introducing sociology. chapter outline introduction the sociological perspective sociological...
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Introducing Sociology
Chapter OutlineIntroductionThe Sociological PerspectiveSociological Theories and Theorists Conducting ResearchThe Main Methods of Sociological ResearchHow Sociology Helps Us Deal with Today’s
Challenges
SociologyThe systematic study of human behavior in
social context.
Four Sociological ExplanationsFunctionalismConflict TheorySymbolic InteractionismFeminism
FunctionalismSocial phenomenon persist if they contribute
to social stability—and die off if they don’t
Conflict TheoryHighlights the tensions underlying existing
social arrangementsExamines the capacity of those tensions to
burst into the open and cause social change
Symbolic InteractionismExamines how various aspects of social life
convey meaning and thereby assist or impede communication
FeminismFocused on gender: one’s sense of being
masculine or feminineInterrogates patriarchy: the system of male
domination of women
C. Wright MillsWrote that the sociologist’s main task is to
identify and explain the connection between people’s personal troubles and the social structures in which they are embedded.
Coined the term “sociological imagination”
Sociological ImaginationThe quality of mind that enables one to see
the connection between personal troubles and social structures.
The Four Levels of Social Structure
Levels of Social StructureMicrostructures are patterns of intimate
social relations.Mesostructures are patterns of
organizational social relationsMacrostructures are social relations
outside your circle of intimates and acquaintances.
Global structures are international organizations, worldwide travel and communication, and economic relations between countries.
Origins of the Sociological Imagination1. The Scientific Revolution suggested that a
science of society is possible.2. The Democratic Revolution suggested
people can intervene to improve society.3. The Industrial Revolution presented
social thinkers with social problems in need of a solution.
Scientific RevolutionBegan in Europe about 1550.Encouraged the view that sound conclusions
about the workings of society must be based on solid evidence, not just speculation.
Democratic RevolutionBegan about 1750, during which the citizens
of the United States, France, and other countries broadened their participation in government.
This revolution suggested that people organize society and that human intervention can therefore resolve social problems.
Industrial RevolutionThe rapid economic transformation that
began in Britain in the 1780s.Involved the application of science and
technology to industrial processes, the creation of factories, and the formation of a working class.
Created a host of new and serious social problems that attracted the attention of many social thinkers.
Founders of SociologyDurkheimParsons and MertonMarxWeberDuBoisMeadMartineau and Addams
Durkheim’s Explanation of SuicideShowed that suicide rates are strongly
influenced by social forces.Argued that suicide rates vary because of
differences in the degree of social solidarity in different groups.
Social SolidarityThe degree to which group members share
beliefs and values and the intensity and frequency of their interaction.
Sociological Theory of Suicide
Altruistic Suicide Occurs when norms tightly govern behavior,
so individual actions are often in the group interest.Example: When soldiers knowingly give up
their lives to protect members of their unit.
Egoistic Suicide Results from a lack of integration of the
individual into society because of weak social ties to others.Example: The rate of egoistic suicide is likely
to be high among people who lack friends and are unmarried.
Anomic SuicideOccurs when norms governing behavior are
vaguely defined.Example: When people live in a society lacking
a widely shared code of morality, the rate of anomic suicide is likely to be high.
Talcott ParsonsLeading proponent of functionalism.Argued that society is integrated and in
equilibrium when: the family raises new generationsthe military defends societyschools teach students the skills and values
they need to function as adultsreligions create a shared moral code among
people
Robert MertonLeading functionalist in the United StatesProposed that social structures may have
different consequences for different groups.Some of those consequences may be disruptive
or dysfunctional. Some functions are manifest (intended),
others are latent (unintended).
Features of Functionalism1. Human behavior is governed by social
structures.2. Theories show how social structures
maintain or undermine social stability.3. Theories emphasize that social structures
are based on shared values. 4. Suggests that reestablishing equilibrium
can best solve most social problems.
Karl MarxGerman social thinker who originated conflict
theory. Class conflict, the struggle between classes
to resist and overcome the opposition of other classes, lies at the center of his ideas.
Max WeberNoted the rapid growth of the service sector
of the economy, with nonmanual workers and professionals.
Argued that members of these occupational groups stabilize society because they enjoy higher status and income than manual workers in the manufacturing sector.
Features of Conflict Theory1. Macro-level structures: class relations or
patterns of domination, submission and struggle
2. Inequality: patterns of inequality produce social stability
3. Conflict: members of privileged groups try to maintain their advantage over subordinate groups
4. Lessening privilege: will lower the level of conflict
W.E.B. DuBoisThe first African American to receive a Ph.D.
from Harvard.A founder of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and of the country’s second Department of Sociology, at Atlanta University.
George Herbert MeadThe driving force behind the study of how the
individual’s sense of self is formed in the course of interaction with other people.
Mead and his colleagues developed symbolic interactionism.
Features of Symbolic Interactionism1. Focus on interpersonal and micro-level
communication2. Social life is possible only because people
attach subjective meaning to things3. As active agents people create their social
circumstances4. Increases our tolerance of people who may
be different from us
Harriet MartineauOften called the first woman sociologist.Martineau translated Comte into English and
wrote one of the first books on research methods.
