A middle school class studies marine life during a field trip to a wildlife preserve maintained by an electric service corn

The K-12 curriculum should develop understanding of theinterrelatdness of science, technology, and society.

Toward NewMeaning forSchoolScienceROBERT E. YAGER

here has been a complete turn-around of support for science

T education since 1976. New de-mands for excellence appear every-where; new funds are available from theNational Science Foundation, industry,the states, the National Institute of Edu-cation, the Department of Education,and a variety of other government agen-cies and private foundations. Few ques-tion the need for excellence; few doubtthat achieving excellence will requiremajor funding.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP12

The times arc cxciting !et caution iswarranted. The prol)lcils that hax-e cap-tured the attentiol of politicians and thepublic ma! onl he sy!niptolis of morescrious problchms that arc not being ad-dressed. If thlat is te case,. therc may. belittle financial support for rcsolsing themajor factors of the crrenlt crisis andltoo much for maskinlg thie s!mptomils. Arceview of specific studies con(ductcd dur-ing the past fcs !calrs suggests tile depthof the problel.

Recent Assessments of School ScienceIn 1976 the National Scicelcc l'ounllda-tion (NSF) funded three massiv e statusstudies in response to public demandsfor halting support for curriculull de-sclopmcnt and teacher education pro-

jects. When these studlies bccaic asail-able thro years later (Ilclgcson andothers, 197,; Stake and ';aslce. 1978;Weiss. 1978). NSI' assardcd separatecontracts to nine profecssional organiza-tions to read the 2, t()00 pages of inforila-tion and report their significance (NSI".1979). NSF also awsardcd three largeresearch grants to conduct sniithesisstudies in mathematics I()slornlc1977). social studies (SPAN. 190)., andscience (I armis and Kahll. 19811) Inaddition, it created a ncIe programlcalled Rcscarch in Scicnce Education(RISE). wshich marked NSF's first ismoxcinto research in tile discipline of scieneeeducation per se Sceral RISI: studlieswere reported ill NS'TA's "What Re-search Says to the Scicncc TI acher"monograph series (Yagcr. 1982). A\othl-cr RISE project (turd alld others. 1981 )focused on middle and jtlior highschool seience.

The National Scicncc Tcachlers Asso-ciation (NSTA). thce largest society inthe wsorld dedicated to science cdluca-tion, also initiatcd a major status studs.In 1978 it published a \working paper onithe accomplishments and necds dluringthe preceding txso decades of pulblicsupport; in 198() its research comniittcccomplctcd a major analsis of tIle 1978paper (NSTA. 1978; Yager. 198().

P.F. Brandsecin (1981). a respectedteacher, rescarchlcr lecturer. authlor,and editor. published his osn asscss-ment of the current situation anll analy-sis of the imiliediate past. Hlis reportadds insights and suggests ncxw direc-tions.

Collecti\cls, these studies pro\idc arich information basc--one that shouldbe used as nces paths are charted. Thefollowing is a sumnlary of their findingsin five areas.

Curriculum. Thc existing science

curriculum focuses on the traditionaldisciplines of biology. cheistr-. ph!s-ics. and earth science. and is controlledby the textbook. Rclatieclk feos sciencetexts are used across the K 1-2 spectrunl:three at each grad leveI l covcr all thescience that over hto-thirds of all stu-dents learn ill school. These texthtxoksemphasizce content in a discipline con-text. strcssing the concepts and swordsunique to science. The \ ocabularn ofscience at a gicien grade leIel is oftengreater than the \ocabulanr studentsmust learn swhen taking a forcign lan-guagc. In general. schllool scicncc closc-I1 mirrors thc science that teachers cx-periclnccd Iil their owsn college courses.and is appropriate onl; for tIle fcs'students ssho aspire to land e\en fccrwho attain) careers as professiolnal scien-tists and engineers.

