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1
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
The Deccan has been an important region in the history of South
India. It has witnessed rivalries of various kinds which resulted in open
conflicts and wars. The Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms dominated
India south of the Vindhyas for over 200 years. The disintegration of
Delhi Sultanate brought about the establishment of these two Kingdoms
which have added a new dimension to the history of South India. There
was a conflict of interest between Bahmani Kingdom and Vijayanagara
Empire. Many learned people migrated from Delhi to Deccan in order to
live a rewarding life in the region which was the cultural centre of India.
It is a rewarding academic exercise to trace the historical status of
Bahmani Kingdom which assumes great significance in the history of
medieaval India.
The geographical setting of Deccan is presented in the thesis with
special reference to Bahmani rulers (1347-1500 A.D). The geographical
areas ruled by the Bahmanis were a part of the Deccan Plateau which
covers most of the peninsular portion of India. It comprises Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The
Northern part of this table land runs from East to West. It has different
ranges called Vindhya Mountains. There are two peaks Mount Abu on the
2
extreme West and Mount Parasnath on the extreme East. These mountain
ranges have an altitudinal variations ranging from 1500 feet to 4000 feet.
The Vindhyas formed a strong barricade of mountain ranges and forests
between Northern and Southern India which had a natural obstruction in
former days in the integration of one empire, according to Encyclopedia
of Britannica (1768)1
The Deccan is surrounded by Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
which are the two elevated sides running along the respective coasts of
India having the heights of 3000 feet and 1500 feet. The Western Ghats
form a sea wall of the Maharashtra state with only a narrow strip between
them and the shore whild the Eastern Ghats broken ranges which leave
broad level tracts between their base and the coast. The rainfall of the
Vindhya region is carried to the West and falls in the Gulf of Cambay
while the rainfall of the Southern half of the Deccan Plateau flows
eastward and falls in the Bay of Bengal. The three prominent rivers
namely Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rise in the mountains, flow
eastwards and form deltas before they join the sea on the eastern shores.
The entire Deccan area basically consists of pene plains hedged with
highlands at intervals2.
These highlands are traditionally divided into three parts namely- i)
The northern part which include the Delta of Mahanadi, ii) The central
3
part comprising the Deltas of the Krishna and the Godavari and iii) The
third part comprising Tamil Nadu which was called Karnatak by the
medieval historians. These were the first two parts out of which the
territories of Bahmani kingdom were carved according to the historians.
Its frontier in the North West began from the coast of Chaul and
ran further Northwards across the Tapti and the Narmada, covered Mandu
and Gawillgarh from where the River Godavari served as the border line
upto Rajah Mundry in the East. In the South West it began from Goa, run
eastward and joins the river Tungabhadra at Bankapur. The Tungabhadra
River divided common borders of Vijayanagar Empire and Bahmani
kingdom while the Krishna River flows in the Deccan and joins Bay of
Bengal. Thus in the West from Chaul to Goa and in the East from Rajah
Mundry to Kondavidu in the Delta of the Krishna stretched the kingdom.
This territorial expansion commenced from 1358 and was completed by
1481 according to Sherwani (1985)3.
The Deccan highland had thick forest which had an impact on
military operation, administrative control and economic status of the
Bahmani kingdom. Gawan utilized this natural advantage and
strengthened the military system. The region also consists of vast hilly
area and many perennial and seasonal rivers. Krishna, Tungabhadra and
Godavari rivers determined the Southern and Northern territories of the
4
kingdom. These major rivers also had their tributaries namely Varadha,
Painganga, Bhima and so on4. Narmada and Tapti facilitated better
irrigation on the North Western frontier. The rivers flowed from west to
east since the slope of the land is oriented like that. The perennial and
seasonal rivers facilitated cultivation of different crops in the region.
Sometimes the Deccan was subjected to famine5.
The Deccan had black cotton soil, red soil and alluvial soil. The
Deccan had basically a vast portion of black cotton soil which consisted
of deep black, medium black and undifferentiated black soils. The deep
black cotton soil was the most fertile soil which facilitated the cultivation
of rice, jawar, bajra, sugarcane, pulses, oil seeds, wheat and other crops.
The red cotton soil was mostly in parts of Telangana area which
facilitated the cultivation of wheat, cotton, sugarcane and rice. The
alluvial soil was found on the banks of the rivers and facilitated better
agricultural productivity.
The Deccan was located in the region of sudanic climate governed
by the south west and easterly monsoons. The temperature was between
100c and 45
0c in extreme cases and normally between 14
0c and 34
0c. The
region also was known for moderate climate according to the writings of
foreign travelers. The Bahmani kingdom had people who shared different
races, languages, and religions. In the beginning, Deccan had linguistic
5
groups such as Marathi, Canarese and Telugu. The influx of the Muslims
with the establishment of Bahmani Sultanate found Turkish, Persian,
Afghan, Arabian and Abysinian elements to the population, observes
Ahmad (1904)6.
There were different castes and sub-castes in the region which were
more representative of economic groups than racial and social groups.
There were agriculturists, artisans, traders, skilled workers and other
segments of the population according to the works of historians7. The
people of the Bahmani kingdom belonged to Hindu and Muslim religions
predominantly. Among the Hindus the Chaturvarna system prevailed in
the region. Shias and Sunnis were the major groups of Muslims. There
were two classes namely aristocrats and common masses in the Bahmani
kingdom. The aristocrats led a royal life while the poor had lived below
the poverty line according to Gribble (1896)8 and other historians.
A Historical Perspective of Deccan
India and the Arab world have long shared a unique relationship. As a
matter of fact, the Arab world has a strange fascination for the Indian
mind. Indian Muslims in particular are greatly attached to the Arab world
because the area seats the cradle of their religion and the Arab nations
6
phenomenalise the pristine culture of Islam according to eminent
historian Asaf A.A.Fyzee (1967).9
The rise of Islam (AD 622) was a significant event for the Persian
Gulf which was a highway of international trade. The Arab conquests of
Syria and Persia and the transference of the epicenter of the Islamic
Empire to Damascus and Baghdad had a profound effect on the region.
