Interpretations of Interactive Media: Theories

Behind the Scenes of Interactivity

Cory Morrison

Contents:

SECTION I: DEFINING INTERACTIVITY … page 1

SECTION II: THEORIES OF INTERACTIVITY … page 4

SECTION III: OTHER THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION … page 7

SECTION IV: STEPPING STONES - NEW MEDIA TIMELINE … page 11

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A Denotes a topic later analyzed

1 Denotes a topic relative to advertising

SECTION I: DEFINING INTERACTIVITY

Interactivity

Interactivity is the mutual ability between a sender and a receiver to take part in the modification of contentA. While this does not have to happen in real time, interactivity proves to be more engaging if it does because the user gets to see a direct output of their input.

Two Ways that Interactivity Can Be Measured

Interactivity can be measured by “message dimensions” or “participant dimensions.” Message dimensions assess time, place and direction, while participant dimensions assess levels of control, responsiveness, and a design’s goalsB.

Search Engine Optimization (SEO)

SEO is the term used to describe the process a web publisher takes in order to make their site show up on search engine result pages (SERPs). Although it cannot be measured, it pays to have an interactive site.

Six Things that are Enhanced by Interactivity

1. Feedback 2. Control 3. Creativity 4. Productivity 5. Communications 6. Adaptivity

The Importance of Crossover

It is common for one site to have iconic links to other sites so that the two can share information. For example, there might be a link on the page of a news article that allows you to share it on Facebook. This creates a collaborative effort and emphasizes how intertwined the Web can be. With crossovers, the Web becomes less nonlinear1.

Interaction Design

Interaction design (IxD) is the nuts and bolts of an interactive piece. An interactive designer, often someone with a background in psychology, graphic design, programming, or sociology, determines how exactly something is going to be interactive2.

The Six Steps of Interactive Design

1. Research a. Personas are used to describe targets.

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2. Concept Generation a. May use storyboard to convey ideas.

3. Alternative Design and Evaluation a. Designing aspects of a plan as a safety net should something go awry.

4. Prototyping and Usability Testing a. Giving everything a trial run before implementation.

5. Implementation a. The building of the design itself.

i. Interactive designers should always be part of this process. 6. System Testing

a. The final test period before it is exposed.

Emotional Design Model

The Emotional Design Model recognizes that humans typically ascertain that something nicely designed automatically carries value, and vice versa3.

The Felt Experience of Technology

The Felt Experience notion explains that sensual, emotional, and intellectual ways of interacting yield the highest level of user investment. Imperative, therefore, is the ability to visualize an idea and show it through a container.

Three Essential Creative-Thinking Techniques

It is difficult to think creatively and logically simultaneously4, but mastering these three things will help:

1. Ability to conceive ideas. 2. Ability to communicate ideas. 3. Ability to critique, analyze and judge ideas.

Analysis of Section I: AWhile there are many levels of interactivity, the best interactive designs are the ones that tap into human emotion- something that makes us smile, ask questions, or laugh because something is so wildly cool. B“Message dimensions” refer to the behind-the-scenes part of an interactive design, while “participant dimensions” refer to what is tangible for the reader to be exposed to and be a part of.

Relevance of Section I to the Advertising Industry: 1Like the Web, an advertising campaign should also be nonlinear. It is beneficial and common for an ad campaign often to cross multiple mediums, but each ad must maintain a sense of continuity. Everything should look and sound the same.

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2One interesting part of working in advertising, especially in an agency setting, is the diversity of people within the industry. Many advertisers do not hold degrees in advertising or communications. These people do fine, though, because there are components of advertising that are applicable to anyone with any skill set. 3If a brand seems to control the advertising of a particular industry, such as Gatorade with sports drinks, people are more likely to assume that it is the best option out there. 4Advertisers face the challenge of needing to create something that is new, relevant, and logical. The coolest idea may not yield the best results, so it is imperative to be able to apply logic to an idea before going further in the creative process.

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SECTION II: THEORIES OF INTERACTIVITY

Mutual Awareness and Collective Consumption

When both the consumer and designer understand the goals and relevance of a design, it is referred to as mutual awareness. When one person’s interaction with a design is influenced by another person’s, it is referred to as collective consumption.

Entropy

Entropy is the perfect amount of communicationA. Claude Shannon’s mathematical approach to communication illustrates this: why have an elaborate math equation if a shorter one can produce the same result? An example of entropy is the use of redundancy, which is used to offset noise (distractions) interfering with a message. Redundancy can engrain a message better, but too much of it will decrease its impact1.

Decoding a Message

Users decode messages in different ways: correspondingly and noncorrespondingly. Corresponding decoding occurs when a message cannot be interpreted any differently than how it was intended to be interpreted (i.e. a telegraph operator and receiver see the same dots and dashes). Noncorresponding decoding occurs when a user interprets a message differently than what was intended.