Instruction. Tcachers tend to follomsthe textbook closels and use it as theirprimarn tool of instructioll. hecre is noes idcnce that students cvcr learn sciencebh! direct cxpericnce. TIhey rarcl- cxperi-ment on their o iin; most so-called "lab-oratorics" are Vcrification exercises. Stu-dents seldoml carnr out an experimcilt

ithout the text. teacher. or both has ingalrcad! related "nhat is supposcd tohappen." Tcachcr s tend to present sci-nce \ ia lectures ith qucestionl-and-

answcer techniiques; fc- are asware of anl!instructional strategies other than directteaching. :\nd niost instruction iswIhol-group p geared to thce axeragc stl-dent.

Elaluation. Evaluatioll centers oilrecall of specific inforillation that stu-dents enlcounlter in textbooks. lectures.or other class activitics. 'T!pical ques-tions cmphlasize the mlealling of w-ordsand concepts; soieC activitics at thcehigher grade Iccls require mathllilati-cal problem solting. ln such instances.emphasis is invariabl on stating "cor-rect" solutions to pre-planmed prob-lemns. 'Thcrc is little cvidence that stu-dents arc Xecr tested for their abiliht touse information or do an!tlliing otherthan acquire knios;lcdgc.

Teachers. Man- teachers onCC aspiredto careers il science and enginerinig.not tceaching. c\%w arc as-are of researchinto learning. vet mnost wsant to ilmprovetheir subiject matter preparation. Fewer

Robert E. Yager is Protessor and Head.Science Education, The University ofIowa, Iowa City. Iowa.

have been involved with insenice pro-grams, largely because of the decline inNSF funds for such activitics. In addi-tion. science teachers as a group arcaging swiftlv.

Elementar' School Science. Scienceat the clenentanr lecel has special prob-lens:

The thpical elcllenltan scince espenrenlrof most students is at best sen limited.Science is usuallh taught at the end of theday. if there is time. bs a teacher sio haslittle interest. experienoc. or training toteach science. Although some limited equip-mIent is available. it usually remains unused.The lesson will prohabl! come from a text-book selected bh a comlmittcc of tcachers atthe school or from teacher-prepared work-sheets. It %vill consist of reading and memo-rizing some science facts related to a concepttoo abstract to be s'ell understood bh thestudent but selected because it is "in thebook" IHartis and Y'ager. 19811

Science Education and Its Results onStudentsIf college entrance examinations arcaccurate indicators of learning. studentsare learning less. Scores have continuedto decline as public coneenis have in-tensified. but the reason for this is notclear. After all. the basic content ofscience. the currimculum sequence.tceaching styles. and modes of ca-aluationhave been extremnel uilifoml across thesears.

Studies of secondanr school (and col-lege) students and their science Cxperi-ences have been most rescaling (Miller.Suchner. and \'oclker. 1980.: oelker.1982). Although the investigators stud-ied onl! four basic concepts. they foundno growth in concept masters over thesecondars school years and. further.that mans factors other than schoolsciencec were affecting learning.

Miller and \'oclker sere interested in.hat makes students attentive to science

and technology -that is. why some stu-dents arc interested in and informedabout science and technologs- and knowhowx to further that know-ledge. Ninctypercent of high school graduates in theU.S. are not attentive to science andtechnologs. nor is there anm esidenee tosuggest that requiring more sciencer ascurrently conceived) would make themmore attentive.

The affectise items in the T'hlird As-scssmcnt of Science b- the NationalAssessmcnt of Educational Progress(NAEP. 1978) provide other informa-tion about the results of science instruc-tion in schools. This information hasbeen updated by recent investigators(Hueftle and others. 1983; Rakow,1983; Yagcr and Bonnstetter. 1983;

DF.CEMBLH 1983/lANcARS 1984 13

DEF.cFMBER 1983/IANUIARY 19841 13;

"The place ofscience andtechnology inaffecting society-and of societyaffecting iheprogress of scienceand technology-provides a contextfor science and animportant vehiclefor approachinggoal areas."