Mesopotamia also emerged as a flourishing centre of economic activity,
writes Hitti (1960)10
.
The orthodox Caliphs dominated the religious and political
scenario after the death of Prophet Muhammad during AD 632 – 661.
The Persians, who were basically Aryans, enjoyed a national existence of
their own for centuries and were represented by a well-organized military
power which conquered the Arab world during the Second century –
Sixth century A.D. The Persians were defeated in AD 637 by the Arabs
during the Qadisiyah war which began an era of Arab rule in this region.
In AD 649 the first maritime victory was achieved for Islam and the first
island was added to the Moslem state by Abdullah. Umar first formulated
the ideology that in the peninsula itself none but the Moslem religion
should ever be tolerated. His military communistic constitution set up an
ascendancy of Arabism.
7
The Arabians came into possession not only of geographical areas
in Fertile Crescent on the lands of Persia and Egypt but of the earliest
seats of civilization in the whole world according to Charles Oman.11
Yazid earned the title fata-ul-‘Arab (hero of the Arabs) and gave a new
identity to Arabs during AD 685. Hitti (1960) adds: “One hundred years
after the death of the founder of Islam his followers were the masters of
an empire greater than that of Rome at its zenith, an empire extending
from the Bay of Biscay to the Indus and the confines of China and from
the Aral Sea to the lower cataracts of the Nile, and the name of the
prophet-son of Arabia, joined with the name of almighty Allah, was being
called five times a day from thousands of minarets scattered over south-
western Europe, northern Africa and western and central Asia.”12
The invaders from the desert brought with them no tradition of learning,
no heritage of culture, to the lands they conquered. The Arabs drew their
scientific knowledge from older Greek sources and received their first
inputs from there. The Umayyads subsequently ruled the roost politically
and socially in the Middle East. However, there was a decline and fall of
the Umayyad dynasty during AD 683-743 according to historical
documents.
There was establishment of a new Abbasid dynasty which
consolidated Islamic forces in this region during AD 750-1258. The
8
period AD 750 commencing from the ruling of al-Saffah till the ruling of
al-Mutawakkil in AD 847 is documented as the golden prime of the
Abbasids in this region.13
The Caliph was the head of the state. The
population throughout the empire was divided into four social classes and
the ruling Moslems represented the Calipha household and the aristocracy
of Arabian conquerors. The hereditary principle of succession instituted
by the Umayyad Caliphs was followed throughout the ‘Abbasid’ regime
which sadly produced evil results. Military department, Postal
department, Educational department and other welfare departments were
created by this regime in the region, writes Nadwi (1929)14
.
The basic pattern of Arabian social organization collapsed during
the Abbasids (AD 750 -1258) who lost their throne to foreign elements.
As the pure Arabian element receded into the background non-Arabs,
half-breeds and sons of freed women subsequently took over the regions.
There was organized development of industry and trade during this
period. Agriculture received great impetus under the early Abbasids since
they realized that farming was the chief source of state income.
Horticulture was also promoted on a priority basis. It included the
cultivation of fruits, vegetables and flowers. Christianity also grew in the
region during the Third – Twelfth Centuries.
9
Hitti (1960)15
observes: “The Abbasid period (AD 750 –1000) was
a formative period during which Moslem civilization received that
distinctive stamp which it has retained down to our time. In theology and
law, in science and philosophy, in literature and the humanities, Islam is
today virtually what it was nine centuries ago. Its schools of thought,
developed then, have persisted in some form to the present day. Among
those schools the sects are the most important. Under the stimulus of
Christian as well as Hellenistic ideas Moslem asceticism became mystical
in the second Moslem century. From speculative mysticism, Sufism
advanced to theosophy. The step from theosophy to pantheism was not
difficult and was made chiefly under Indo-Iranian influences. For the first
five Islamic centuries, that form of religious experience termed Sufism
stood almost entirely on an individual basis. Various other independent
fraternities developed in various countries at different times, ranging in
their Sufism from ascetic quietism to pantheistic antinomianism. The Sufi
orders represent the only ecclesiastical organization in Islam. Moreover,
Sufism founded and popularized the cult of sainthood.”16
The Arab region was subjected to Ottoman rule during AD 1298–
1922. This was not only the greatest Moslem rule of modern times, but
one of the most enduring Moslem states of all time according to
historians. The rulers belonged to a nomadic tribe of Turks of Central
10
Asian origin. In political terms the Ottoman Empire was a world power
which reflected great brilliance, since it consisted of economically
backward empire of soldiers, clerics and administrators resting on an
immobile, tax-paying, peasant base.
The history of the Persian Gulf represents several stages dating
from The Pre-Islamic age to modern times. No country and no nationality
has received so little consideration and study in modern times as have
Arabia and the Arabs, laments reputed historian Hitti (1960)17
. Arabs are
the heirs of the ancient civilization that flourished from the banks of the
Tigris and the Euphrates, to the land of the Nile and on the eastern shore
of the Mediterranean. They absorbed and assimilated the main features of
the Greco-Roman culture. Arabs have also contributed to human progress
substantially in the middle Ages.
Indian historian Vasanta Madhava (1996)18
writes: “One of the
main factors that influenced Arab relations with India was the
topographical peculiarities of the region, namely the existence of the
Arabian Sea. Trade was the determining factor in the relations between
Arabia and India. Various historical documents confirm that the Arab
civilization flourished largely on their Indian trade. Both the Arabic and
Indian sources allude to the existence of Indian trade centres in Arabia
11
and vice versa. It is interesting to note that the Arabs had appreciation for
Indian medicine and astrology.”
