicly release a draft of version 2.0 in the fall of 2000.


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The core members of the PC/SC workgroup include Apple Computers, Groupe Bull, Gemplus, Hewlett Packard, Infineon Technologies, Intel, Microsoft, Schlumberger, Sun Microsystems, and Toshiba. As of June 2000 there were approximately forty PC/SC 1.0-compliant products in the marketplace from 22 different manufacturersxxii.

OpenCard Framework and Java Card

Java Card is a stripped-down version of the Java programming language designed to run on smart cards. The OpenCard Framework (OCF) is a host-side application framework designed to work with Java Card that resides on the card reader terminal or PC. Java-based programs running on the host terminal can use OpenCard to access information on Java Card smart cards. The framework allows programmers to create applications which are transparent with regard to smartcard operating systems, card terminals, and card issuers.

OCF 1.0 is the first version developed and released by the OpenCard Consortium. Current members of the OpenCard Consortium include 3-G International, American Express Travel Related Services, Groupe Bull, Dallas Semiconductor, Giesecke & Devrient, First Access, Gemplus, IBM, Toshiba Corporation, TOWITOKO, Schlumberger, Siemens, Sun Microsystems, UbiQ Inc., Visa International and XAC Automation.

6.11 Computer add-ons and accessories

Cellular phones, handheld computers and personal computers usually contain built-in ports to attach devices that add or enhance functionality. For example, there are small keyboards that can be attached to mobile phones for typing SMS and e-mail messages; digital cameras that plug into handheld computers; medical and scientific sensors that connect to handhelds and laptops; digital voice recorders; and GPS readers, to name but a few. The number of add-on devices is too large for a comprehensive review in the context of Focus Group 7. However, a number of products are described below to provide concrete examples of the functionality that can be added to desktop and portable computing devices.


Digital image capture Internet / multimedia information access (WWW, ftp, telnet)

Digital image editing Real-time interactive audio communication (telephony)

E-mail / messaging Receiving radio or TV signals

Videoconferencing Voice- or text-based database access

Price range: US$150 - $1000

Examples of computer add-ons and accessories


1. Standard analog telephone / cellular phone modems

A variety of modems allow access to dial-up services from laptops, handheld computers and other devices over the fixed telephone network or mobile cellular network. The device pictured at left is a battery-operated, 56 Kbit/s Psion Travel Modem which is compatible with handheld computers from Psion, Palm, Handspring and Windows CE. The modem can plug into a standard telephone line or a GSM connection.


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2. Industrial and educational sensors

Adapters for scientific instruments, such as the Sensor Interface from ImagiWorks, Inc. (picture, left), allow the attachment of low-voltage industrial and educational sensors to a handheld computer. Sensors upload readings to the handheld computer, where the data can be viewed, stored or transmitted to another device. Sensors which might be used in science

education or industrial applications include barometers, carbon dioxide gas sensors, current and voltage probes, EKG and heart rate monitors, relative humidity sensors, etc. The module shown at left runs on 2 AAA batteries or an external battery pack.

3. Digital cameras and Webcams

Webcams are digital video cameras, usually attached directly to a computer by a serial, parallel or USB port. The name originated with devices which were designed to supply images directly to a web page on a periodic basis. The term live cam is sometimes used to describe systems that have been configured to send images regularly over the Internet, either by transmission in rapid succession or via streaming video. With the advent of low-cost digital cameras and cheap streaming video compression software, digital picture-taking has proved popular

for home-based applications despite the frequently low quality of images produced by inexpensive units. The picture at left shows an Eyemodule digital camera produced by Blocks Products that attaches to a Handspring Visor handheld computer, also pictured.

4. Electronic books and reference materialsElectronic information can be downloaded onto information appliances as files or attached to them as separate modules. The picture at left shows an add-on module to a handheld computer containing more than 1,500 monographs from the 2000 Physicians Desk Reference (PDR®) and the 2000 PDR® for Ophthalmology. This module is a reference tool for physicians on the indications and usage of prescription drugs.

5. Contactless smart card readers

At least one manufacturer has produced a contactless smart card read/write unit for use with a handheld computer. The product pictured at left operates at 13.56 MHz and is produced by Inside TechnologiesTM . The reader works with a family of contactless chips and an applications developer’s kit provided by the same manufacturer. Smart cards and RFID cards can be used to support applications such as prepaid services, identity verification, e-commerce, and secure Internet access.


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SECTION 7: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Concluding discussion and remarks

Application of ICTs for rural economic development

Voice telephony has been the main option for providing access to telecommunications in rural areas. Today, a wide variety of new applications such as e-mail, e-commerce, tele-education, telehealth, and telemedicine, among others, has made access to interactive multimedia services as important as - maybe even more important than - voice connectivity alone. Since each rural district or community requires a different mix of voice, text, image, video and audio communications to best meet its needs, telecommunication network operators must be able to support the widest possible range of services and/or applications and different bandwidth levels at a reasonable cost.

The Internet (with the unavailability of IP network in rural areas) is the most widely used platform used to deliver multimedia applications in rural areas of developing countries. Satellite broadcasting has also been widely adopted in distance education programs and other videoconferencing-based consultations in remote areas. These two platforms are expected to converge as Internet broadcasting and satellite-based Internet links continue to be developed. While much negative attention in developing countries has been focused on the use of the Internet as an illegal bypass mechanism in the international traffic arena, the long-term importance of the Internet for developing countries lies in its potential to improve the domestic flow of economic and educational resources between isolated rural communities and urban centers, until such technology IP networks are provided to the rural areas.

Technologies for rural applications

The following are basic requirements for communications systems deployed in rural areas of developing countries:

(1) Implementation and operation is possible at a low cost in areas where population density is low;

(2) The system can be easily installed, even in remote and inaccessible locations;

(3) System operation and maintenance may be carried out even where qualified technical personnel are scarce;

(4) Implementation is possible even when basic infrastructure such as mains electricity, running water, paved road networks, etc., are absent.