Yager and Pcnick. 1983; Yager andYager, 1983). Generally, science teach-ers, especially at the secondary levcel, areperceived as "knowing" science and as"answer-givers." Students like scienceless and regard it as less exciting thelonger they are in school. Only 10percent are scientifically literate ("atten-tive" to scicnce) by the time they gradu-ate.

When the results of standard curricu-la and traditional instruction are so uln-successful, it seems especially inappro-priate for public leaders to call forgreater requirements in science and todemand more rigor in the classroom.

The Rationale for School ScienceThe NSF-supported Project Synthesisresearch may he the most definitive ofthe assessments made in the past se-cenyears (Harms and Kahl, 1981). O()neimportant aspect of this studs was theidentification of four goal areas forschool science:

I. Science for meeting the personalneeds of students in their e-crvdas lives.

2. Science for helping students re-solse current societal issues.

3. Science for assisting students inbecoming aware of potential careers intoday's world.

4. Science for preparing students forfurther studs.

Although soIme tcachers gi-e lip ser-vice to a varict! of goals (Yager andlStodghill. 1979), in practice rmost col-sider onis acadlcnlic goals (Stake andEaslcy, 1978 liarms anid Y ager. 1981 )The almost unifornl focus (andl justifica-tion) for science instruction is its valueas preparation for furthcr forrnal stud- ofscience-- uhich reducces the impnrtalnccof the stud- of science for tnost peoplelcsecr students uill elect to contirlnetaking science corircs if the sole pur-pose is additiolnal stud!- \lost studentsdo riot continue r ith college strhld-; n stwill not graduate from college, and themajoriht of those Who (lo uill riot comnplete a major in science or tcchnolog! .The existing focus for school scicnce isself-defeating It seC'IIs to hce a ellCcais ofdisillusioninig the majorit--tle nmajor-iht that is the citizeilrs of the fuiturc

There is also a niajor problem \iththe definition of scieiice education.Mlanv science teachers anid others definescience as that content suliich is tradi-tionalls stidied in a class called "sci-ence. ' Such a \-ic ignores the essentialingredients of science as a basic entcr-prisc of the hurlaun pecies The sciencetraditionallh studied in schools tends tobe the content that scienitists ha\-e dis-covcred/dceeloped/discerncd It is re-garded as a gi\vcn--much like spelling.or arithnietic, or rules of grammiar

In reality. science has three ingredi-ents. It is, first of all, an exploration ofthe universc. Unfortunatel. the typicalschool discourages curiosity and explo-ration of the natural ssorld and, hence,the first feature of real science-tr. ofdeveloping the ability to improvse one'sskills for exploring nature.

The second ingredient of science isthe attempt to explain ecents and objectsencountered during exploration. Theformation of such explanations is essen-tial, vet it too is discouraged in mostschool curricula. especiall in tradition-al science programs. Because teacherssimply do not ask for student explala-tions. students have no chance to ini-prove themselves by offering better ex-planations. Again, it seems that scienceeducation is alien to the basic nature ofscience.

The third feature of scicnce is tlhetesting of explanations. Strdenlts nlstbe encouraged to Cdevelop irmcreasiiglybetter skills while dc\ising and carryingout tests on their own ideas But. alas,the school rarely encourages or c\cnallows students to devise their ouin cx-periments.

Rcsol iiig the current crisis in scinceceducation ill lnicanr focusing on goralsother thall acadeilic preparation. It wsillrcquire a constanit reminder of thesebasic ingred(icnts of scicncc.