She undertook critical studies of slavery, factory laws, and gender inequality and was a leading advocate of voting rights and higher education for women and gender equality in the family.
Jane AddamsJane Addams was cofounder of Hull House, a
shelter for the destitute in Chicago’s slums.She spent a lifetime fighting for social reform
and provided a research platform for sociologists from the University of Chicago.
In 1931, Adams received the Nobel Prize.
Features of Feminist Theory1. Focuses on patriarchy. 2. Holds that male domination and female
subordination are determined by power and social convention.
3. Examines the operation of patriarchy in micro- and macro-level settings.
4. Patterns of gender inequality should be changed for the benefit of all members of society.
Four Theoretical Traditions in Sociology
Polling Question Which sociological perspective do you think
is generally the strongest in explaining things in our society?
a. Structural-functionalb. Conflictc. Symbolic interactionistd. Feminist
ResearchThe process of carefully observing reality to
assess the validity of a theory.
Research Cycle
Ethical ConsiderationsResearchers must respect their subjects’
rights to:Safety PrivacyConfidentialityInformed consent
ExperimentA carefully controlled artificial situation that
allows researchers to isolate hypothesized causes and measure their effects precisely.
Steps in a Simple Experiment
VariablesDependent variable
The presumed effect in a cause-and effect relationship.
Independent variableThe presumed cause in a cause-and effect
relationship.
Experimental GroupsExperimental Group
The group in an experiment that is exposed to the independent variable.
Control GroupThe group in an experiment that is not exposed
to the independent variable.
Reliability vs. ValidityReliability
The degree to which a measurement procedure yields consistent results
ValidityThe degree to which a measure actually
measures what it is intended to measure
SurveysAsks people questions about their knowledge,
attitudes, or behavior, either in a face-to-face interview, telephone interview, or paper-and pencil format.
Sample vs. PopulationSample
Part of the population of research interest that is selected for analysis.
PopulationThe entire group about which the researcher
wishes to generalize.
Closed-ended vs. Open-Ended Questions
Close-endedA type of survey question that provides the
respondent with a list of permitted answers.
Open-endedA type of survey question that allows
respondents to answer in their own words
Four Dangers of Survey Questions1. Exclusion of part of population from
sampling frame2. Refusal of some people to participate in
the survey3. Unwillingness of some respondents to
answer questions frankly4. Asking confusing, leading or
inflammatory questions
Polling Question If a university asks you to complete an
anonymous, written survey asking questions about your sexual attitudes, experiences, and behaviors, how likely is it you will agree to complete the survey?
a. Very likelyb. Somewhat likelyc. Unsured. Somewhat unlikelye. Very unlikely
Field Research Research based on the systematic
observation of people in their natural settings.
Detached ObservationA type of field research that involves
classifying and counting the behavior of interest according to a predetermined scheme.
Two Concerns with Detached Observation1. Reactivity: the tendency of people who are
observed by a researcher to react to the presence of the researcher by concealing certain things or acting artificially
2. The meaning of the behavior may remain obscure to the researcher
Participant ObservationA type of field research that involves
carefully observing people’s face-to-face interactions and actually participating in their lives over a long period, thus achieving a deep and sympathetic understanding of what motivates them to act in the way they do.
Analysis of Existing Documents And Official StatisticsA nonreactive research method that involves
the analysis of diaries, newspapers, published historical works, and statistics produced by government agencies, all of which are created by people other than the researcher for purposes other than sociological research.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods
Postindustrial RevolutionThe technology-driven shift from
manufacturing to service industries and the consequences of that shift for virtually all human activities.
GlobalizationThe process by which formerly separate
economies, states, and cultures are being tied together and people are becoming increasingly aware of their growing interdependence.
1. Sociologists call stable patterns of social relations:
a. microstructuresb. mesostructuresc. macrostructuresd. global structurese. social structures
Answer: e Sociologists call stable patterns of social
relations: social structures.
2. According to Durkheim, the more a group's members share beliefs and values, and the more frequently and intensely they interact, the more social solidarity there is in a group.
a. True b. False
Answer: True According to Durkheim, the more a group's
members share beliefs and values, and the more frequently and intensely they interact, the more social solidarity there is in a group.
3. Durkheim explained variations in the suicide rate by focusing on:
a. personal troublesb. Microstructuresc. Powerd. social solidarity
Answer: dDurkheim explained variations in the suicide
rate by focusing on social solidarity.
4. The main question of __________ theory is, “how do the institutions of society contribute to social stability and instability?”
a. functionalistb. conflictc. symbolic interactionistd. feminist
Answer: aThe main question of functionalist theory is,
how do the institutions of society contribute to social stability and instability?
5. The process by which formerly separate economies, states and cultures are becoming tied together and interdependent is called:
a. postindustrialismb. inequality of opportunityc. globalizationd. individual freedom
Answer: c The process by which formerly separate
economies, states and cultures are becoming tied together and interdependent is called: globalization.