An increasing number of technologies are available that can meet the above requirements at a reasonable cost to rural network operators.

(1) Wireless access systems

Wireless communication technologies, such as fixed wireless access (FWA) and very small aperture terminals (VSATs), are effective means of establishing telecommunication networks in rural areas due to their advantages over wired telecommunications in terms of cost and ease of installation. For example, when installing telephones in sparsely populated rural areas, wireless communication technologies such as PHS, GSM, DECT, and other cellular technologies can be used in conjunction with satellite stations and point-to-multipoint radio systems to achieve coverage of isolated settlements over long distances.


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(2) IP-related technologies

With the Internet becoming internationally widespread, the focus of new network construction around the world is shifting rapidly from conventional PSTN to IP-based technologies. Emerging packet-based wireless access technologies, such as IMT-2000 and wireless routers, are being designed to deliver a wide range of traffic types more efficiently and inexpensively than traditional wired and cellular telephony networks.

Existing satellite operators and planned satellite systems are retrenching in order to serve the global market for Internet access and broadband communications. These technologies have much potential for use in rural areas, but they are just beginning to enter the marketplace. In order to lower the risks faced by network operators in developing countries, new systems offering transitions to packet- and IP-based network architectures need to be tested and, in all probability, developed further in order to meet the requirements of rural areas.

Furthermore, the integration of wireless, IP-based routers with voice-over-IP software offers developing countries the additional technology option of constructing wide area networks to solve the last mile problem in rural areas. Wide area networks can be configured to share bandwidth between telephony and Internet efficiently, while taking advantage of the low cost of network servers and the easy installation of wireless systems.

(3) Multimedia terminals

The installation of inexpensive multimedia user terminals can be an effective way of providing access to Internet and multimedia services without resorting to costly and complex personal computers. E-mail, voice and video communications are becoming available through non-traditional devices, such as home entertainment systems, which cost in the range of US$300–$500 per terminal. These systems can be installed at multipurpose community telecenters and shared by many users.

E-mail-only stations, Internet client appliances, e-commerce server appliances and cellular telephones that accommodate wireless protocols such as i-mode and WAP are additional examples of the variety of devices already available in the marketplace. The proliferation of multimedia devices, and the ability to custom design and modify them, offers tremendous flexibility in the design of applications for rural areas. The price of this flexibility, however, is that service providers must understand the unique needs of their rural customers in order to determine the criteria by which to select technologies and applications.

The wholesale price of a typical Internet appliance unit is estimated to lie in the range of US$600 to $700. This is the same price range as a low-end PC. Although Internet clients contain fewer components than PCs, their pricing is similar due largely to the much greater scale of PC production. Deployment of Internet appliances in rural areas of developing countries over the next several years would be unlikely to lower the initial investment costs of providing Internet access compared to the deployment of low-end PCs.

Deployment of remotely managed networks of multimedia terminals, such as the Internet appliance solutions described in Section 6, should be explored in order to make it easier for rural inhabitants to learn how to use the Internet by doing away with the need for many PC management skills. Another expected advantage would be lower lifetime maintenance costs and slightly lower power requirements per unit. Social benefits could be increased by providing a mechanism for service providers to direct relevant content to rural inhabitants who might be unable to navigate the Internet on their own. Internet appliance solutions may be able to provide some or all of these benefits at a lifetime cost no higher than that of a comparable PC-based solution.


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Encouraging the development of new technologies

To fulfill its mandate from TDAG to "list new measures to be taken by ITU-D to encourage manufacturers and relevant organizations to create technology tailored to developing countries," and "among those measures, recommend priorities that ITU-D should follow to help achieve the development of technology for rural applications," Focus Group 7 has prepared six recommendations, listed in Section 7.3. In addition, the focus group has identified a number of general principles to help private sector companies design products to address the rural communications and IT markets in developing countries. These principles are included in the report as Annex 3. In particular, these guidelines are aimed at companies in the computing and IT industry who may have little familiarity with the disadvantages of rural areas in developing countries.

Legacy of the Maitland Commission

"Dramatic advances in the technology of telecommunications are taking place at a time when the role telecommunications can play in economic and social development throughout the world is more important than ever. It is our considered view that henceforward no development programme of any country should be regarded as balanced, properly integrated or likely to be effective unless it includes a full and appropriate role for telecommunications, and accords a corresponding priority to the improvement and expansion of telecommunications."

"Given the vital role telecommunications play not only in such obvious fields as emergency, health and other social services, administration and commerce, but also in stimulating economic growth and enhancing the quality of life, creating effective networks world wide will bring immense benefits…The increased flow of trade and information will contribute to better international relationships…We look to governments of industrialised and developing countries alike to give fuller recognition to this common interest and to join their efforts to redress the present imbalance in the distribution of telecommunications which the entire international community should deplore."xxiii

Fifteen years before the concept of the digital divide was acknowledged, the Independent Commission for World Wide Telecommunications Development, chaired by Sir Donald Maitland, published these words. The report of the Maitland Commission, known by the title 'The Missing Link', is a core document in the founding literature of modern telecommunications development activity. The following basic recommendations of the Maitland Commission are worth repeating in the present context:

Governments, development agencies and financing institutions are to give a higher priority to investment in the telecommunication sector.

Developing countries should review their development plans to ensure that sufficient priority is given to investments in telecommunication.

Existing networks (specifically rural ones) should be made more effective and commercially viable and should gradually become self reliant.

All projects or development activities with economic or social components should have a telecommunication element built in.

FG7 has paid particular attention to the recommendations of the Maitland Commission regarding technology development and selection:

We recommend that manufacturers and operators be encouraged to develop systems which will enable the needs of the more remote areas of developing countries to be met at lower cost.


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Selection of product can be as important as choice of technology. Buyers must know what is available on the market. We recommend that the ITU, in conjunction with manufacturers of telecommunication equipment and components, consider compiling a comprehensive catalogue of telecommunication suppliers and systems currently in use.