The Seven Traditions of Communication Theory

Robert Craig determined that the following were traditions of communication:

1. Rhetorical - the art of discourse 2. Semiotic - communication by signage, or visuals 3. Phenomenological - the experience of something new 4. Cybernetic - information processing 5. Sociopsychological - expression, interaction, and influence 6. Sociocultural - production of social order 7. Critical - how a new topic relates to an old one

Activity Theory

Activity theory refers to the notion that in order for people to achieve goals and or desired lifestyles, they alter their life path. A man who wants to leave one industry for another may go back to school for a new degree, thus changing his profession and lifestyle to that of a student, for example.

Symbolic Interaction Principles

Symbolic interaction refers to the notion that we are defined by how we react to things around us. People act and react to things based on how they define situationsB.

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Social Network Theory

The social network theory describes the relationship between members of social systems. Mark Granovetter found that boundaries (ties) of these social systems (nodes) can be weak or strong, and thus determine how effective information dissemination can be2. Strong boundaries limit interaction while weak boundaries encourage it. For example, sites like Facebook and MySpace have weak boundaries, allowing users to share as much information as they’re comfortable with. This lets users of these networks achieve a high level of information sharing.

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

The diffusion of innovation theory refers to how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technologies are accepted into a society.

Online Communities Theory

Online communities are groups of people who communicate primarily onlineC. According to Pareto’s Law, 20 percent of the people do 80 percent of the posting in online communities. Peter Kollock used this theory to explain why people do this:

1. A sense of belonging. 2. An opportunity to speak and then see how their input is part of a system’s output.

a. Anticipated reciprocity- the notion that people will contribute if they expect to get something in return.

Analysis of Section II: AFinding entropy is no easy task. Since there is no way to measure what is too much or not enough in regard to communication, communicators must study user feedback. User feedback is sometimes hard to obtain, but the qualitative data it can bring is of great value. BThe symbolic interaction principle has merit, but as much as people think they form their own opinions, other factors influence them as well. For example, a person may determine on their own that a certain act is bad, but if that person sees someone else being punished for something, their opinion shaping is dependent on that other person’s repercussions. CThe online communities theory will become more relevant in the future as the Web creates more cyber spaces for interaction. Cyber communities have already become meeting places for real-world communities, which adds to the demise of the already-worn human-to-human interaction.

Relevance of Section II to the Advertising Industry: 1Some ads overuse redundancy. Ads like these reinforce the annoyance stigma most people attach to advertising. Redundancy can be a powerful tool in advertising just as it

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can be in writing. It can reinforce brands like Geico or Verizon, both of which have many ads in continuous circulation. The Emotional Design Model is applicable here because people associate value with a company that advertises a lot. A great example of redundancy is Nike’s “My Better is Better than Your Better” commercial, which illustrates the same message multiple times using different people. It can be seen here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sQ7Q2oE1Wc0. 2Ads with weak boundaries allow for more user interactivity. An ad sticks more if users can interact with it and figure it out on their own. The “show don’t tell” practice in advertising emphasizes that showing something to someone is more affective because it allows him or her to interpret it. However, if boundaries are too weak, users will not care enough to interact. An example of this would be a design with far too many choices, as the user would be unsure of how to approach it.

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SECTION III: OTHER THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

Uses and Gratification Theory

The uses and gratification theory focuses on what people do with a particular media and why they do it. This theory also explains how people leverage communication to fulfill their needs, which are outlined by Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas to be:

1. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding. 2. Affective needs - emotional experiences. 3. Personal integrative needs - credibility, confidence, and status. 4. Social integrative needs - contact with family and friends, and the outside world. 5. Escapist needs - escape, tension release, and something different.

Denis McQuail illustrated the U&G theory when he outlined reason people watch televisionA:

1. To identify with someone of value1. 2. Having a substitute for real-life companionship. 3. To escape and relax.

Knowledge Gap Theory

The Knowledge Gap Theory refers to the notion that with each new medium that is created, the gap between the information rich and information poor widens. Furthermore, technological innovations are great for some people but inaccessible for others, creating a knowledge gapB.

The Diffusion of Innovations Theory

The Diffusion of Innovations Theory, which studies the social process of how innovations become known throughout society, is a large component of the Knowledge Gap Theory. Everett Rogers, a researcher of this theory, outlined the characteristics of an innovation that are considered the most when people are determining their usefulness and possible impact2:

1. Relative advantage - how much better is this innovation than the one preceding it? 2. Compatibility - does this innovation reflect who I am and what I need? 3. Complexity - is this innovation going to have a big learning curve? 4. Observability - are the impacts of this innovation obvious?

The Spiral of Silence Theory

From the Spiral of Silence Theory comes the idea that people who feel they are in the minority are less likely to voice their opinions than people in the majority. Media creates a particular consensus over time and people are less likely to challenge that consensus for fear of isolationC.

