INTRODUCTION

Spices constitute an important group of agricultural commodities, which is

considered as low volume and high value crops. Spices sector is one of the key areas

in which lndia has an inherent strength to dominate the global markets and plays a

significant role in our national economy ( P ~ t h i , 1998).

The fame of Indian spices is older than the recorded history (7000 BC), which

elucidates the extreme fascination of the rest of the world for the fabled wealth of'

lndia - the variety of spices. Indian spices chequered history, dis~overed or

destroyed lands, built or brought down kingdoms, won or lost wars, signed or

flouted treaties, sought or offered favours (Anonymous, 2002a). For this reason

lndia has earned various sobriquets like "The home of spices", "The spice bowl of

the world", and "The land of spices". The lure of exotic spices brought many

European navigators and explorers to the shores of lndia (Chezhiyan and Selvarajan,

2001). Many of the Indian spices are much valued in the world market because of

their intrinsic qualities; hence the world romance with Indian spices continues

unabated (Peter and Nybe, 2002).

An estimate of 500,000 tonnes of spices and herbs valued at US $1500 million

is now imported globally every year. An impressive quantity (46%) of this supply

comes from India. India stood first in the production and export of spices and its

related products. India with an expected population of 1.20 billion people by the

year of 2005 will also be the largest consumer of spices (Anonymous, 1999). About

8.5% of India's export earnings come from agricultural and allied products of which

spices constitute 1.24% (1999-2000). At present India produces 3.0 million tonnes

of spices annually from 2.5 million hectares. The lion share (90%) of the spices

produced is adsorbed in the domestic market and only a meagre share of 10% is

exported to more than 150 countries. India contributes of about 45-50% supply in

terms of volume or 25% in terms of value to international spice market, which earns

a sizeable foreign exchange of Rs.16.2535 lakhs (US $ 341.60 million)

(Anonymous, 2002a).

lndis commands a formidable position in the global spice market with broad

spectrum of spices. It is possible because India is endowed with wide range of agto-

climate regions specially suited for the cultivation of superior quality of spices, which

play an important role in the history of civilization (Rajesh el ol., 2002). Out of 109

spices listed by the IS0 (International Spice Organization) 63 are grown in India, of

which only 16 being very important viz., black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric,

large cardamom, clove, chilli, garlic, saffron, celery, cumin, coriander, fennel,

fenugreek, ajwain and suwa. Based on their importance in foreign trade the black

pepper, cardamom, chilli, turmeric and ginger are grouped under major type and the

rest are considered as minor spices (Chezhiyan, 2000).

Turmeric is one of the major spices cultivated for its underground rhizome,

which is also called as "hidden Lilly" or "turmeric of commerce". In 1280, Mar Co

Polo described turmeric as a vegetable with the prope~lies of saffron and is not really

saffron (Suresh Muthukulam, 2001). This herbal plant is a native of southern Asia

(probably India) and is cultivated extensively throughout the warmer parts of the

world. It is g r o m on a large scale in India, China and East Indies. In India it is

cultivated in almost all the states particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,

Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa and to some extent in West Bengal, Maharashtra. Assam,

Bihar, Meghalaya. Goa, Tirupura, Uttar pradesh, Rajasthan, Arunachal pradesh and

Mizoram (Chadha, 2001).

lndia has been and continues to be undisputedly first in the production,

consumption and export of turmeric in the world (Narasimhudu and Balasubramanian,

2001a). Turmeric occupies about 6% of the total area under spice and condiments

cultivation in India. 'The area and production of turmeric in the country showed an

increasing trend during the last five decades. Turmeric is traded as whole dried type,

turmeric powder besides value added products like curcumin, turmeric oleoresin and

turmeric oil (Chadha, 2001).

Turmeric has versatile uses in flavoring, dye making, drug preparation,

cosmetics and medicine (Kallupurackal and Ravindran, 2002; Deeksha Dixit et al.,

2002). Turmeric is officially entered in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of lndia,

Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China and in Japanese standards o f

herbal medicines (Usha, 2001).

Common Names

Asabi-e-safr. Avea, kurkum, Aurukesafur, Urukesabaghin. Arabic countries Urukessubr, Urukesufr, Zarsud.