As the world enters the 21st century, many of the conclusions and recommendations of the Missing Link report remain valid. These conclusions are cited by Focus Group 7 as important and useful guidelines for the information age, even as we conclude our own study and recommendations to promote the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural applications.

The Focus Group 7 also proposed the creation of a Task Force, consisting of a small group of volunteers among the ITU-D Study Group members to assist the BDT Director with the implementation of FG7 recommendations. The mandate of the Task Force may include:

Monitor implementation progress of all FG7 recommendations

Formulate suggested criteria for the establishment and location of pilot projects

Contribute to cross-communication and coordination efforts among all parties.

7.2 Recommendations

Recommendation 1: Promoting the development of information appliances for rural use

Focus Group 7,

considering

a) the social and economic benefits of using information and communication technologies (ICTs) to support rural applications in education, health, economic development and other areas to meet the needs of the local population;

b) that for rural ICT programs to be sustainable, information content must be relevant and application interfaces must be accessible to rural inhabitants, particularly women and youth who make up the majority of the population;

recognizing

a) the difficulty of installing and maintaining ICT devices in areas of developing countries which lack technical infrastructure;

noting

a) remote management of systems deployed in rural areas has been shown to reduce the lifetime costs of equipment operation and maintenance;

b) speech-based, icon-based and local language interfaces can reduce barriers to the use of ICTs by inhabitants of rural areas;

c) an increasing number of software applications, form factors and user interfaces are supported by information appliances;

noting also

e) technology start-up companies and systems integrators may not be aware of the special requirements of rural areas in developing countries, and they may lack contacts in developing countries;


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requests BDT

1 to administer a program whereby developers of information appliance systems

are identified and listed in an internal contact database for the purpose of maintaining an up-to-date electronic mailing list,

periodically receive electronic updates from BDT on the special requirements of rural areas with regard to information technology and its benefits to both women and men,

are encouraged to initiate trials of their products and applications in rural areas of developing countries,

are assisted in researching, identifying and contacting potential trial partners in developing countries through ITU-D members,

provide brief, written evaluations of trials whose initiation was facilitated by BDT, to be made available to all ITU-D members via a Web site,

conduct pilot projects in selected developing countries within the BDT regular programmes on practical applications of information technology in education, health and environmental protection, in collaboration with relevant organizations.

2 to assess the demand for an introductory training course on information appliances and thin client technologies, and, if there is demand, develop and implement the course in partnership with private sector partners.

Recommendation 2: Renewable energy handbook

Focus Group 7,

considering

a) an adequate and reliable energy supply is a prerequisite for the deployment of any modern telecommunication or information technology system;

b) many companies, non-governmental organizations, governments and international agencies, including ITU-D, are currently working to support broader use of ICT systems in unelectrified rural areas;

recognizing

c) it is generally not possible to rely upon the same approach to telecom power system design for end-user equipment as has been used for large telecommunication installations with high power requirements;

being of the view

c) it will be necessary to disseminate useful information on renewable energy system selection, sizing, and design in order to support increased use of ICT equipment at the community and individual level;

invites

governments, administrations and recognized operating agencies to link renewable energy specialists with rural telecommunication and ICT initiatives,

recommends


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that ITU-D Study Groups:

1 request the preparation of a handbook on renewable energy systems for small end-user installations such as wireless local loop terminal equipment, cellular handset battery chargers and VHF radio terminals,

2 disseminate practical and useful information to ITU-D members, project partners and other organizations on selection, design, sizing, operation, maintenance, and troubleshooting of small power systems for rural telecommunication installations.

i This section contains excerpts from Benefits of Telecoms in Rural Areas[43], submitted by Eberhard Roegner of DETECON GmBH.ii Rural is defined here as total population minus urban population. Urban population refers to the population of all areas defined as urban in each country, as reported to the United Nations. iii For a more recent study on Grameen, see " Grameen Telecom's Village Phone Programme: A Multi-Media Case Study," Dr. Don Richardson, et al, TeleCommons Development Group, http://www.telecommons.com/villagephone/index.html.iv Source: http://www.peoplink.orgv "Telkom to provide telecommunications solution for 1999 elections," Telkom S.A. press release, 3 Sep 1998vi For more information on the Africa web content discussion group see http://www.egroups.com/group/africa_web_content_owner.vii Bastidas-Buch, Roberto http://www.hr1rbb.ampr.orgviii For example, see http:/www.symek.com. Ulf Kumm, SYMEK Datensysteme und Elektronik GmbH, 2000.ix Reference GSM/UMTS Release ´99x For a thorough and comprehensive backgrounder on the technical aspects of VSAT technology, the reader is kindly referred to the ITU-R Handbook on Satellite Communications.xi http://www.stmi.com/rural-tech.htmlxii Gilat-to-Home FAQ, 6 July 2000. http://www.gilat2home.com/faq/index.html. xiii This section contains excerpts from the case study "WorldSpace Digital Satellite Radio and Multimedia Services," submitted to the FG7 case library by WorldSpace Corporation on 5 July 2000.xiv Definitions copyrighted by and used with the permission of whatis.com (http://whatis.com) and TechTarget.com, Inc.xv The Stockholm Challenge Award is a worldwide awards program that focuses on the benefits and changes that information technology can bring to communities. The awards program is a non-profit initiative of the City of Stockholm in partnership with the European Commission. xvi TELE Greenland's Remote Hybrid Power Supply System, submitted by Tele Greenland on 11/04/00.xvii Emergency Communications in Mozambique, submitted by the Freeplay Foundation on 23 June 2000.xviii For example, see the case study "Sun RayTM 1 Enterprise Appliance Links Pennsylvania Library," Sun Microsystems, www.sun.com.xix See annex 2 for the Open Source Definition.xx "IVR Application As A Voice-Based Information Service For Rural Communities," submitted to the FG7 case library by RISTI on 9 May 2000.xxi Web site of the Smart Card Industry Association, http://www.scia.org/knowledgebase/default.htmxxii As listed on the PS/SC workgroup web site, http://www.pcscworkgroup.com/


http://www.gilat2home.com/faq/index.html

http://www.hr1rbb.ampr.org/

http://www.egroups.com/group/africa_web_content_owner

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Recommendation 3: Increasing collaboration with microfinance organizations