The Indian sub continent also witnessed a historic struggle for the
establishment of a strong monarchy between Turkish Sultanate and Delhi
Sultanat. Iltumish (1210-1236 A.D.) played a major role in the
consolidation of the Turkish conquests in north India. He appointed
Raziya, his daughter as his successor who had to contend against her
brothers and Turkish nobles. Another Era began under the leadership of
Balban (1246-1287 A.D.) who increase the prestige and power of the
monarchy as the descendant of the legendary Iranian king Afrasiyab. He
strived his best towards sustaining the strategic and diplomatic relations
under the ageies of Delhi Sultanat. He was defeated by Jalaluddin Khalji
in 1286 A.D. which demoralized Mongols.
There was internal rebillions and the struggle for the territorial
consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat resulted in the extension of the
authority of the Sultan over Bihar, Orissa, North Bengal, Assam and other
parts of the country. The southern and western frontiers of the Delhi
Sultanat were not fully secured but the death of Iltumish had caused a
setback to the Delhi Sultanat. The establishment of a strong monarchy
and the consolidation of the Delhi Sultanat paved the way for its
expansion into western India and the Deccan writes Chandra (2007).19
12
Bakshi (2003)20
writes: “The Khaljis ruled the Delhi Sultanat
during 1290-1400 A.D. after overthrowing the incompetent successors of
Balban. The rise of the Khaljis who shared Turkish-Afghan origin ended
the Turkish monopoly over the Delhi Sultanat. Alauddin Khalji (1296-
1316 A.D.) won over most of the nobles and soldiers by adopting the
methods of severity and ruthlessness”. The Sultan also formulated ser ies
of regulations in order to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him.
There were no rebellions against him during his life time.
Historians have observed that the pattern of struggle in the South
did not allow divisions along religious lines. But political and economic
considerations played a major role in the conflict between the various
states in South India. In the west, Malwa and Gujarat were drawn into
the affairs of the Deccan. The Bahmani Kingdom acted as a cultural
bridge between the north and the south. The invasion of South India
began in AD 1308 when Malik Kafur was deputed by Ala-ud-din to
conquer the Deccan and procure valuables which were available in the
temples and palaces of the rulers of Deccan. The Kafur was able to
conquer Devagiri, Warangal, Malbar and other places. The sweeping
military successes of Kafur only show the unpreparedness of the local
rulers. In the south the result of the expedition was only of a temporary
character according to Nilakanta Sastry.21
13
Muhammad-bin-Tughlak was the most striking figure of mediaeval
Indian history. He changed the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in order to
control the southern provinces and strengthen the forces of Islam during
AD 1334. The closing years of the sultan’s rule were full of revolts. Firuz
recognized the independence of the Deccan. The Bahmani dynasty also
ruled South India during AD 1347–1684.
Writings on Bahmani History
There are very few writers of Bahmani history since most of the
writings are found in Persian language. Ferishta, Ali Tabataba, Barani
and Haroon Khan Sherwani are identified as the prominent writers of the
history of Bahmani Kingdom.
Ferishta
Ferishta was indeed a Persian historian who was called as
Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah. He lived during 1560-1620 A.D. and
served as the captain of guards of King Murtuza Nizam Shah who ruled
Ahmadnagar. He was persuaded by Ibrahim Shah II to write a history of
India with special reference to Deccan dynasties since most of the
historians had not adequately documented the past history. Ferishta22
wrote Tarik-i-Ferishta which consist of several books on the Kings of
Ghazni and Lahore, Kings of Delhi, Kings of Dakhin (Kulbarga, Bijapur,
14
Ahmadnagar, Tilanga, Birar and Bidar), Kings of Gujarat, Kings of
Malwa, Kings of Khandesh, Kings of Bengal and Bihar, Kings of Multan,
Kings of Sind, Kings of Kashmir, rulers of Malabar, Saints of India and
an account of the climate and geography of India.
Ferishta’s monumental work namely Gulsan-i Ibrahimi is
regarded as Ferishta’s history by the historians. The work is indeed one of
the most important works relating to the medieval period of the history of
India. The rest of the chronicles of the period are regarded as a kind of
supplement to its main theme. Ferishta has also furnished a good number
of sources on which he has compiled the history of Bahmani kingdom.
Prominent among them include – Shaikh Athari’s Bahman Namah,
Nizamuddin’s Tabaqat-i-Akbari, Mirza Haider’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Mulla
Muhammad Lari’s Siraju’g-tawarikh, Mulla Dawud Bidri’s Tuhfatu’s-
Salatin and so on.
Peter Jackson has pointed out that Ferishta mostly relied upon the
works of Barani and Sarhindi and other legends concerning the Bahmani
dynasty. Davare (1961)23
has stated that Ferishta’s account is the most
widely quoted history of Bahmani Kingdom which also contains
fabrication. Other historians have also argued that Ferishta’s work Tarik-
i-Ferishti is an independent, reliable and credible work on the history of
15
Bahmani Kingdom. His work has found wider acceptance among the
historians.
General J.Briggs (1829)24
translated the works of Ferishta which is
known has a meticulous translation of Ferishta’s works. It is widely
quoted and respected in the academic circle. Scholars have noted that
Briggs made several additions to the original works of Ferishta but
omitted the whole of the 12th
book which dealt with Saints of India. The
Urdu translation work was also carried out by the scholars in the field of
history.
Syed Ali Tabataba
Syed Ali Tabataba authored Burhan-i Ma’asir which is a widely
quoted book on Bahmani dynasty. It was written few years before
Ferishta. Recently, it has been published in Persian language by the
Persian Texts Society of Hyderabad Deccan. The author has drawn more
or less the same chronicles as Ferishta in regard to the history of the
Deccan. The Persian manuscript was rendered into English by King
(1900)25
which is also known as an authentic source of reference about
Bahmani kingdom.