Sciencefl'echnology/Society:A New Curriculum FocusT he Natioial Science TeI cacihers \soci-ation has proclaiimed that the primlur!focus of school scicllce for thie 198l(shoull be oil the rclationsllill I)ctssccIIscience and socict (iNSI A. 19821:

'[hc goail ,f sice(ce cdrctron (l dtiring tihe198(h is t, dcx\ lop xcientificall 5 literate lldl-,iduals x\tho i(nIitrcrstaild holk sci nccc. tichllnolog, illd sucict\ ilfleiicne o'c illlotheranld xhod arc ;lble tio I1se this kloxdlcldge intheir cxcrXdlax dCci(sio-lllakilrg 1he T lcc-tifical l litcrto pcrsoioi hs 1 shst iti.iklrou lcdgc bhsc of flcts. (oiccpts. corcll -al n Ct\or . anl d I)rocess skills \ich catlIblCtile ridinddidial to COlltlrlnc tIo lcard alld thinklogicall. -Ih li idi\ldllual bohth iarpprciatesthe xallic of scicncc and tcchnologl ig socic-hx aild rnxcrstInclxl the Iir liititonls

IiThe place of science an(d teclinlliog,in affecting socicts-and of societ! af-fecting the progress of science and tcch-nolog!-prox idcs a context for scienceand an inlportanlt elhicle for approach-ing goal areas. 'Icchlunolr g u-as clirni-natedl from the science progranls of the60s as national curriculhuil dcxclpersconcentrated on idcntif ing unif iligthemes (that is. the colnccptual franic-uorks. big ideas, and basic structircl) ofthe sariorus disciplines to use as courseand curriculuni organizers. Thce spentmuch time builcling strong lines of dce-lincation bhcn ccn science and tcclinolo-g'. By deepening this lince and broaden-ing the gap beht\cen science andtechnologs. they robbed rclcanucc alrrdreal mcarniig fronl the school scicnccprogram.

In mans respects. technology rcenaillsthe uiknoriol in a science/tecc lnolog!/societh perspectise-- one of the rlajororganizers uwithin Project Ssnthesis. anrdNSF-supported effort for identitfing theideal state of science education andcontrasting it uith actual conditionis.Project Ss-nthlesis accepted a ratherbroad definition of techiolog!. \rhichlincludes both "hard" and "soft" tech-nolog. I lard tcclnologN cncollmpassesall hardsarc, ranging from the firstcrude \ucapons and tools of prinuitikcman to the most sophisticated comnput-er. Soft tcchnology includes thIe sstenlllsinvol\-cd in the developmcnt and use rftechnological dec-ices. as ue-ll as tlhesystems inriolel il solrilg prohblcms inindustry and socicth at large, includingbehavior modification. Louw-lcs-cl tcch-

EDnUCAt il)NAI. LEADERSHIP14

nology is the work of semi-skilled tech-nicians: wiring a lamp, changing a tire.or changing a washer in a faucet.

The traffic control system in a com-munity, for instance, involves all threetechnologies. The lights, timing mecha-nisms, machines that stripe the roads,and signs and surfaces are all hard tech-nologies. The system designed to con-trol the traffic-laws, timing sequences,maintenance schedules, procedures foranalyzing and evaluating the svstem-are all soft technologies. And changingburned-out lights, installing trafficlights, or striping roads are all low-leveltechnologies. The impact of the entiretraffic control system on individuals andsociety is an example of the science/technology/socieht interface.

Project Synthcsis identified eight ar-eas of concern within that interface.They include cnerg', population, hu-man engineering, environmental quali-ty, use of natural resources, nationaldefense and space, sociology of science,and the effects of technological develop-ment.

In 1982. NSTA initiated a programcalled Search for Excellence in ScienceEducation (SESE), which used the ide-al conditions developed in Proiect Syn-thesis as its criteria for excellence. Thesecriteria (curricular and instructionalgoals) were consistent with NSTA's po-sition and arc categorized according tothe four major divisions of school sci-ence programs. These goals focus onscience in a social setting, science forapplication in students' daily lives, sci-ence affecting contemporary issues, andscience and potential careers. The sci-ence/technology/society (S/T/S) focus inall standard disciplines of science andacross the K-I 2 curriculum suggests theextent of this new approach to scienceeducation.