Focus Group 7,

acknowledging

a) the wide variety of actors outside the telecommunication sector who are involved in the design and implementation of ICT systems for specific rural applications such as tele-education and tele-medicine;

b) the benefits that can accrue to recognized operating agencies from the increased demand for telecommunication services stimulated by these applications,

recognizing

a) the initial success of Grameen Bank in designing and implementing a microfinancing scheme to support sustainable village telephone businesses run by the poor,

requests BDT

a) to facilitate links between microfinance organizations, recognized operating agencies, other rural ICT project initiators and information technology developers in order to encourage the development of small, economically sustainable, ICT-based service businesses in rural areas,

b) to consider the creation of a special purpose fund based on voluntary contributions to assist and support pilot testing of low-cost, connectivity-enabled information appliances to help fight poverty in rural and remote areas of developing countries.

Recommendation 4: Study of packet-based wireless access infrastructure

Focus Group 7,

considering

a) that in order to support future ICT applications in rural and remote areas, a small number of operating agencies in developing countries have expressed interest in packet-based access solutions;

b) that few packet-based access solutions designed for rural areas of developing countries are available, although a diverse range exists of wireless data products for LAN and WAN applications;

noting

ITU-T Recommendation H.323 covering the technical requirements for multimedia communications systems in those situations where the underlying transport is a Packet Based Network (PBN);

recommends ITU-D study group 1

a) to study economic aspects of packet-based wireless access systems, such as local loop networks based on wireless routers, among other technologies, as part of its ongoing study of technology options for rural telecommunication infrastructure,

requests BDT

xxiii The Missing Link, Report of the Independent Commission for World Wide Telecommunications Development. ITU, December 1984.

__________


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to conduct, within its relevant programmes, technical pilot projects of packet-based wireless access networks in rural areas to examine issues such as:

provision of basic connectivity for ICT networks

PSTN gateway interconnection

high quality voice-over-packet-data solutions

as well as to confirm the technology's effectiveness in dealing with multimedia applications such as telemedicine, distance learning and so forth in rural areas.

Recommendation 5: Maintenance of Focus Group 7 Web site

Focus Group 7,

considering

the continuing demand for case studies on rural applications, particularly those which identify technologies that help to improve the sustainability of rural service models,

requests BDT

to maintain and expand the FG7 case library on the Web site as well as look into ways of upgrading the tool.

Recommendation 6: Symposium on new technologies for rural applications

Focus Group 7,

requests BDT

to hold a symposium for ITU-D members to learn about new technologies for rural applications, with particular emphasis on the participation of women and youth, and meet with developers and manufacturers of systems of the types described in the final report of Focus Group 7.


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References

[1] Ansari, Malik Fareed. "Rural Communications in India: Demand Considerations," submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[2] Ansari, Malik Fareed. "Rural Communications in India: Technology Options," submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[3] Bagbiegue, Tairou. "TOGO TELECOM: Rural Telephony Project," submitted by Togo Telecom to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, October 1999.

[4] Baker, Nicole. "Telkom South Africa: Case Study in WLL Deployment," submitted by Pyramid Research/EIU to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[5] Bascor Maturana, Jorge. "The Positive Impact of Universal Access on the Rural Population: Chile, Two Years On," submitted by Itay Avital, Global Village Telecom to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[6] Bastidas-Buch, Roberto. "Multipurpose community telecentre (MCT) pilot project (Honduras)," Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[7] Bayes, A., von Braun, J., Akhter, R. Village Pay Phones and Poverty Reduction: Insights from a Grameen Bank Initiative in Bangladesh. Center for Development Research (ZDF), Universitit Bonn, June 1999.

[8] Bertolini, Romeo. "Telecommunication Use in Ghana: Research from the Southern Volta Region," Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.

[9] Bonifaz, Luis. "Strategy for the Development of Rural Telecommunications and Universal Access in Peru," submitted by Fund For Investment In Telecommunications (FITEL) to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[10] Chhibber, N.K. "Maharashtra Communication Network For Disaster Management," Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.

[11] "Compact Remote Line Concentrator System for Rural Applications in China," submitted by Fumitaka Saito, Guiyang Telecommunications Bureau of P.R.C to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[12] "Creating Learning Networks for African Teachers," submitted by John Rose, UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[13] Cyranek, Günther. "African Virtual University of the World Bank," Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[14] "Distance Education System via Satellite Communication Network in the South Pacific," submitted by Toru Kizuka, KDD Engineering and Consulting, Inc. (KEC) to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.

[15] Dyani, Phindile. " The South Africa National Telemedicine System Pilot Project," submitted by Telkom SA Limited to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[16] Dyani, Phindile. "Telkom South Africa's TDMA/DECT Wireless Local Loop Deployment," submitted by Telkom SA Limited to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[17] "Emergency Communications in Mozambique," submitted by Ms. Kristine Pearson, Freeplay Foundation to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.

[18] Ergderjugder, Jamiyan. "Overview of Rural Telecommunications in Mongolia," submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.


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[19] Goussal, Darío. "Type 0" Community Telecentres: Results of Suriname Case Study," Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 1999.

[20] "Grameen Telecom in Bangladesh," submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[21] "Greenstar Community Centers for Economic Development," submitted by Greenstar Corporation to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.

[22] Hashem, Sherif. "Technology Access Community Centers in Egypt: A Mission for Community Empowerment," Focus Group 7 Case Library, October 1999.

[23] Hudson, Heather E. and Pittman, Theda S. "Rural Telecommunications for Development: Lessons from the Alaskan Experience," submitted by Pacific Telecommunications Council to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, April 2000.