16
E-sami-Abd-Al-Malek
E-sami-Abd-Al-Malek was an Indo – Muslim poet who wrote the
history of Bahmani Kingdom in Persian language. He lived during 1311-
1350 A.D. in India. He had come over to India via Baghdad and visited
Delhi during the reign of Sultan Naer-al-Din Mahmud. He witnessed the
rule of Mahmmad bin Tughluq and died at the age of 90. He was also
aware of the formation of Bahmani dynasty by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah
in 1347 A.D. He completed the writing of history in 1350 A.D. which
primarily deals with the rule of Muslim in India including Deccan.
Scholars have pointed out that this work does not contain any specific
name but it is called has piran-e Hendi-nezad which means ‘Old Men of
Hindustan’. Some scholars have also called this work as ‘old and reliable
witnesses’. It has been rated has a useful supplement to Barani’s work
(Tari-e-firuzsahi) which also provides a comprehensive version about the
history of Deccan. This work is also known as a useful source of
information on the history of Delhi Sultanate in general and history of
Deccan in particular according to the historians.
Zia-al-Din Barani
Zia-Al-Din Barani26
was an Indian born Muslim historian who
wrote history of India with special reference to Delhi Sultanate. He lived
17
in India during 1285-1357 A.D. which witnessed the rule of Delhi Sultan
and formation of Bahmani dynasty. The author was the direct witness to
the developments which took place in Delhi and Deccan regions.
Scholars have observed that Barani has provided a partisan view of the
history in his work Tarik-i-Firuz Shahi since he was directly associated
with Delhi Sultanate. The work also provides the anecdotes of old
Persian Kings, viziers and sages along with traditions from the Prophet
Mohammad and other relevant details of Bahmani rule in Deccan. The
author has also provided an Islamic version of the Indian history and
Deccan history in his work. Scholars have noted that Barani’s experience
in India prompted his judgments but he looked to Iran as a cultural region
for their nourishment. His works are also translated by Indian historians
under different titles.
S.K.Sinha
Sinha basically hails from Hyderabad and he was brought up in the
environment of the late Nizam’s government. He undertook the
challenging task of writing the history of the Deccan in several volumes.
The scholar obtained detailed information from the contemporary
inscriptions, archaeological monuments, authoritative history and
documents which constituted an authentic record of the history of
Bahmani Kingdom. The scholar has documented the history not in its
18
political aspects only, but in its fuller meaning as the story of the
development of culture in its various phases. Sinha’s27
work namely –
Mediaeval History of the Deccan (volume-I) also covers two dynasties
namely – the Bahamanis and Adil Shahis of Bijapur. The work has been
appreciated as a document brimful of practical wisdom and will prove
subservient in shaping the future of our nascent state.
Major T.W. Haig
Haig (1907)28
has authored a book on historic landmarks of the
Deccan which provides relevant details of Bahmani kingdom. The scholar
has dealt with the boundaries of Bahmani kingdom, history of the
Bahmani dynasty, chronological details of Bahmani rule, rise and fall of
Bahmani dynasty and other factors. The work also provides
comprehensive details of the rule of Bahmani Sultans in general and their
contributions for educational, social, economic, political and cultural
progress of Deccan in particular. The scholar has also provided a detailed
account of two old capitals of the Deccan namely – Gulbarga and Bidar.
Haroon Khan Sherwani
Haroon Khan Sherwani was a renowned Indian historian who lived
in India during 1891-1980. He was educated in Aligarh, London,
Cambridge, Oxford, Grenoble and Geneva. He served the Osmania
19
University at Hyderabad as Professor of History and Political Science. He
was specialized in the history of Deccan in particular. Historians have
regarded his contributions to the study of Deccan history as authentic and
excellent. He has authored a good number of notable works which
include – Muslim Political Thought and Administration, The Bahmanis of
Deccan, Studies in the Foreign Relations of India – from the earliest
times to 1947, Cultural Trends in Medieval India, History of Medieval
Deccan, Cultural Understanding in Medidval India, The Bahmani
Kingdom, Sultan Muhammad Qutub Shah and so on.
In particular, The Bahmanis of Deccan29
covers a very important
part of the history of medieval India and corresponds to the period of a
unified Deccan. According to the scholar, the Bahmani history covers a
very important part of the history of medieval India and corresponds to
the period of a unified Deccan. The work is also regarded as the foremost
attempt at a comprehensive history of Bahmani dynasty by an Indian
historian. This book also provides relevant details about the Bahmani
rulers, social life, economic system, cultural influence, political
development and other aspects.
Saki (1998) authored a book containing two volumes entitled
Making History: Karnataka’s People and their Past30
which traces
Karnataka history from the time of the first signs of human habitation
20
40,000 years ago, till the time of its conquest by British colonialism. The
work is primarily based on a wide range of primary and secondary
sources which highlight the impact of British colonialism on Karnataka.
The author has also primarily dealt with the role of Bahamani rulers who
played a major role in transforming Deccan region.
Uma Das Gupta’s (2001) collected essays entitled The World of the
Indian Ocean Merchant-1500-180031
was brought out by Oxford
University Press. The author was one of the pioneers of maritime history
writing in India. The essays are useful sources of information which
emphasize general developments in the Indian connection with the Indian
Ocean pertaining to the period AD 1500-1800. The work also covers the
efforts made by the Bahmani rulers toward the empowerment of people in
Deccan region.
Berkemer et.al. (2001) edited a book entitled Explorations in the
History of South Asia: Essays in Honour of Dietmar Rothermund32
which
deals with German Indology, German Expertize and Influence. In
particular, the socio-economic features of Bahmani rule are also
presented by the author in this work. The work throws light on the
economic state of affairs which prevailed during the regime of Bahmani
rulers in South India.
21
Nilakanta Sastri (1964) brought out a book entitled Foreign
Notices of South India – From Megesthenes to Mahuan,33
which is a
collection of historical material on South India, covering about Fifteen
Centuries from the beginning of the Christian era. The scholar has based
this work altogether upon translations into modern European languages.
The work also contains precise details about the relationship that existed
between Bahmani Kingdom and the Persian Gulf. The researcher also
provides specific details of social reformation, cultural promotion and
economic development achieved by the Bahmani rulers.