I

Country

Acafrao, Ango. Ango hina, Turmeric

1 B e s q cago Curcuma. Haledo, Kalo haledo. turmeric / Nepal I

Brazil

1 Curcuma, Turmeric, Zardchoobeh i

1

Dilau, Nisha, Pasupu, Rajani, Turmeric, Ukon, Zholti, Manjal, Pitras. Mannal, Marinalu, Pampi. Aneshta, Bahula, Dirgharaga, Gandha palashika, Gauri, Gharshani. Mangalaprada, Mehaghni, Kshapa Lakshmi, Pinga. Pitavaluka, Ratrinamika, Shobhana, Shyma, Varangi, Varandatri, Yuvati, Arishina, Haldil. Haldar, Haldhar, Haldi, Halodhi, Halud, Halada, Halede, Halja, Haladi, Haridara, Harita, Hemaragi, Arishina, Lidar, Varavat Ela.

Dilaw

India

Philippines

Goeratji, Javanese turmeric, Kakoenji, Oendre, Koening, Koenir. Koenjet, Kondin, Rame, Temu-lawak / Indonesia !

1 Hardi, Haldi 1 Fiji I 1 I Harindra, Huang ch~ang, Temu kunyit, Turmeric, Wong keong, 1 Wong keung

Malaysia

1 Kerqum ~ o r o c w i Khamin chan, turmeric Kiko eka, Turmeric

Kurcum, Warse

Nighe

Thailand Marquesas islands

Oman

Vietnam

Mena

Rerega, Renga

S&an vert, Safran, Turmeric

Safran, Tale's, Temow lawak

(Dana and Mukeji, 1950; Chopra el al , 1959; Ross, 1999; Kaliupurackal and Ravindran, 2002).

Rotuma

Cook islands

Mauritius

Rodrigues islands

Turmeric, Ukon

Turmeric

Turmeric, Ukon

Turmeric

UI Gum

Yushin

Curcuma

Geelwortel

Curcuma

Gurkmeja

Kurkuma Gelbivaml

Curcuma

Acfrao-da

lmbir

Around 100 active constituents have been recorded from turmeric. They are:

2-hydroxy-methyly anthraqulnone, 4-hydroxy bisabola-2-10-dien-9-one, 4-hydroxy

cinnamoyl-(femloy1)-methane, 4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl methane, 4-hydroxy-fe~loxyl

methane, 4-methoxy bisabola-3-IO-dien-2-one, 5-hydroxy bisabola-2-10-dien-9-one

5-hydroxy procurcumenol, 5'-Methoxy curcumin, Alpha atlantone, Alpha curcumene,

Alpha phellandrene, alpha pinene, Alpha turmerine, Alpha turmerone, Beta

bisabolene, Beta pinene, Beta sesquiphellandrene, Beta sitosterol, Beta tutmerone,

Sri lanka

Taiwan

U.S.A.

South Korea

China

Spain

Dutch

France

Sweden

German

Italy

Protugese

Russia

Bis-(4-hydroxy-cinnamoyl), Bis-@ara-hydmxy+imamoyl) methane, Bis-demethoxy

curcumin, Bisabola-3-10-diene.2-S-dihydmxy, Bisabolene. Bisacumol, Bomeol,

Caffeic acid, Campesterol, Camphene, Camphor, Caryophylene, Cholesterol, Cineol,

Curcumene, Curcumenol, Curcumenone, Curcumin, Curdione, Curlone,

Curzerenone-C, Curzerenone, cyclocurcumin, Dehydro cr.rdione, Demethoxy

curcumin, Di-para-coumaroyl methane, Di-femloyl methane, Epi-procurcumenol,

Di-para-coumaroyl methane. Epi-pmcurcumenol, Eugenol, Feruloyl-para-coumaroyl

methane, Gamma atlantone, Germacmn (4S',SS)-epoxide, Germacron-13-al,

Germacrone, Germacrone. 4(S)-S(S)epoxy, Guaiacol, Hepta-l-4-6-niene-3-one,l-7-bis-(4-