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Powerful Effects Theory

The Powerful Effects Theory states that the effects of media are most powerful when they reach people in multiple ways3. For instance, one is probably likelier to trust a media story if he or she sees it on multiple platforms.

The Power Law Effect

The Power Law Effect is a lot like the Emotional Design Model because it explains how people follow in others’ footsteps. Google is a perfect example. The top search results on Google often hold that status because people see that they are at the top and people assume the top results get the most clicks.

Framing Concept/Theory

Framing refers to the basis and rationale for a behavior using a container of something else to justify itD. Furthermore, to make sense of events we categorize them. Categorization creates frames, which may not necessarily be based on reality.

Propaganda Theory

Propaganda’s goal is to manipulate the receiver of a message for the sole benefit of the sender. Therefore, the receiver gets nothing in return. While propaganda has an entirely heightened stigma to it because of dictators like Adolf Hitler, the idea behind it is applicable to media communications4.

Persuasion Theory

The Persuasion Theory is similar to the Propaganda Theory, as it refers to how senders can change attitudes of receivers. An example of persuasion theory could be the use of fear to change attitudes5. There are many techniques of persuasion, but perhaps the most popular and influential are the use of:

1. Stimulating visuals 2. Humor 3. Sexual appeal 4. Repetition

Perception Theory

Perception Theory states that the process of interpreting information is complex, and that this process is determinate on past experience, cultural expectations, motivations, and mood and attitudes of a user. Perception theory encompasses four main points:

1. Selective perception - people are influenced by their individual wants, attitudes, and needs.

2. Selective exposure, attention, and retention - people expose themselves to messages that are consistent with their values, and avoid messages that are not. They use selective attention to filter what they expose themselves to, and selective retention to recall and reinforce these established values.

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Analysis of Section III: AAnother reason people watch television and movies is to live vicariously through an actor. For example, someone who watches 24 likely wants to be the hardcore, powerful government agent Jack Bauer. BA popular belief is that the Knowledge Gap Theory will die out as the current tech-savvy generation grows. However, it is important to realize that this knowledge gap will likely occur forever because new innovations do. Most young adults and kids probably think that they are incapable of losing track of technology, but later in their lives with inevitable huge breakthroughs (like the Internet was), they are likely to fall victim of the knowledge gap simply because they will not interact with the technology like younger people will. CThe Spiral of Silence Theory is challenged often because people who feel they are in the minority can conceal their identity online and still be able to speak. Since this is a relatively new concept compared to when the theory was developed, the Spiral of Silence Theory is not as valid as it once was. DAn example of this could be Adolf Hitler, who used framing as way to justify the information he was exposing to Germans. His frame was nationalism, which consequentially incorporated a need to exterminate a race that “challenged” Germany’s ability to grow. We now label what Hitler did as propaganda, but propaganda is an example of framing.

Relevance of Section III to the Advertising Industry: 1Advertisements sometimes feature a person in the target audience so that the target can more easily identify with the message that figure is communicating. 2Relative advantage and observability are also key advertising strategies. Since advertising is about changing people to a mind set that has value and otherwise would not have been exposed to them, it is important for the target to understand how something is better than what they consider normal. Observability is crucial to advertising as well because for someone to stick with a particular brand, he or she must see the direct benefits of it. 3The Powerful Effects Theory can be used as an outline for advertising campaigns because it outlines how a campaign should be implemented to be successful. From an advertiser’s standpoint, successful advertising campaigns have clear objectives, defined audiences, persuasion methods, and themes that stress the message being conveyed. Furthermore, these themes can also be referred to as campaign continuity. When all of these add up, a campaign can be repetitive because each component of the campaign is working in different ways with the same motive in mind. 4Advertising “propaganda” is most commonly referred to as subliminal advertising. Subliminal advertising was popular in the mid 1900s, but has since died down. However, many desperate advertisers use it as a way to change people for their own benefit, the idea behind propaganda.

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5The “fear card” is pulled far too often. Recently, people have begun to think that Truth ads are losing their effect because they are too scary. Fear can be a great way to advertise, but too much of it leaves a feeling of distaste in the consumer’s mouth. A good use of fear is illustrated in Volkswagen’s crash commercials, where the actors are shown conversing cordially before suddenly getting into a severe collision.