NSTA's Search for Excellence in Sci-ence Education selected 175 programsfor special recognition. The ProjectSynthesis teams then narrowed thisnumber to 50 national exemplars, aboutten in each of the four science divisions.Thirteen programs were identified asexemplars of the science/technology/so-ciety focus. These programs do morethan meet academic requirements forscience; they involve all students in realscience.

Features of Exemplary ScienceProgramsStudy of the NSTA exemplary programssuggests new directions and provide newmeaning. These include:

1. A focus on social problems andissues. Science cannot be separatedfrom the society that spawns it. It was amistake trying to make science into anenterprise free of humans, free of soci-etal issues, and free of the real environ-ment of life. For many, science hasmeaning only when it is presented in areal setting.

2. Practice with decision-makingstrategies. Everyone uses information asevidence to reach decisions-makingdecisions about daily living as well asdecisions about the future of society.Without practice in using informationfor making decisions, students are leftwith the feeling that science is unimpor-tant and without use.

3. Concern for career awareness. In atechnological/scientific society', the ca-reers related to science and technologyare central. A good science educationfor all must create awareness of suchopportunities for a lifetime of work.This does not mean a focus on careersonly as top-rate scientists and engineers.

4. Local and community relevance.Science must be community-based; itmust have meaning for students in theirown environments. Science study must

be concermed with ci elts and obiectsthat can be seen. considered. and stud-ied locally. Meaningful science cannotbe textbook science.

5. Application of science. Applica-tions of technology can lead to a consid-eration of pure science. Technology hasmore relevance and is more easily seenand understood than the unifying ideasof pure science. Once motivated. onceinvolved, once interested. students canbe encouraged to consider meaningsand ideas. A consideration of basic sci-ence can be an outcome-a result-asopposed to a major goal or an organiza-tional scheme.

6. Focus on cooperative xoirk on realproblems. Contrived expenenees. indi-vidual work on vernfication actiities.and textbook problems do not help stu-dents grow as cooperative citizens readsto tackle the social problems of ourtime. A communiht concept is needed.A focus on problem resolution ratherthan problem solution is more realisticand a more desirable goal.

7. Emphasis on multiple dimensionsof science. For many students, the his-torical, philosophical. and sociologicaldimensions of science may be morevaluable than a content/discipline di-

DECEMBER 1983/JANUARY 1984

The SdeciSTe -gdp Dsmal.

Project Synthesis, a major NSF-supported effort for identifying the ideal in scnce i-struction and contrasting it with actual conditions, identified gnce nalhgftsoe-ty as a major new organizer. Science education programns, which prepre individuato use science to improve their own lives and cope with an increasingly Tdworld, should povide students with:

* An understanding of energy problems from a personal perspectiv* An understanding of their role in population dynamics* An understanding of the emerging problem in the field of human engivnee* An understanding of the various aspects of environmental quality ad tha those

aspects may differ in priority from person to person* An understanding of the various aspects of using the earth's natural resours* An understanding of the various accomplishments of space research and national

defense programs* An understunding of the sociology of science* An understanding of the effects of hard and soft technology on indiduals and so

ciety in general* The background necessary for taking responsibe action on energy-reslad isses

confronting society* The background necessary to understand and react to problems associated with

population dynamics* The background necessary to develop insight into the emerging work field of hu-

man engineering and its impact on society* The background necessary to recognize the variations in acceptable envonmental

quality in their communities, states, and nation, as well as to maintain or impnovethem

* The background necessary to recognize the societal problems involved in finding.using, and conserving natural resources

* The background necessary to react to the problems and potential benefits to soci-ety of the national defense and space programs

* An understanding of the sociological effects of science and tecnology* An understanding of the impact of technological developents on society, in or-

der to make reasonable and responsible decisions.

"A technologically-oriented,democratic societycannot exist withlarge sections of itspopulationignorant of scienceand technology."

mension. The process dimension is im-portant, especially if it deals with practi-cal situations such as decision makingSurely the applications of technologsare more meaningful and viable formans. Political, cconomic, psychologi-cal. and creatise dimensions are impor-tant views of science for others.