benzenoid-hydroxy-phenyl), hepta-l-6diene-3-5dione.l-(4-hydmxy-3-methoxy-phayl)-

7-(3-4dihydroxy-phenyl), Iso-bomeol, Iso-pmmumenol, Limonene. Linalool, Mono-

demethoxy curcumin, Ortho coumaric acid, Para coumaric acid, Para cymene, Para-

hydroxy-cinnamoyl feruloyl methane, Para-tolyl-methyl-carbinol, Penta-trans-l -trans-4-

dien-3ane,l-5-bis-(4-hydmxy-3-methoxq-pheny), Penta-trans-4dien-3-one,l(4-hydroxy-3-

methoxy-pheny1)-5-(4-hydroxy-phenyl), Pmurcumenol, Protocatechuic acid, Sabinene,

Saturated fatty acids, Stigmasterol, Syringic acid, Terpinene, Terpineol, Tolyl-methyl-

carhinol, Turnerin, Turmerone AR, Turmerone,RT, Turmeronol A. Turmeronol B,

Ukonan A, Ukonan B, Ukonan C, Ukonan D. Unstaurated fatty acids. Vanillic acid,

Zedoarondiol, zingiberene etc. (Ross, 1999; Geoffrey et al., 1998).

Turmeric finds its application in Abortifacient effect, Adrenal hypertrophy effect,

Alkaline phosphatase inhibition, Alkaline phosphatase stimulation, Allergenic activity,

Antiamoebic activity, Antiasthamatic activity, Antibacterial activity. Anticoagulant

activity, Anticomplement activity, Anticonwlsant activity, Anticmstacean activity,

Antiedema activity, Antifungal activity, Antihepatotoxic activity, Antihyper-

cholesterolemic activity, Antihyperglyceridemia effect, Antihypzrlipemic activity, anti-

implantation effect, Anti-inflammatory activity, Anti-ischemic effect. Antimutagenic

activity, Antimycobacterial activity, Antinematodal activity. Antioxidant activity.

Antispasmodic activity, Antispermatogenic effect, Antitumor activity, Antiulcer activity,

Antiviral activity, Antiyeast activity, Apoptosis induction. Arachidonate metabolism

inhibition, Ascaricidal activity. Carcinogenesis inhibition, Cardiotonic activity, Catdase

stimulation, Choleretic activity, Chromosome abenations induced, Clastopnic activity.

CNS depressant activity, Cytochrome B-5 increase, Cytochrome B-5 inhibition.

Cytochrome P-450 induction, Cytochrome P-450 inhibition, Cytotoxic activity,

Desaturase-Delta-5 inhibition Diuretic activity, Embryotoxic effect. Food consumption

reduction, Gastric secretory inhibition, Gastrointestinal diwrders, Genotoxicity activity.

Glutamate oxdoacetate transaminase inhibition, Glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase

stimulation, Glutamate pyruvate Uansaminase inhibition, Glutamate pyruvate

transaminase stimulation, Glutathione- formation induction, Glutathione peroxidase

stimulation, Glutathione-S-transferase induction, GRAS status, Hyaluronidase

inhibition, Hypglycemic activity, Hypothermic activity, lmmunostimulant activity,

Immunosuppressant activity, insect repellent activity, Insecticide activity, Interferon

induction stimulation, Intestinal absorption inhibition, Lactate dehydrogenase

stimulation, Leukopenic activity, Lipid peroxide formation inhibition, Liver regeneratio'n

stimulation, Mutagenic activity, Myocardial uptake of B6-RB enhanced, Necrotic effect,

Nematocidal activity, Nitrosation inhibition, Ovulation inhibition effect. Phagocytosis

capacity increased, Plasma bilirubin decrease, Platelet aggregation inhibition, protease

(HN) inhibition, Radical scavenging effect, RBC synthesis antagonist, Spasmogenic

activity, Spasmolytic activity, Sulthydryl-containing compounds increased, Superoxide

dismutase stimulation, Taenicide activity, Teratogenic activity, Thromboxane B-2

synthesis inhibition, Tyrosinase inhibition, Uterine stimulant effect, WBC-macrophage

stimulant, and weight gain inhibition (Ross.1999; Khanna, 1999; Geoffrey er a/., 1998;

Torres et al., 1998; Palaniswamy, 2000; Kelloff el al., 2000; Graf, 2200; Dorai et a/ . ,

2000; Polassa el al., 1992; Selvam et al., 1995; Van Dau et a!., 1998).