[24] "The Intelsat WLL/VSAT Rural Telephony Trial in Peru," submitted by INTELSAT to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[25] The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank, World Development Report 1999/2000. Oxford University Press: New York, NY, 2000.

[26] "Internet Radio in Sri Lanka," submitted by UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[27] "ISDN Telemedicine in Japan," submitted by Katsurao Village Office to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.

[28] Karlsen, Dr. Karl O. "Telemedicine in Greenland," submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.

[29] "Longer-range GSM 400 Systems Anticipated in 2001," submitted by Alan Hadden, Global Mobile Suppliers Association to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, June 2000.

[30] Malmberg, Peter. " Telecommunications in Greenland," submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[31] Malmberg, Peter. "Greenland's Large Remotely Located Satellite Earth Stations," submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[32] "MTN's "Total Wireless" Approach to Telephone Service in Uganda," submitted by Erik van Veen, MTN Uganda to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.

[33] "The MPTC DCTS Pilot Project," submitted by Yasuhiro Hoshino, Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Cambodia to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[34] "Multipurpose Community Telecentres: In Support of People-Centred Development (Mali)," submitted by John Rose, UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[35] "Multipurpose Community Telecentres: In Support of People-Centred Development (Uganda)," submitted by John Rose, UNESCO to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[36] "Multi-Purpose Telecommunication Networks in Shimobe, Japan," submitted by Yoshihiro Yokoyama, World Teleport Association - ASIA to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, July 2000.

[37] "Nepal’s Strategy for Rural Telecommunications," submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[38] "Paraguay: Rural High-Speed Data Transmission Using WLL," submitted by KDD Engineering and Consulting Inc. to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.

[39] "Paraguay: Rural Network Trial Using VSATs," submitted by KDD Engineering and


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Consulting Inc. to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.

[40] Quirroga, Dennis. "Overview of WLL Deployment in the Philippines," submitted by Asia-Pacific Telecommunity to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, September 1999.

[41] Report on Question 2/2: Preparation of handbooks for developing countries: New developments in rural telecommunications. ITU-D Study Group 2, First study period (1995-1998). ITU, 1998.

[42] Roegner, Eberhard. "A Phased National Rural Network in the Lao PDR," submitted by DETECON GmbH to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[43] Roegner, Eberhard. "Benefits of Telecoms in Rural Areas," submitted by DETECON GmbH to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, January 2000.

[44] "Rural Public Long Distance Telephone Project (Thailand)," submitted by Mr. Teruaki Onodera, Japan Radio Co., Ltd to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.

[45] Sasaki, Kazuo. "A Wireless IP Phone System for Rural Applications," submitted by KDD Corporation to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.

[46] "Satellite-Based Rural Telephony Trial in Senegal: DAMA VSAT/DECT WLL Configuration," submitted by INTELSAT to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[47] Seenundun, R. " Implementation of Telemedicine in the Republic of Mauritius," Focus Group 7 Case Library, November 1999.

[48] Takeichi, Hiroaki. "Developing Flexible Network by Internet-Oriented Switch," Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[49] "The TELE Greenland Modular Container System," submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[50] "TELE Greenland's Remote Hybrid Power Supply System," submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, April 2000.

[51] "The TELE Greenland Tele Service Centre Concept," submitted by TELE Greenland to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, April 2000.

[52] "Telemedicine and developing countries - lessons learned," ITU-D Study Group 2, Document 2/116-E, 27 August 1999.

[53] Traore, Mamadou Hady. "Rural Community Radio Stations in Mali," submitted by Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision du Mali to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.

[54] The Valletta Action Plan, ITU, 1998.

[55] Van Gestel, Joost. "The Meteor Burst Communication Network System," submitted by MBC Europe BV to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, April 2000.

[56] "Videophone Telemedicine Project in Indonesia," submitted by Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications-Japan to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, August 2000.

[57] "WorldSpace Digital Satellite Radio and Multimedia Services," submitted by Roxana Dunnette, WorldSpace to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, July 2000.

[58] Yanuardi, Andreas W. "IVR Application as a Voice-based Information Service for Rural Communities," submitted by RisTI - TELKOM Indonesia to the Focus Group 7 Case Library, May 2000.

[59] Zayadin, Dr. Khalil Y. "JORDAN: Transtelephonic Electro-cardiogram (ECG) Transmission," Focus Group 7 Case Library, February 2000.


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GLOSSARY

Client Computer terminal or software application that send requests to access resources on a network.

Client/server model An approach to organising and distributing resources among clients within a networked computer environment. The order of process of interaction between client and server is governed by a formal set of rules.

Gateway A switching node that translates data formats, signalling protocols and sometimes address information in order to permit communication between two dissimilar networks. In ITU-T H.323, a Gateway is an endpoint on the network which provides for real-time, two-way communications between H.323-compliant terminals on the packet based network and other ITU terminals on a switched circuit network, or another H.323 Gateway.

Information appliance

An IT terminal or device which is optimized for one primary application by eliminating unnecessary components from the software and hardware configuration.

Internet A global "network of networks" that transmits data, text, image and audio using protocols defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Internet Protocol (IP) An Internet network-layer protocol, defined by the IETF.

Meteor burst communication

A type of long-distance wireless transmission based on the reflection of signals off ionized gas trails of small meteors entering the Earth's atmosphere.

Packet radio The transmission by radio of information (i.e. data) arranged in packets.

Public switched telephone network (PSTN)

The network facilities owned by PTOs to provide switched telecommunications.

Public Telecommunication Operator (PTO)

A telecommunication carrier providing services to the general public.

Router Within the scope of the communications network for manufacturing applications: device which allows any individual local area network to be combined with another to form a simple logical network.

Server The computer or software application which allocates resources on a network in response to client requests. In a local area network (LAN), a server is typically a centralised computer configured for the management of network resources including files, databases, and software applications.