Loch (1989) authored a book entitled Dakhan History Musalman
and Maratha34
which reveals that the Musalman nobles of the Dakhan
revolted against Muhammad Tughlak and established their independence
by 1347 A.D. The dynasty lasted for about 150 years with two capitals in
Gulbarga and Bidar and included Nasik and Ahmadnagar districts of
Maharashtra. The scholar has also provided interesting details about the
accomplishments of Bahmani rulers.
Chaurasia (2002) wrote a book entitled History of Medieval India-
From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.35
which deals with the medieval period of
Indian history in general and the Bahmani Kingdom (1347-1526 A.D.).
The scholar has stated that the Bahmani Kingdom was ruled by fourteen
Sultans from 1347-1482 when it broke up in to five Sultanates which
22
continued to play an important part till 1526 A.D. The work also revealed
that the Bahmani dynasty at its zenith was a picture of absolute power,
untold wealth, munificence, cruelty, passion, pride and prejudice.
Satish Chandra (2007) authored a book entitled History of
Medieval India36
which contains two chapters on Bahmani rule and its
cultural contribution. The scholar has stated that the Vijayanagara and
Bahmani Kingdoms dominated India south of the Vindhyas for more than
200 years. The work also highlights the development of commerce and
handicrafts during the Bahmani rule and its disintegration in Deccan due
to several factors.
Stanley Lane-Poole (2003) authored a book entitled Medieval India
under Mohammedan Rule (A.D. 712-1764)37
which provides
comprehensive chronological details of Moghal Empire in India. The
author has presented a separate chapter on first Deccan conquests by Ala-
Ad-Din Khalji which enabled the Sultan to amass the vast wealth of
Deccan region through muscle power. The scholar has also dealt with the
disintegration of provincial dynasties which took place during A.D. 1450.
Mehta (1987) authored a book entitled Advanced study in the
History of Medieval India38
which presents the social, cultural and
political developments of Bahmani rule in Deccan. The scholar has noted
23
that Bahmani Kingdom of Gulbarga and Vijaynagar Empire came into
existence almost simultaneously and that the age of these two Kingdoms
constituted a distinct epoch in the socio-cultural history of the southern
half of the country. The scholar has also pointed out that the Bahmani
rulers were fairly indianised and carried a deep imprint of the south
Indian culture on their thoughts and deeds.
Day (2004) authored a book entitled Some Aspects of Medieval
Indian History39
which presents the Deccan Policy of Alaud-din Khalji.
The scholar has referred to the observations made by eminent historians
who pointed out that Alaud-din Khalji’s invasions of the Deccan and
South were in nature mere plundering raids and were similar to the raids
of Mahmaud of Ghaxna on North India. The scholar has also dealt with
the circumstances which facilitated the invasion of Deccan and rule of
Bahmani Kings who have left their foot prints as the facilitators of social
and economic progress of the region.
Bakshi (2003) authored a book entitled Advanced History of
Medieval India40
, which dealt with the foundation of Muslim rule in
India. The work also deals with the Bahmani Kingdom in the south of
India. The scholar has also provided a separate chapter on the origin,
growth and development of Bahmani Kingdom which represents the most
powerful of all the independent Muslim Kingdoms that arose on account
24
of the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. The scholar refers to the
observation made by eminent historian Sherwani which stated that
Muhammad’s reign is one of the tragedies in the history of the Deccan.
Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian (2003) authored a book
entitled History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern)41
which
presents the history of India to the South of the Vindhyas from pre-
history to contemporary times. The authors have fulfilled the need for a
complete history of South India by choosing not only the data but also the
methodology of communication and interpretation. The authors have also
covered the political events in South India including the Bahmani
Kingdom.
Holden Furber et.al. (2004) edited a book entitled Maritime India42
which deals with the economic transactions among Indian merchants,
European powers and the Persian Gulf. The book narrates that the trade
of Bengal to Surat and West Asia was largely initiated by Surat
merchants who faced the Dutch competition this resulted in the decline of
profits towards the end of the Seventeenth Century. The scholars have
underlined the fact that unlike the Chinese imperial state, Indian rulers
did not seek to impose regulations on the places to which merchants
could sail.
25
Dharma Kumar (2005) edited a book entitled The Cambridge
Economic History of India, Vol-II (1757-2003)43
which provides a
comprehensive account of South Indian history during the Eighteenth
Century, with special reference to Bahmani Kingdom. The author states
that Bahmani Kingdom flourished under the dynamic leadership of Ala-
ud-Din-Hasan, Muhammad Shah I, Muzahid Shah, Muhumad Shah II and
Firuz Shah.
Indian and foreign historians have also provided several translated
versions and independent works about the Delhi Sultanate and Bahmani
Kingdom over a period of time. Prominent among them include –
Ferishta’s History of Deccan44
, J.Brigg’s The History of the Rise of the
Mahommadan Power in India45
, Major King’s History of the Bahmani
Dynasty46
, Henry Miers Elliot’s The History of India47
, Peter Jackson’s
The Delhi Sultanate48
, T.N.Davare’s A Short History of Persian
Literature; at the Bahmani, the Adilshahi and Qutbshahi Courts49
,
P.Hardy’s Historians of Medieval India50
, A Nizami’s On History and
Historians of Medieval India51
, Ifthikar Aziz Ahmad’s Studies in Islamic
Culture in Indian Environment52
, Ifthikar Ahmad Ghauri’s Muslims in the
Deccan in the Middle Ages: A Historical Survey53
, P.M.Joshi’s History of
the Medieval Deccan Period54
, Sherwani and Joshi’s History of Medieval
Deccan55
, Radhey Shyam’s History of the Medieval Deccan Period56
,
26
Sherwani’s The Bahmanis of Deccan57
, The Bahmanis of the Deccan: An
Objective Study58
and Mahmud Gawan: the Great Bahmani Wazir59
,
Siddiqui’s Bahmanis of the Deccan60
, The Bahmani Sufis61
and A Note
on some legends of the Bahmani Coins62
,
Significance of the Study
The aim of the present work is to analyze the socio-economic life
of the people in the upper Deccan under Bahamanis since its formation in
1347 until the end of Bahamani kingdom. The main thrust of the study is
that there is a metamorphic change in the med ieval socio-economic
history of Deccan as a result of the advent of the Muslims. After the rise
of Islam, it spread rapidly towards the three continents of the then known
world, Asia, Africa, and Europe and came up with some of the highly
advanced and sophisticated socio – economic culture of the age.