Turmeric prefers a warm humid climate with a rainfall of 1,500 mm and

temperature of 20-30°C. It thrives well up to 1,200 m above mean sea Icvel. Well-

drained sandy or clayey loam or red loamy soils having acidic to slightly alkaline pH

are ideal for its cultivation. Turmeric is either planted on raised bed on ridges and

furrows or in flat system. Turmeric can also be grown as intercrop in coconut gardens,

ginger field or as mixed crop with red gram, chili, colocasia, vegetables, maize, ragi

and onion. Turmeric also comes up well under sparse shade (Chadha, 2001).

This herbal plant is highly prow to several fungal diseases (Naidu, 1988;

Rangaswami and Mahadevan, 2001: Pruthi, 1998). The major diseases and causal

organisms of turmeric plant are:

Leaf blotch : Taphrrnu maculans

Leaf spot : CaNelotrichum capsici

Leaf blight : Hhizocronia solani

Rhizome and Root rot : Pyhium graminicolum

Basal rot : Sclerotium rolfsi

Leaf spot : Curvularia lunala

Storage rot : Macrophominaphoseolina

Cladosporium cladosporioides

The devastating leaf spot disease of turmeric is caused by Colletorrichum

capsici (Syd.) (Butler & Bisby). This disease was first reported in Coimbatore district,

India by Mc Rae in 1917 (Ramakrishnan, 1954). It results in the yield loss between

1540% (Joshi and S h m a , 1980; Pruthi, 1998; Narasimhudu and Balasubramanian,

2001b). The dry weight of the rhizome is also reduced to 62% approximately.

There are nearly 1000 form species of Colletotrichum spp. that have been

described on the basis of the disease caused on various hosts. C. capsici were also

reported as unspecialized parasite from more than 100 plants in a wide range of

angiosperm families. Although the disease is found throughout India, it is more severe

in the southern states. (Gomathi, 2001).

The disease was described by Ramakrishnan (1954) as follows: The disease

manifests itself on the leaves in the form of elliptic or oblong spots, variable in size.

In the initial stages, they are small but very soon many of them increase in size and

may measure one and a half to two inches in length and about an inch to an inch and a

half across. Two or more spots may coalesce developing into irregular patches often

involving a major portion of the leaf, which eventually dries up. Each individual spot

has a characteristic appearance. The centre is greyish white and thin with numerous

black, dot-like acewuli on both surfaces. These are arranged in concentric rings.

Beyond the greyish white portion is a brown margin all round the spot. On this also

the a c e ~ i l i may be seen. Outside this is an indefinite yellowish region forming a halo

round the spot. The spots, though visible on both surfaces, are more marked on the

upper surface in the fresh leaves. But on drying they are equally conspicuous on both

surfaces. Invariably, the lesions are on the leaf blade. But sometimes stromata or

acervuli may be seen on the leaf sheaths also. When the incidence o f the disease is

heavy. most of the leaves dry up and the field presents a parched-up appearance. The

central region of the spot may become papery and easily tom. Owing to the

destruction of the chlorophyll-bearing leaf area, the production of rhizomes is reduced

sometimes to less than 50%. Stromatoid bodies are formed even on the scales of the

rhizon~es.

The acewuli are located intra-epidermally. The hyphae are septate and hyaline in

the initial stages passing between and inside the cells of the mesophyll. Later, pale

brownish h p h a e accumulate inside the epidermal cells and form the basis of stroma

development. The stromata are made up of light to dark brown pseudoparenchymatous

cells. l'he outer wall of the epidermis is ruptured and the setae and conidiophores are

exposed. Setae are formed from all over the acervulus and are not confined to the

margin. Crescent-shaped conidia are bome on the conidiophores. The stromata are

iariable in size. ranging from 6 0 - 1 2 0 ~ in diameter. The setae are b r o w , septate and

tnpcrlng l'he length of the setae is variable and ranges from 50-145~.