8. Evaluation based on ability to getand to use information. Nearly all ecal-uation in older models of science educa-tion focuses on definition of terms andconcepts and on vcrification skills. Esal-uation should be v iewed as a part of thescientific continuum and hence basic toans study of science. Finding informa-tion and using it arc two indispensablcskills that must bhe practiced and valuedin the K-12 science education.

SIT/S in Other NationsThe science/tcchnologs/societ rnoCe isinternational. In fact, the U.S. hasmoved into such a focus much laterthan has the U.K., Israel, and mansother industrialized as well as thirdworld nations. Two national projects i,the U.K. have attracted much attentionThe first of these was called Science inSocieh-. A total of 12 modules ha-cebeen developed and published (Scienceand Socicty. 1981 . The individualtopics indicate the relevance of the ma-terials:

Diseases and the DoctorMedicine and CarePopulation and HecalthFoodAgriculturcEncrgyMineral ResourcesIndustry: Mcn. Nloinc>. and

MlanagemnentIndulstrs. ()rganization.

and ()bligationNature of ScicnceScience and Social l)exelopmeintLooking to the FutulireThe second U.K. project is called

SISCON (Sciencce ill a Social Context.1983)The major topics includc:

Ways of LivingHlow Canl We Be Surc''Technology, Inventilon, and iidustrsv;voluition and the Ilillnmall Popula-

tion'he Atomic BombEnergs: The Power to WorkHealth. F'ood, and PopulationSpace, Cosniologs. and Fanltas!

Toward SfI1S in the U.S.The NSF recccntl\ assembiled a panel ofleaders to ponder the federal role inupgrading science curricula. ()ne oftheir most significant recommendatioiswas for a two-year required Sf/IS sc-quencc for grades 9 arid 1(1 (NSFt1983). This would all but climiniatcdisciplinc-oricntcd science until the lasttwo years of high school, ws'hen it woulcldbe elective and recommended onulv forcollege-bound students aspiring for ascience major. For other high schooljuniors anid seniors, the NSF grouprecommlended a third year STI/S ccc-tive.

The national panel summarized itsrecommendations for a K-12 curricu-lum for science education as follows:

Anyl consideration of K-1 2 curricllilm inulstbe driven by an understanding of the dc-mands put on education in a democracv thatis part of a complex technological worldThere is demand for scientific skills, atti-tudes. and knowledge A technologicallv-oriented, democratic society cannot existwith large sections of its population ignorantof science and technology. Attitudes. skills.reasoning abilities and knowledge from sci-ence are prerequisite to a sense of controlover human destiny on the part of thepopulace. Full science literacv involves thefollowing four components: (I )Wass ofknowing: What do I knorw? What is theevidence? (2) Actions/Applications: What doI infer? What are the options? Do I knowhow to take action? (3) Consequences: Do I

16 EDUCATIONAL LEAOFRSHIP

New Goals for School Science

Project Synthesis researchers developed goals for school science in four areas, all ofwhich illustrate the importance of thr science/technology/society perspective.Elementary Science1. Focuses on effective consumer behavior2. Deals with effective personal health practices3. Recognizes the effect of people on the environment and vice versa; develops cus-todianship4. Observes variations in the interpretation of data5. Experiences the hard work involved in resolving real problems6. Focuses on a great variety of the dimensions of science7. Recognizes the roles of people involved in scientific pursuits.

1. Uses knowledge to understand self2. Uses knowledge to benefit the quality of life3. Studies humans in natural and total environment4. Focuses on current issues and deals with morals, values, ethics, and aesthetics.

hysical Science1. Applies physical science ideas and information to real-world problems2. Displays content in the context of socially relevant problems, as well as standarddisciplines3. Focuses on personal needs, societal issues, and careers related to physical science4. Deals with real people'in science where the processes they use can be observed5. Includes real research for students as well as out-of-school experiences.