Though Islam emerged among the Bedouin people who were
semetic people, very soon as it spead it absorbed Greeco – Roman and
Iranian culture in plenty and this eventually came to be recognized as
Islamic culture in the Orient. It also absorbed many features from Asian
people mainly the inner core of Buddhism. As it spread to India it was
further influenced by Indian culture and vice versa. When it came to India
it had already reached the peak of its glory in polity, society and
27
economic development. But the important fact is that, the political
pattern, the social order and the economic aspects it built elsewhere were
entirely different from what it achieved in India.
There is a basic unity, harmony and a common pattern in the social
and economic structure of Islam wherever it prevailed in other parts of
the world. In reality the Deccan region under the Bahmani rule witnessed
sea changes socially, economically, politically and culturally. The factors
which made Bahmani Kingdom unique in the history of Deccan need to
be systematically assessed on the basis of authentic archeological
documents and other relevant evidences.
The first Muslim political base that emerged in the Deccan was the
Bahmani kingdom, a rebel state against Delhi Sultan Muhamad-bin-
Tughluq. They exploited the mistakes of the Tughluqs to their advantage
by positing themselves as fighting against tyranny and oppression. In this
task, greater advantage to them in this regard was the support extended by
the Muslim Sufis who for the first time came out of their mantle
championing the cause of the Bahmanis. The Sufi saints also brought
about commendable social reformation in the Bahmani Kingdom on the
basis of humanism.
28
Through out the Bahmanian rule, the Sufis associated themselves
with the state in so for as they acted as a link in bringing about
rapprochement between the people and Bahamani state. From the
beginning of the Bahmani rule in the middle of the 14th
century till the
end of the 16th
century, the policy of Bahmanis was liberal and tolerant to
the needs of different communities, observes Akram and Kosar (1990)63
.
Moreover, the complete absence of popular revolt shows the
acquiescence of the people to their rule. Of course, there were many wars
and confrontations between Bahmanis and Vijayanagara, but the causes
of the wars were more political than religious or social or communal.
But slanted interpretation of the history of Bahmanis as initiated by
Robert Sewell and other Indian Scholars have perpetuated the fallacy that
Muslims were demons, and their business was destruction. This study
intends also to investigate the slanted interpretation of Bahamani society,
by different scholars. The original materials to be examined would throw
light on the reality of social and economic conditions of those times and
draw the conclusion that neither Bahamani rulers were motivated by
religious factors nor were the Hindus opposed to them on religious
grounds.
“The Bahmanis were more interested in preserving their power
than in propagating Islamic faith. They fought against the Vijayanagara
29
rulers mainly on the basis of political, territorial, economic and other
considerations rather than religious consideration”, writes Ahmad
(1953)64
. It should be realized that no empire could be sustained for any
length of time with out the consent of the people and pro-people
administration. Therefore, the present study investigates how the
Bahamani rulers protected the peasants, artisans, merchants and other
general publics through value-based and development - friendly
administration which enjoyed the patronage of saints, scholars and
people.
There are couple of works on the medieval Deccan history -
ancient as well as medieval - most of them deal with political history. The
social and economic history of upper Deccan has not been systematically
and comprehensively examined by the past researchers according to the
review of literature till today. Eminent scholars like Sherwani, Ahmad,
Yazadani, Joshi, Azam, Chopra and others have documented the history
of South India, medieval Deccan, Bahmanis of Deccan, Sufi movement in
the Deccan and other features of Bahmani rule in Deccan. The scholars
have not focused the attention of readers on the social, economic,
political and cultural development of Deccan during Bahmani rule.
The present study assumes great significance because the Bahmani
Kingdom of the Deccan was the most powerful of all the independent
30
Muslim Kingdoms that arose on account of the disintegration of Delhi
Sultanate. In particular Ala-ud-din Hasan (1347-1358 A.D), Muhammad
Shah I (1358-1375 A.D), Muhammad II (1378-1397 A.D), Ahmad Shah
(1422-1436 A.D), Ala-ud-din II (1436-1458 A.D) and Muhammad
Gawan have remained in the history of Deccan as the foremost rulers and
administrators who made lasting contributions for the progress of the
Deccan region through their progressive, secular and humanitarian
administrative approaches.
A few highly valuable researches both by Indian and foreign
scholars are available with respect to the historical significance, trends
and developments in the Bahmani Kingdom which have attracted the
attention of scholars in India. Hitherto, not even a single systematic
historical study has been conducted, duly focusing the historical
contributions of Bahmani rulers toward enriching the culture, polity and
economy of Deccan. However, the past studies did not seem to
appreciate in the right perspective the attempts of Bahmani rulers in
making the Bahmani Kingdom a model Kingdom.
An authentic and systematic evaluation of the forces and factors
which made Bahmani Kingdom the most powerful and progressive of all
the independent Muslim Kingdoms in the Deccan assumes great
historical significance. Besides this, the social, economic, political and
31
cultural contributions of Bahmani rulers during the medieval India also
warrant scientific assessment and meaningful documentation in the
present times. Thus, the present study forms a significant original
contribution to the historical and scholarly understanding of the
contributions of Bahmani rulers for the progress of upper Deccan.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present thesis is divided into six chapters. Besides,it contains
abbreviations, glossary, photographs and bibliography.