The conidia are crescent-shaped, hyaline and one-celled measuring 25 x 3 p

( 1 7-3 1 x 3-4). A conspicuous vacuole is present in the center of the conidium. But as

it grows old, the contents become more granular or highly vacuolated and the solitary

iacuole is not evident. The conidial masses are of pink, though individual spores are

hyaline The spots are embedded in a gelatinous substance and on drying they are all

held together. But when the mass is floated in drops of water, the spores readily

separate. The conidia germinate readily producing germ tubes from either or both

ends. A septum is also developed dividing the cell into two compartments. Olive-

brown, round or irregular thick-walled appressoria are formed at the ends of the germ

tubes or from the tip or the spore irself (Sundararaman. 1925: Kamakrishnan, 1941).

The fungus was brought into pure culture and its growth on different media was

studied. On oat agar, the isolate exhibited good grouth producing pale. olive grey

aerial mycelium and numerous buff-pink acervuli in the course of a ueek. The

acervulus has a black stromatic base on which masses of conidia are produced to the

aerial growth to give buff-pink colour to the fructification. On French bean agar, the

aerial growth is a mixture of white and grey. Black stromata and pink acervuli are

developed in large numbers in six to seven days. When the isolates are maintained in

agar media for several generations, there is a reduction in the quantity of aerial

mycelium produced. The surface of the slant becomes studded with numerous

stromata and acewuli. Chlamydospores are formed in large numbers, especially at the

junction of the surface of the slant and the sides of the test rubes (Rsmakrishnan,

1954).

Several works have been conducted to control (' ci~psfci by using fungicides of

chemical and biological origin. The current methods of agr~culture and horticulture

rely heavily upon the use of chemlcal fungicideslpestic~des. which are very needy and

its usage has become unavoidable for higher effectwe yield and crop protection. The

first recorded use of chemicals to control pests dates back to 2500 BC (Hock c v a / .

1991). The chemical pesticides have been w~dely used for the past three decades

(Chandrasekhara Rao and Murthy. 1999). Around 100,000 chemical pest~cides are

now in commercial use worldwide with more than 2.5 million tonnes were applied to

the field annually (Anonymous, 2000~).

Although the usage of chemical pesticides became a paramount need for the

crop protection and prodigious yield, there are many disadvantages such as causing

resurgence, resistance in pathogens and posing residue problems to the consumers o f

treated products, besides causing environmental contamination (Chandrasekhara Rao

and Munhy. 1999).

The constant and continuous use of the fungicides may develop resistance in

the pathogen against fungicidal action of the fungicides (Kore and Apes, 1989;

Sariah, 1989; Griffiths, 1981; Bollen, 1971). They were reported to inhibit the

photosynthetic process (Querns el al.. 1998) and reduce plant growth and biomass

(Shilling el al.. 1994). Use of chemical fungicide was proved to suppress the non-

target beneficial organisms and thus they might facilitate the pathogen to spread

the disease quickly in their respective hosts and the reduction of these beneficial

organisms can also result in changes in the natural biological balances (Knauss,

1972, 1977). "Iatrogenic diseases" were also reported due to the application of

chemical fungicides. The use of Fytolan causing iatrogenic effect in turmeric was

reported by Verma (1986). Various ill effects of synthetic fungicides on crop and

ecosystems were described by Byrdc (1991). They were reported to affect the soil

microfauna, animals and human population. 672 million birds were exposed to

pesticides every year and 10% (67 million) of them die annually (Anonymous,

2 0 0 0 ~ ) .

The hazards of pesticides are now widely recognized worldwide, although

statistics are hard to gather The world health organization estimates that at least

three million people are poisoned by pesticides every year and more than 200,000

died are attributed to pesticides. It is estimated that up to 25 million agricultural

workers are poisoned every year (Anonymous, 2000a,b). The pesticides poisoning

the food in the form of residues is reported in most of the vegetable and fruits that

are used in our day today life. The residue problems of the chemical usages also

affect the livestock, waterways and the general environment. Every person on the

earth has absorbed at least 250 synthetic chemicals into their body due to pesticide

residue (Anonymous, 2000~) . The spiraling and fluctuating cost of chemical

pesticides demands for alternative. Chemical pesticides are akin to environmental

pollution in producing hazardous consequences In terms of soil pollution thus

reducing the quality of arable land (Bezbamah, 2000). In Indian scenario the thrust

for more use of pesticides in intensively cultivated areas led to the developnlent of

resistance by the pathogen against the particular pesticide used. Ground water

contamination by leached chemicals can occur in high use areas if persistent

products are used.