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SECTION IV: STEPPING STONES- NEW MEDIA TIMELINE

0

2000

4000

6000

1995 1996 1997 1998 2000 2001 2002

NorthAmericanNewspapersOnline

1,0001,1001,2001,3001,4001,500

1997 1998 1999 2001

TelevisionStationswithWebsites

05001000150020002500

1996 1999

RadioStationswithOnlineBroadcasting

0

10,000,000

20,000,000

30,000,000

19921994199519961997199819992000

AmericaOnline(AOL)Subscribers

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Notable New Media Moments from 1969 to 2009:

1969 -New York Times develops its Information Bank

-ARPANET is commissioned by the U.S. government

1970 -J.C.R. Licklider becomes first director of ARPANET’s Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO)

-The first wireless computer networking system, Alohanet, is created

1971 -First electronic mail message sent on ARPANET

-Email addresses start using the “@” symbol

1972 -Robert Kahn and Larry Roberts demonstrate ARPANET to the public

-Atari releases Pong

1973 -The idea of Ethernet is conceptualized by Bob Metcalfe

-The Alto Minicomputer, one of the first PC prototypes, is created

1974 -Johnathan Titus releases a book describe how to build your own computer

-Robert Kahn writes “A Protocol for Packet Network Communication”

1975 -The Altair 8800, the first successful personal computer, is created

- Bill Gates partners with Ed Roberts, creator of the Altair personal computer

1976 - Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak form Apple

-The Apple I is introduced by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak

1977 -The Apple II personal computer is introduced

-The Atari 2600 video game console is released

1978 -The Internet Protocol (IP) is created

-The first computer spreadsheet, VisiCalc, is created

1979 -The Sony Walkman is released

-Prestel, an interactive videotex system, is created

1980 -IBM hires Microsoft to create an operating system for its computers

-Apple becomes publicly traded

1981 -IBM’s first personal computer is released

-The PC-DOS operating system used by this IBM computer is marketed as MS-DOS

1982 -Compaq begins selling computers similar to IBM’s

-Adobe is founded

1983 -Apple introduces the Lisa, which uses a mouse and graphical user interface

-The Nexis database is created

1984 -The Macintosh is released by Apple.

- The Macintosh launch was made famous by the commercial “1984”

1985 -The Windows operating system by Microsoft is introduced

-The Nintendo gaming console is released

1986 -Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is founded

-Microsoft becomes publicly traded

1987 -The National Science Foundation is founded to connect five supercomputer research centers

-HyperCard, a hypertext authoring system, becomes part of all Macintoshes

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1988 -The Moving Pictures Expert Group develops the foundation for what will later become MP3

-An internet worm disables 6,000 Internet host computers, prompting the creation of the Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) to address hackers and electronic crimes

1989 -Tim Berners-Lee proposes the World Wide Web

-The Game Boy is released

-Quantum becomes “America Online”

1990 -The prototype for the World Wide Web is released

-Windows 3.0 is released

1991 -The World Wide Web is released

-A DOS version of American Online is released

1992 -SMS messaging debuts

-The Delphi dial-up service provides public access to the Internet

1993 -Web Cams debut. One of the first is on the campus of Cambridge University

-Microsoft launches its first internet site

1994 -The first digital camera, the Kodak NC2000, is introduced

-The White House launches its first website

-The Sony Playstation gaming console is released

1995 -The concept of DVDs is finalized

-The use of the Web to obtain news is heightened after the Oklahoma City bombing

1996 -The first instant messaging program, ICQ, is released

-Adobe Flash, Dreamweaver, and Acrobat are released

-The Nintendo 64 gaming console is introduced and transforms 3D gaming

1997 -78% of U.S. public schools are connected to the Internet

-Blogs are debuted

-43% of U.S. homes have personal computers

1998 -The Justice Department sues Microsoft for practicing monopolistic principles

-Windows ’98 is released

-Google opens its first office

1999 -Final Cut Pro is released

-Napster launches

-Blogger launches

-Craigslist launches

-Google finishes testing its beta version

2000 -The CueCat reader becomes a way to advertise in magazines

-The Sony Playstation 2 gaming console is released

-Election night between George Bush and Al Gore floods the Web with activity

2001 -Wikipedia launches

-Napster shuts down following a piracy lawsuit

-51% of U.S. home have at least one mobile phone

-The iTunes music store launches for PC

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-The Xbox gaming console is released

-The September 11th terrorist attacks flood the Internet with activity and sparks a large rise in Internet activity in the years to follow

2002 -Second Life debuts

-The Nielsen/NetRatings firm states that from 1973 to 2002, the number of Internet users increased from 2,000 to 428 million

2003 -MySpace launches

-Skype launches

-The iTunes music store becomes available for Mac

-LinkedIn launches

2004 -Flickr launches

-Facebook launches

- The FCC introduces broadband via telephone companies

2005 -YouTube launches

-Google Earth launches

-The first real assessment of Web 2.0 is written

2006 -Twitter launches

-A study determines that computer usage only falls behind television usage

2007 -The iPhone is released

-YouTube hosts the presidential candidate debate

2008 -1,000,000 Internet users have Facebook accounts

-40 year anniversary of the mouse

2009 -Google Wave debuts.

-Verizon Droid debuts.