The first chapter namely – introduction presents the geographical
setting of Deccan, historical perspective of Deccan, writers of Bahmani
history, survey of relevant literature, sources of information, significance
of the study, research methodology, objectives of the study and
hypothesis of the study.
The second chapter namely – Political Life provides necessary
details about the rise and fall of Bahmani kingdom and administration of
the Bahmani sultans which are directly associated with the social and
economic life in the upper Deccan under the Bahmanis.
The third chapter discusses – Economic development contains the
economic policy agriculture, industries, trade and commerce, transport
and communication system, and coinage under Bahmani sultans. These
32
discussions put the search light on the economic life in the upper Deccan
under the Bahmanis.
The fourth chapter on _Socio-Religous life deals with the impact
of Sufism and social structure.
The fifth chapter is – cultural Changes draw the attention of
scholars on various aspects of cultural life. It also discusses the influence
of Persian literature and culture on Bahmani kingdom.
The sixth chapter is – Conclusion, is devoted to the general
summary of the study, and results.
METHODOLOGY
The present study is based on both archaeology and archival
materials which were available from different libraries and archives.
Relevant primary and secondary data on the unique contributions of
Bahmani rulers toward the socio-economic development of upper Deccan
during 1347-1527 A.D. were collected from Library, and archives. These
primary and secondary sources furnish vivid accounts about the
contributions of Bahmani rulers for the socio – economic progress of
upper Deccan. The records in the English, Persian, Arabic and Kannada
33
languages and the reports of the archeological departments were highly
useful to learn about the unique contributions made by Bahmani rulers
which were based on human values and spiritual considerations. Basing
on a wide range of primary and secondary sources this thesis makes a
critical assessment of the factors and forces which constituted the history
and progress of Deccan under the Bahmani rulers, adopting the
methodology of historical materialism.
SOURCES OF THE STUDY
Primary Sources
For rebuilding the Bahmani history the primary sources available
are quite authentic and satisfactory. Much of the history of Bahmani
Kingdom has been written with the help of inscriptions. Several
historians of medieval India have documented the origin, growth and
development of Bahmani Kingdom authoritatively. For the lives of
various rulers of Bahmani Kingdom namely Muhammad Shah I. (1358-
1377 A.D.), Firoz Shah (1397-1422 A.D.), Ahmad Shah (1422-1435
A.D.), Ala-ud-din II (1435-1457 A.D.), Humayun (1457-1461 A.D.),
Nizam Shah (1461-1463 A.D.) and the offshoots of Bahmani Kingdom
namely – Bijapur, Golkunda, Bidar, Berar and Ahmadnagar the available
34
primary sources of information can be viewed as quite authentic but not
adequate.
The prominent primary sources of information relating to the topic
includeAdari Tusi’s Bahman-nama, Ali Bin Aziz Ullah Tabataba’s
Burhan-I Ma,asir.
Mahmud Gavan’s Emad-al-Din and Riaz al-ensa, Abd-Allah Cagatay’s
Bani-e saltanat-e Bahmaniya, Belgrami’s Tarik-e-Dakkan, Siddiqi’s
Bahmani Saltanat, and Mukhdamai Tarikhi-Deccan, Allah Cagatay
Abd’s Bani-e Saltanat-e Bahmaniya Mahmud Gawan’s Riaz-al-ensa,
Farzam’s Solan Ahmad Bahmani wa Sah Nemat-Allah Wali and other
works primarily deals with the accomplishments of Bahmani rulers. Apart
from these, certain prominent documents pertaining to Bahmani dynasty
such as – Iqrarnama Bahmani period (1st Shawwal, 840H.), Iqrarnama
Bahmani period (1st Shawwal, 840H.), Iqrarnama Bahmani period (22
nd
Shawwal, 846H.), Farman Bahmani period (9th
Jamadi I, 883 H.),
Farman Bahmani period (7th Shawwal, 893 H.), Hukm Bahmani period
(4th
Rajab), Hukm Bahmani period (7th
Shaban 920H.), Qubuliyatnama
Qutbshahi (1 Rajab, 986 H.), Farman Qutb shahi (26th
Jamadi II, 989 H.),
Farman Qutb shahi (2nd
Ziqada, 991 H.), Farman Qutb shahi (7th
Ramzan,
992 H.), Farman Qutb shahi (16th
Ramzan, 994 H.), Farman Qutb shahi
(16th
Zilhijjja 1001 H.) and Farman Qutb shahi (6th
Zilhijja, 1002 H.)
35
were also perused by the research scholar who knows both Persian and
Arabic languages which revealed significant historical developments
pertaining to Bahmani dynasty.
Secondary Sources
Several secondary sources which were available in the form of
published books, theses, articles, media writings etc. were also utilized
for the purpose of gathering relevant information about the subject of
research. Prominent among them include – Alexander Dew’s History of
Hindustan (1812), Gribble’s A History of the Deccan (1896), King’s The
History of the Bahmani Dynasty (1900), Sir Woolselry Haig’s Historical
Landmarks of the Deccan (1907), Gairola’s Hyderabad Archaeological
Department Report (1915) and The Religion of Ahmad Shah Bahmani
(1924), Hardy’s Historians of Medieval India (1939), Yazdani’s Bidar:
Its History and Monuments (1947), Gairola’s Bidri Ware (1956),
Moreland’s The Agrarian System of Moslem India (1961), Alexander
Tchitcherov’s India: Changing Economic Structure in the 16-18th
Centuries (1965), Brigg’s History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in
India (1966), Richard Maxwell Eaton’s Sufis of Bijapur (1300-1700)
(1978), Marshal’s Bidar and Parenda (1987), ), Euginia Vanina’s The
Inscriptions of Bidar (1987), Loch’s Dakhan History: Musalman and
Maratha:1300-1818, (1989), Euginia Vanina’s Antiquities of Bidar
36
(1992), Michell and Zebrowski’s Architecture and Art of the Deccan
Sultanates (1999), Euginia Vanina’s Reforms and Modernisation in the
18th Century Deccan States (2002), Stanley Lane Poole’s Medieval India
under Mohammedan Rule (2003) and Mary Frere Old Deccan Days or
Hindoo Fairy Legends (2006) were further utilized to assess the impact of
Bahmani Kingdom on the social, economic, political and cultural
progress of Deccan region.