Considerable attention was bestowed to critically evaluate the disadvantages

of pesticide, as it now became a central issue, which must be addressed properly.

The crucial problems confronted about chemical pesticide usage needs a

recommitment to science and research that the biod~versity and environment safety

are not excluded and undermined. Strategies for raising safety measures against

the cause or impediments of pesticides hazards must be developed on a war

footing.

The sensitive issue regarding the demerits of the chemical pesticides has

demanded greater attention towards the development of safer methods of crop and

environment protection. To sustain and also to augment the yield, it is necessary to

adopt strong mop protection strategies without altering the ecological balance of the

cultivated land and environment. These unavoidable reasons compelled the researcher

to opt for biological control methods, which are now considered as the apt substitute

for the chemical pesticides.

Biological control of plant pests and in particular diseases caused by soil

borne plant pathogens, by introduced microorganisms has been the focus of

study for over 75 years (Baker, 1987). Biological control is a natural

phenomenon, which is defined as any condition under which or practice whereby

the survival activity of a pathogen is reduced through the agency of any other

living organism with the result that there is a reduction in the incidence of the

disease caused by the pathogen or the reduction of inoculum density or disease

producing activities of a pathogen or parasite in its active or dormant state, by

one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the

environment, host or antagonists, or by mass introduction of one or more

antagonists (Suseela Bhai, 2000). At the end of 2001, there were approximately

195 registered biopesticide active ingredients and 780 products (Anonymous,

2002b).

The biopesticides have several distinct advantages over chemical

fungicides (Suseela Bhai, 2000; Singh, 1993: Singh, 1999). Biopesticides are

usually inherently less toxic than conventional fungicides. They generally affect

only the target pathogenic organisms, in contrast to broad spectrum,

conventional fungicides that may affect organisms as different as birds, insects

and mammals. Also they are effective in very small quantities and often

decompose quickly, thereby resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding

the pollution problems caused by conventional fungicides. When used as a

component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, biopesticides can

greatly decrease the use of conventional fungicides, while crop yields remain

high. The biopesticides are safe to manufacturers, users and consumers of treated

crops and all aspects of the environment. They have a very specific mode o f

action and relatively critical application times. They have limited field

persistence and a short shelf life safer to humans and the environment and

present no residue problems. In fact. new biopesticides are often registered in

less than a year. compared with an average of more than 3 years for conventional

pesticides. They are easy to formulate and quicker to use in the field application

(Anonymous, 2002b).

Hence in reccnt years, the biopestic~des of plant and microbial origin are being

used as an alternative for chemical fungicides (Asha. 1999; Gomathi, 2001).

Biological control of Colleioir~chum spp. was reported by many workers

(Rajathilagam, 1999; Sourechc @ Venguidaragavane ei a / . , 2001; Rajavel, 2000;

Jeyalakshmi and Seetharam, 1998: Muthuraj. 1998).

Objectives

The present study was undertaken to find out the efficacy of four antagonistic

agents of microbial origin viz. Prchodcrma vrride, T horzranum, G!iocladrum

virens and Pseudomonas ,Jluore.scens in controlling C capsici causing leaf spot of

turmeric.

O To evaluate the efficacy of the above mentioned biocontrol agents on the

growth and physiology of C capsici infecting turmeric.

-3 To investigate the effects of the biocontrol agents in reducing the disease

intensity in the host plant caused by C. capsic;.

*3 To study the host-pathogen interaction by analysing the biochemical

changes in the host plant under healthy, infected and treated condit~ons.

To study the effect of biocontrol agents on the antioxidant enzyme

metabolism of the host.

4 To evaluate the yield of the host plant under healthy, infected and treated

conditions.

+:. To find out the best candidate out of four biocontrol agents for controlling

C capsici.