Thin client When applied to computing devices, generally indicates a client with reduced processing or overall computing capabilities.


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Annex 1: Terms of reference of ITU-D Focus Group 7

SOURCE: TELECOMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT BUREAU

TITLE: TERMS OF REFERENCE OF ITU-D FOCUS GROUP 7

________

Abstract:

The attached Terms of Reference of Focus Group 7 contain also the work methods and a proposed work schedule of the Group. These were approved by the Telecommunication Development Advisory Group (TDAG) during its meeting in Geneva, 8-9 April 1999.


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PROPOSED AIMS AND WORK METHODS OF ITU-D SG 2 FOCUS GROUP ON TOPIC 7:

Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural applications

1 Introduction

The second World Telecommunication Development Conference (WTDC) at Valletta, Malta in 1998, agreed on a list of questions for the study period 1998-2002 to be considered by ITU-D Study Group 2, including topics for seven focus groups. Based on a Japanese contribution to WTDC, Topic 7 was defined as "Study various mechanisms by which to promote the development of new telecommunication technologies for rural applications". At the first meeting of Study Group 2 on 7-9 September 1998, it was agreed that this topic should be handled by the BDT Secretariat as part of its operational plan.

In order for Focus Group (Topic 7) to start its work in an effective manner, we believe TDAG should establish guidelines for the Focus Group's work. In those guidelines, Japan proposes that the aims and working methods of Focus Group (Topic 7) should be defined as follows.

2 Aims of Focus Group (Topic 7)

Compared with those in developed countries, telecommunication markets in developing countries are small and the physical conditions in those countries are often harsh. So it is likely that the efforts of private manufacturers to develop suitable technology for such markets will be limited without specific and active encouragement and support from the public sector. To assist an essential purpose of ITU-D to provide such encouragement, Focus Group (Topic 7) should gather information on projects to develop technology for rural applications, and identify and recommend priorities for new measures that need to be taken by ITU-D to help achieve such development. In addition, it should aim to raise public awareness of problems and solutions in developing technology for rural applications, and provide means through which information on these topics can be exchanged.

3 Work methods of Focus Group (Topic 7)

The aims of Focus Group (Topic 7) expressed above could be achieved through such actions as:

3.1 Collection and dissemination of information

Establishment of an Internet homepage to gather and exchange information on the development of telecommunication technologies that truly meet the needs of developing countries. The homepage, funded through ITU Members' voluntary contributions, would be a means of input for not only the ITU membership, but also other organizations and individuals connected with developing rural areas through telecommunication. Through such input, information on efforts in this field could be concentrated into a database, which should be easily accessible to ITU Members and the public. In addition, provision of a "virtual conference room" would allow direct contact with the authors of input. Three types of information for the database should be:a) ongoing projects using technologies specially designed for rural areas of developing

countries, including Multipurpose Community Telecentre, Telemedicine and Tele-education;

b) planned projects that make new combinations of technologies to meet the needs of rural areas, such as satellite communications linked with WLL networks;

c) examples of how equipment has been adapted for use in particular, harsh climatic or other conditions of remote and rural areas, such as solar-powered telephones.


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3.2 Identification of priorities for ITU support and ITU-D measures

Based on the data gathered through the homepage, and taking account of the work of SG 2, Focus Group members should:a) select those types of project or system that have social or economic importance but limited

commercial profitability, so that the ITU can focus special support upon such projects in helping to develop technology for rural applications;

b) list new measures to be taken by ITU-D to encourage manufacturers and relevant organizations to create technology tailored to developing countries;

c) among those measures, recommend priorities that ITU-D should follow to help achieve the development of technology for rural applications.

3.3 Holding of a symposium

Once input is being successfully gathered for the database, the Focus Group might consider proposing that BDT hold a symposium at an early stage, involving not only ITU-D and the Focus Group, but also academics, manufacturers and other relevant participants such as NGOs. The purpose of the symposium would be to:a) encourage input into the work of Focus Group (Topic 7) and further expand its database;b) enable information and experience to be shared on developing technology for rural

applications;c) discuss the selection of types of project or system that are most suitable to receive special

ITU support for the development of technology fitted to the needs of rural areas in developing countries;

d) discuss what new measures should be undertaken by ITU-D to promote effectively the development of technology for rural applications.

4 Proposed work schedule of Focus Group (Topic 7)

To achieve the goals described in the previous sections, a possible preliminary schedule for the work of Focus Group (Topic 7) might be as follows:

April 1999:(TDAG meeting)

Guideline established on aims and working methods of Focus Group (Topic 7), and participation invited

May 1999: First meeting of Focus Group (Topic 7); schedule of group's activities and format for database decided

June 1999: Start data collection for database and open virtual conference room

September 1999: Interim report to SG 2 on work of Focus Group (Topic 7)

Feb./March 2000: Focus Group (Topic 7) to report to TDAG

September 2000: Final report to SG 2 on work of Focus Group (Topic 7)

_______________


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Annex 2: The Open Source Definition (Version 1.7)

Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. The distribution terms of open-source software must comply with the following criteria:

1. Free Redistribution

The license may not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component of an aggregate software distribution containing programs from several different sources. The license may not require a royalty or other fee for such sale.

2. Source Code

The program must include source code, and must allow distribution in source code as well as compiled form. Where some form of a product is not distributed with source code, there must be a well-publicized means of obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable reproduction cost -- preferably, downloading via the Internet without charge. The source code must be the preferred form in which a programmer would modify the program. Deliberately obfuscated source code is not allowed. Intermediate forms such as the output of a preprocessor or translator are not allowed.

3. Derived Works

The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the original software.

4. Integrity of The Author's Source Code.

The license may restrict source-code from being distributed in modified form only if the license allows the distribution of "patch files" with the source code for the purpose of modifying the program at build time. The license must explicitly permit distribution of software built from modified source code. The license may require derived works to carry a different name or version number from the original software.

5. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups.

The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons.

6. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor.

The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in a specific field of endeavor. For example, it may not restrict the program from being used in a business, or from being used for genetic research.

7. Distribution of License.

The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program is redistributed without the need for execution of an additional license by those parties.

8. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product.

The rights attached to the program must not depend on the program's being part of a particular software distribution. If the program is extracted from that distribution and used or distributed within the terms of the program's license, all parties to whom the program is redistributed should have the same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the original software distribution.

9. License Must Not Contaminate Other Software.

The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with the licensed software. For example, the license must not insist that all other programs distributed on the same medium must be open-source software.


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Source: http://www.opensource.org/osd.html


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Annex 3: Guidelines for Designing ICTs for Rural Areas of Developing Countries

1. Use of wireless technologies

Within the access and local loop network – the part of the telecommunications network connecting the customer to the nearest local exchange or network node – wireless technologies have been recognized as providing significant lifetime cost benefits in rural areas in cases where cable deployment is found to be uneconomic. These benefits include ease and speed of installation in harsh terrain and extremely remote areas, smaller investment increments and avoidance of copper cable theft, among others.

2. Implementation in low frequency bands

When using terrestrial wireless systems in sparsely populated rural areas, the use of low frequency bands - typically under 1 GHz - is often necessary in order to achieve sufficient coverage to make the provision of services economically viable. The lower the frequency band, the longer the range will be at a given power level. For example, a GSM base station operating in the 400 MHz band can cover five times the area of a GSM base station operating at 1800 or 1900 MHz.

3. Modularity and scalability

Service providers in rural areas often lack sufficient data to accurately assess the demand for services in a given region. Therefore, modular systems are preferable that allow the network to be built out as needed, and at the lowest incremental cost. Since rural networks can serve anywhere from a few tens to thousands of subscribers, scalability is also an extremely important economic consideration.

4. Remote network management

One of the most successful technology strategies for minimizing the operation and maintenance costs of rural installations has been the shift of network functions to remote management systems. Travel to rural areas for network configuration, maintenance and repairs increases the risks and expenses for network operators. To the extent that systems installed in rural areas can be managed from remote facilities, reducing the need for physical trips to the installation sites, they will have lifetime cost advantages over systems that require on-site maintenance. Remote fault monitoring, configuration, tariff adjustment and electronic payment systems have proven so successful in lowering the lifetime costs of rural and remote payphones that they are now considered the industry standard.

5. Simplified user terminal configuration and operation

Rural communities often lack the technical skills needed to install, configure and upgrade software on a typical personal computer. This makes it difficult to promote effective, broad-based use of Internet resources. Computers and thin clients which can be managed over communication lines can help reduce the costs resulting from poor maintenance as well as the high failure rate associated with training rural inhabitants in the complexities of PC hardware and software configuration. Information appliances designed to support one or two specific tasks, such as e-mail or WWW browsing, may also help reduce ongoing costs by minimizing the number of breakable parts, offering simplified operating systems, providing one-touch buttons for Internet connection, etc.

6. Flexible user interface design

The end users of connectivity-based services in rural areas of developing countries may be unfamiliar with telephones, computers and technology in general. A certain proportion of potential users will be illiterate or semi-literate, and they may have cultural behaviors which make it difficult to use certain types of user interfaces. Input and output mechanisms incorporating icons, voice-


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based instructions, choice of language and text may improve usability for rural customers, and hence revenue generation for service providers.

7. Long life cycles

Unlike business and consumer markets in developed countries, rural markets in developing countries can not sustain rapid turnover of equipment every two to three years. Most systems will take at least three years to recover initial investment, some much longer than that. Equipment designed for deployment in rural areas of developing countries should durable, rugged and "future proof" to the extent possible. Provisions must also be made for servicing, repairing and providing spare parts for the equipment over at least five to ten years.

8. Multi-user terminals

The developed country standard of a telephone in every household – and a computer on every desktop – is much too costly for the income levels in rural areas of developing countries. As a result, many countries have encouraged the development of local phone shops and multi-purpose community telecenters (MPCs) where villagers can access telephones, e-mail, educational media, training courses, telemedicine, and other related services on a pay-as-you-go basis. Telephones and information technology devices installed in shared facilities may require metering functions, software to manage multiple accounts or users, and other specialized payment or billing systems.

9. Standards compliance

A wide variety of actors are involved in the design of applications and IT networks in rural areas. Governmental, educational, international and non-governmental organizations in developing countries routinely design and implement IT projects to support their own applications. As a result, it is even more important, now and in the future, that equipment used in rural and remote areas conforms to standards approved by the ITU and other recognized standards bodies. Software applications should support open protocols applicable to ISO layers 3 and higher, and should comply fully with relevant ITU recommendations on LAN/PSTN interconnection.

10. Low power requirements

Since many rural areas are not connected to their country's main power grids, power requirements are a critical consideration in technology selection for rural areas. Devices should be designed for minimal power consumption, efficient power management, compatibility with off-grid and renewable energy systems, and other energy conserving features.


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Annex 4: List of Focus Group 7 Members

First NameLast Name

Organization E-mail

Salou Abdou Network Planner, SONITEL - Niger

[email protected]

Lucio Adame Comision Federal de Telecomunicaciones - Mexico

[email protected]

Akuyo Enyonam Adjafo T. Togo Telecom Not available

Fidelia Akpo ITU/BDT [email protected]

Saud Al-Tiwaniy Ministry PTT - Oman [email protected]

Paolo Amadesi EUTELSAT [email protected]

David Barr DFB and Associates [email protected]

Roberto Bastidas ITU Regional Office - Honduras [email protected]

Romeo Bertolini Romeo Bertolini, Center for Development Research (ZEF Bonn)

[email protected]

Luis Bonifaz OSIPTEL - Peru [email protected]

Jennifer Bosworth CompassRose Int. [email protected]

Rolando Bottoni Telecom Italia [email protected]