SUMMERY AND CONCLUSION
The social, economic, political and cultural contributions of
Bahmani rulers were not scientific assessment and meaningful
documentation in the present times. Basing on a wide range of primary
and secondary sources this thesis makes a critical assessment of the
factors and forces which constituted the history and progress of Deccan
under the Bahmani rulers, adopting the methodology of historical
materialism.
Modern historians do not subscribe to the theory of Ferishta in
regard to the origin of Bahmani Kingdom which was the most powerful
of all the independent Muslim Kingdoms in the Deccan. The
correspondence between the Deccani Sultanates and Mir Jumla with the
37
Court of Persia also provide relevant information about Bahmani
Kingdom of Deccan.
The Bahmani dynasty consisted of about 18 Sultans who shared
different perceptions about governance. There were very few honorable
exceptions which are found in the history of Bahmani Kingdom. The
founder of the dynasty was indeed a non entity who rose from obscurity
to aristocracy and provided a new dimension to the governance of
Bahmani Kingdom on the basis of his past political experience at Delhi
Sultanate.
There was always a conflict of interest between the localities and
foreigners who shared an altogether different ideologies and cultures. The
Muslims enjoyed the major positions while the Hindus were given
miscellaneous responsibilities. The temples and other holy places were
reduced to that of ashes while the Muslim monuments cropped up on the
strength of royal patronage. Muhammad Gawan was mainly responsible
for the consolidation and enrichment of Bahmani Kingdom on the
strength of vision and missionary zeal. The Bahmani Kingdom enjoyed
all the basic infrastructural facilities and civic amenities.
The Bahmani rulers also plundered the resources of their
adversaries and every victorious march brought large trousers into the
38
Kingdom. Most of the rulers and nobles were pleasure seekers which
resulted in the economic marginalization of the people. The architectura l
excellence of monuments represents Middle Eastern values and
aspirations rather than the Indian values and aspirations. The annals of the
Bahmani dynasty are replete with instances of organized and inhuman
violations of human rights which were carried out right under the nose of
the rulers.
Sufism is a way of life which facilitates the attainment of union
with God and that people must actualize these divine qualities in
themselves by surrendering before His Almighty. Sufism is considered as
an important way of life which was practiced in Iraq particularly in Basra.
The Sufi saints were persuaded by the Bahmani rulers to establish
institutions and eradicate social evils which impeded the progress of the
people of Deccan.
The Bahmani Rule predominantly institutionalized Islamic culture
in Deccan which was reflected in literature, art, architecture and other
spheres of life. The rulers attached great significance to the advancement
of culture in Deccan and contributed notably for the cultural promotion of
the region. They invited scholars, saints, artists and other cultural
personalities from the West Asia and enabled them to institutionalize the
39
salient features of Persian culture which enhanced the status of Deccan in
several ways.
The travelogues of Ibn Batuta, Nicolo Conti, Barbosa and a
score of other foreign travelers revealed that Deccan during medieval
ages under Bahmani rulers was rich and prosperous. The rulers conquered
several provinces and brought huge resources while the traders generated
plenty of income and brought to Deccan gold, silver and precious metals
which they exchanged for spices, cloth and ivory goods. The economy of
the Deccan under Bahmani Sultans rose to the high position in terms of
agricultural productivity, industrial profit, income generation through
trade, promotion of handicrafts and participation in international trade.
The economy was primarily based on agrarian culture which was
dominated by feudal lords who controlled the land. The rulers were
concerned with the welfare of peasants who were mostly landless tenants.
The Sultans also developed many industries which fetched economic
benefits considerably. The development of transportation and
communication facilities also boosted the economy of Bahmani kingdom.
There were international trade and commerce activities between Bahmani
kingdom and other provinces of Indian sub-continent and overseas
nations in Turki, Persia, Iran, Portuguese, China and so on. The Bahmani
Sultans also promoted the artisans who produced the handicrafts which
40
earned international sales and marketing benefits. The Bahmani rulers
concentrated on the enhancement of the economic status of the Deccan
despite several wars, internal conflicts and other adverse circumstances.
The Bahmani kingdom produced several scholars, saints,
philosophers, statesmen, architects and other nation builders who created
a parallel history in Deccan during the medieval period. In particular,
Firuz Shah, Mahmud Gawan and Gesu Daraz became the towering
personalities of medieval India who command the esteem and high
regards of historians. The whole historical fraternity reverentially salutes
them and gratefully acknowledges what they have done for the Deccan,
its people and more importantly to the cause of social and economic
transformation of Deccan in medieval India. In particular, Mahmud
Gawan will continue to be the fragrant flower, success story, milestone
and role model in the history of medieval India. The immense
contributions made available by the Bahmani rulers are available for
researchers for study and judgment. To the scholars Firuz Shah and
Mahmud Gawan appeared as great rulers, to the fraternity of historians
they are great role models and to lovers of philosophy, they were great
philosophers. The main thing, the present study reveals is that Firuz Shah
and Mahmud Gawan lived like statesmen and the contributions they made
are marvelous for the progress of Deccan. In conclusion, it could be
41
stated with great pride that Sultan Ala-ud-din Hasan (1347-1358 A.D),
Sultan Muhammad Shah I (1358-1375 A.D), Sultan Muhammad II (1378-
1397 A.D), Sultan Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.), Sultan Ahmad
Shah (1422-1436 A.D), Sultan Ala-ud-din II (1436-1458 A.D) and Prime
Minister Muhammad Gawan occupy an honored place for their historical
contributions which enriched the Bahmani kingdom in several ways.
42
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2. Encyclopedia of Britannica (1768) Ibid, pp.151-153.
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