1. Uses knowledge to improve personal life and to cope with an increasingly techno-logical world2. Deals with technological/societal issues3. Focuses on decision making4. Provides accurate picture of opportunities and requirements needed for a wide va-riety of careers.

16 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

know what would happen' and (41 Values:Do I care' Do I saluc the outcome' Whodoes care' Thle group agrees that scienceliteracy is esscntial for all students. Sciencemanpower requirements must be built upona founldation of science literacs. Esen forstudents who take all available sciencecourses, man! existing K-l 2 science instruc-tion programs are not adequate to producescience literacs. For the majorihts ho takevery little scicnce. the situation is truly anational crisis

These recommendationls illustrate thenature and magnitdce of the changesneeded in school programs. Programssuch as those found in the NSTA SIT/Sexemplars arc similar to action-oricntedsocial scicnces anld exemplary debateprograms in which students masterknowledge for their o'ni use. Scienceknowledge becomes powerfull. aluable,relevant. Students learn for self-gener-ated reasons-not teacher or system-demanded reasons. Ili exploring. ex-plaining, and testing their owln explana-tions. students expericnce the realmeaning of science 'The NSF studies ofthe late 7 0s reported that there werevirtualls no examples of science beingtaught in such a manner.

Somec have feared that S/IT/S courseswill lack rigor and hc inappropriatepreparation for college. In the excmpla-ry programs identified b! NSI'A. theopposite seems to be true. Mlore stu-dents seek further study of sciencec morereport high interest in scicncc: morescore better on standard mcasiurcs; moreshow evidence of scicncc/technolo'og lit-eracv.

Toward New MeaningAs our societal problems %sorsnc. it is atonce apparent that science and technol-ogy are intimnatcly involved Mans! ofthe decisions concerning improcvmncntand the nature of the future for whichwe yearn require a basic understandingof science and technology. We musthave the informed citizenry which Jef-ferson envisioned at the birth of ourdemocracy. Evidence suggests that wehave failed to produce such a citizen-ry-at a time when we arc all beingcalled upon to help make life and deathdecisions. We cannot afford to contin-ue. Solving daily problems, establishingnew policies. passing lavs, and similaractions at the practical and polic levelsare insufficient. We must deal at thepurpose level; we must moove towardnew meaning for school science Thefuture of our society depends on it.O

'Information about these )0 programs isdetailed in NSTA's monograph series. Focus

Exemplry Sdence/TeeolSgyodey P rp

The following exemplary S/T/S programs were identified by the Search for Excalencein Science Education program of the National Science Teachers Association.

EarthmpeMonte Sano Elementary1107 Monte Sano Blvd., S.E.Huntsville, AL 35801

Solar Projeda ClassToledo High SchoolOlalla RoadToledo, OR 97391

Contempory Issues in ScienceSusan E. Wagner High School1200 Manor RoadStaten Island, NY 10314

EEmlronmental ScienceScott High School404 Riverside DriveMadison, WV 25130

Unified Sdence Curriculumfor High SchoolWausau West High School1200 West Wausau AvenueWausau. WI 54401

Energy and UsKelley Walsh High School3500 East 12th StreetCasper, WY 82609

Manlind: A iological/Socal ViewClarkstown South High SchoolDemarest Mill RoadWest Nyack, NY 10994

on Excellence l'click. 1983) These pro-grams are worlds apart froom the scienceprograms reported il the 1977-78 NSF stud-ies (tlcigeson and others. 1977: Stake aldEasles, 1978: W'ciss. 19 78-iin terms ofgoals. curriculll, iillnstruction. cs-allation,and teachers (Bonnistettcr. 1983: Boinistctterand others. 19831

References

Bonnstetter. RJ. -Charactcristics ofTeachers Associated s-ith an Exemplars Pro-gram Compared sith Science Teachers illGeneral." Doctoral thesis. Ilnii-ersih ofIowa. 1983.