Matthew W. Botwin PanAmSat Corporation [email protected]

Vishnu-Mohan Calindi ITU - BDT [email protected]

Guy Cayla TRT Lucent Technologies [email protected]

Claude-Yves Charron ORBICOM [email protected]

Jane Coffin AT&T, Legal & Government Affairs

[email protected]

G. Cosenza Telespazio SPA [email protected]

Alfons De Weerdt Alcatel - Belgium [email protected]

Abdel Wahab Dembele ONATEL - Burkina Faso [email protected]

Dr. C. David Dow Westel [email protected]

Roxana Dunnette Worldspace Corporation [email protected]

Lars Engvall ITC-COM3 [email protected]

Jose Escudero TC2 International Ltd / USA [email protected]

Edward Farell E Farell Consulting Co. Ltd [email protected]

Hassan Fathi Ismael OPT - Djibouti Not available

Claude Garnier Consultant [email protected]

Maurice Ghazal Ministry of PTT - Lebanon [email protected]

Guy Girardet ITU/BDT [email protected]

Darío Goussal Rural Telecommunications Research Group

[email protected]

Kanti N. Gunawardana ITU Regional Office - Asia Pacific [email protected]


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Roger Harris Universiti Malaysia Sarawak [email protected]

Muhammad Javed Pakistan Telecommunication Authority

[email protected]

Jean Jipguep CTR Group Ltd. [email protected]

Yasuhiko Kawasumi Japan Telecom Co. Ltd [email protected]

Jung Thapa Kedar Ministry of Information and Communication - Nepal

[email protected]

Nabil Kisrawi S.T.E - Syria [email protected]

Toru Kizuka KEC [email protected]

Ken Lee GHS [email protected]

Hong-Lim Lee Korea Telecom Geneva Office [email protected]

Yamashita Makoto NTT Geneva Office [email protected]

Peter Malmberg Tele Greenland [email protected]

Didier Malnoury Schlumberger [email protected]

Rebecca Mayer ITU [email protected]

Nopparat Maythaveekulchai

Telephone Org. of Thailand [email protected]

Claire Milne Antelope Consulting [email protected]

Festo M. Mpundu INTELSAT [email protected]

Isao Nakajima Medical Dept. of Todai University [email protected]

Matano M. Ndaro Communications Commission of Kenya (CCK)

[email protected]

Eric Nelson Telecom Industry Association - USA

[email protected]

K. Ng'andu Ministry of Communications and Transport - Zambia

Not available

Takao Nitta Ministry of Posts and Telecom - Japan

[email protected]

Daniel Duncan Njiri Telkom Kenya Ltd Not available

Richard Ntaka Bosenge

Congo Telecentre [email protected]

Sean O'Siochru Nexus Research [email protected]

Debo Oyebode Chestrad International - Nigeria [email protected]

J. Paye Legay Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications - Liberia

Not available

Alessandra Pileri ITU/BDT [email protected]

Dr. Kader Pramanik Recruit Co. Ltd. [email protected]

V. Prashanth Network Admin, Econnect India Ltd

[email protected]

Eberhard Roegner DETECON [email protected]

Vilmar Rosa de Freitas

ANATEL - Brazil [email protected]


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John Rose UNESCO [email protected]

Christopher Rovero Winrock International [email protected]

Kenji Saga Asia University / Japan [email protected]

Yoshito Sakurai Telecommunications System Group Hitachi Ltd. - Japan

[email protected]

Kazuo Sasaki KDD Corporation [email protected]

Bornwell Siakanomba Ministry of Communications & Transport - Zambia

Not available

Sidharth Sinha Center for Telecom Policy Studies, Indian Institute of Management

[email protected]

Milenko Stojkovic INTELSAT [email protected]

Tran Thanh Ha Dept. General of Posts & Telecommunication - Vietnam

[email protected]

Judith Thom Caribbean Telecoms Union [email protected]

Svetoslav Tintchev World Bank [email protected]

Kenichiro Torigoe JTEC - Tokyo [email protected]

Phillip Trotter ITU [email protected]

Andrei Untila Ministry of Transportation & Communications - Moldova

[email protected]

Yoshiyori Urano Waseda University [email protected]

Joost Van Gestel MBC Europe BV [email protected]

Issah Yahaya Ministry of Communications - Ghana

[email protected]

Andreas W. Yanuardi RisTI - TELKOM Indonesia [email protected]

Josue Yongoro Ministry PTT - Central African Republic

[email protected]

Manuel Zaragoza ITU / BDT [email protected]


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Annex 5: Outline of proposed BDT training course on information appliances

Course Topic: Principles of information appliances, thin clients and thin servers

Module 1:

Introduction to information appliance and thin client technologies

Market assessments and strategic implications of net appliances

Module 2:Introduction to planning and deploying information services in a network appliance / thin client environment:

Network appliance / Thin client / server fundamentals

Network administration and quality of service fundamentals

Selecting and evaluating network and thin client technologies

Adaptation strategies for co-opting corporate and domestic products for deploying rural information services

Installation, communication and power considerations

Developing information service applications

Module 3:Maintenance and service development:

System configurations, protocols, load-balancing

Server requirements and implications server based application deployment,

Course Deployment

Course Module 1 would be designed as an executive briefing session delivered, among other methods, via the ITU Centers of Excellence, helping to create awareness at senior management levels of the possibilities of adapting network appliances and thin clients. Modules 2 and 3 would be targeted at management, engineers, ISPs and local applications developers looking to deploy such services within the field. These courses would be suitable for delivery via among others, the ITU Global Telecommunication University (GTU), Internet Training Centers, Centres of Excellence as well as national training centres.

Partnering with industry

In order to provide exposure to commercial products, current industry leaders and training bodies should be approached for their involvement in the course design, financing and delivery. Demonstration of product ranges as well as exposure to deployment issues relating to emerging standards would be beneficial to all of the participants involved.


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Footnotes


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