Bonnstetter. R..: .E. PI'cnick: and R.EYager. Teachers in Exemplan' Programs:How Do They Compare? National ScienceTeachers Association. W'aslington. D.C..1983

Brandwein. P.F. Memorandum: On Re-viewing Schooling and Education. NcsYork: Harcourt Brace Josanovich. 1981.

Gallup. G.H. 14th Annlual Gallup Poll ofthe public's attitudes tosward public schools.Phi Delta Kappan 64. 1 11982): 37.

Marine F empQuilcene Junior/Senior High SdholP.O. Box 40Quilcene, WA 98376

Walingord Adblg TednalTern (WATll) (AT' Wle)Dr. Mark T. Sheehan High SchoolHope Hill RoadWallingford. CT 07492

TechnologyGompers Secondary Center for

MathIScienceaomputers1005 47th StreetSan Diego, CA 92102

Ener, Lad Use, Tecd _logy,and NI1l 1s1o1eslefferson County R-1 School District1209 Quail StreetLakewood, CO 80215

Hman EcologyBrandywine High School1400 Foulk RoadWilmington, DE 19103

Poled Lie LabGreenAcres SchoolLive Oak School District966 Bostwick LaneSanta Cruz, CA 95062

Coodlad. I "A Studs of Schooling: SomeFindings and Hvpothcl."se Phi Delta Kap-pan 64. - (1983: 46-4-t.

Harms. N.C. "Poject Synthesis: An In-terpretise Consolidation of Research Identi-f ing Needs in Natural Science Education.A proposal to the National Science Founda-hon. Universih of Colorado. Boulder. 19.

Hams. N C . and R.E. Yager. W'hatResearch Says to the Science Teacher. \ ol. .VWashington, D.C.: National ScienceTeachers Association. #471-14-6. 19l.

Hclgesoli. S.L.: P.E. Blossr; and R.\VHowse The Status of Pre-College Science.Mathematics, and Social Science Education:1955--5 \'ashimgton, D.C.: l.S Govern-nent Printing Office. 19--

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Hoswe. T.G.. and J.A. Gerlosich. Nation-al Studs of the Estimated Suppl- and De-mand of Secondan Scicnce and %iathernat-ics Teachers. 1980-82.

Hueftle. S.J.: S.). Rakosw- and W\.VWelch. "Images of Science: 4 Summary ofResults from the 1981-82 National Assess-

DECEMBER 1983/JANUARY 1984 17

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18 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

A Recommended K-12 Sequence in Science

In March 1963, 40 national leaders were assembled by the National Science Founda-tion to consider goals for science and technology education. Their recommendations(approved unanimously) include the following:

K-1. An integrated, hands-on approach is needed to focus on the relationships be-tween humans and the total environment. Problem solving must be emphasized, in-cluding acquisition and analysis of data.

Grades 7-1. There should be two primary emphases: (1) on human science, includ-ing human biology and personal health; and (2) on development of quantitative skillsin science. Computer-based experiences should be used appropriately to assist in de-veloping quantitative skills that will be needed for more complex. applied problemsolving in grades 9-10. Skill in quantitative analysis of data, application of probability,and estimating skills are examples.

Grades 9-10. A two-year sequence, required for all students to address science,technology, and society. Emphasis should be on problem solving and scientific rea-soning, applied to real-world problems. It should integrate knowledge and methodsfrom physics, biology, earth science, and chemistry, as well as applied mathematics.The rationale for this sequence is that students need to have certain development,math, and problem-solving skills that are prerequisite to the complex problem-solvingtasks required in this course. It is a much higher-level course than is generally recog-nized as "general science" for nonscience students.

Grades 11-12. One- and two-semester courses in physics, biology, chemistry, andearth sciences should be available for students who wish to go on to further academicstudy in science-related courses. These are not advanced placement courses andshould not replicate college-level courses. They build on and assume as prerequisitesthe skills and knowledge in the various science disciplines that students acquire in thescience, technology, society course in grades 9-10.

18 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Copyright © 1983 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.