INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Man basic resources activity as life support system has been describe as

panchbhutas i e. soil, water, fire, space and air in addition to the description of

punchbhutas towards spiritual living air has been discussed as the birth of life.

Air is the most important component of the environment as soil and water. All

living organisms on the surface of the earth i.e. from microbes to human being

struggle to survive either on land or in water, out of these three component living

organisms can be selective of food and water, but air is essential.

"Air is most vital component of environment, without which nobody can

survive. One can live without food for weeks together, for few days without water, but

hardly for few minutes without air.

Today plants, animals and human being are continuously facing the attack of

microorganisms, especially bacteria and fungi attack the biotic flora and deteriorate

food and damage crops. The microbes and fungal spores are disseminated by the

fruiting bodies of fungi and blown by air to the attacking sites. Every living organism

on the surface of the earth right from microbes to the human beings, always struggle

to survive on the earth in the deep water of the sea or in the atmosphere and tries to

keep a relation with its neighbors and accumulates a strength required from its

existence. Air is one of the most important ingredients of environment like soil and

water. Air consists of a mixture of permanent gases and water in different

proportions, solid particles, pollen grains and fungal spores.

Every life of biospheres continuously struggle for its existence including the

microorganisms of very minute size too. Microbiology in its broadest meaning is the

science that deals with the study of the galaxy of all kind of microorganism such as

bacteria yeast mould, algae and protozoa etc. The term "microbes" are taken from

the French and mean microorganisms or microorganism being usually applied to the

pathogenic forms .The terms "microbes" and germ are probably synonymous with

bacterium. The study of the airborne microorganisms and their identity, behavior,

movements and survival, their dispersion, deposition impact on human, animal and

plant systems is referred to branch of science. Aerobiology is this contest, keep its

importance, because it deals with air-borne bio-mass of various types of

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microorganisms as well as their reproduction spores like pollens, fungal spores,

vegetative materials and plant trichomes etc. Usually airborne microorganisms

specially like bacteria and fungi deteriorates food, damage crops and crop plants.

Aerobiology is an interdisciplinary science of great significance. A great variety

of fields are represented under umbrella of aerobiology including plants, animals and

human pathology, entomology, air pollution effect, palynology, phytogeography and

meteorology. The study of effect is concerned with the source of an organisms or

matenal their release in the atmosphere dispersion, deposition and impaction on

animal and human system. With the inception of international biological programme,

IBP(1954), the terms has been further extended to include investigations of all air

born materials of biological significance. The term thus encompasses not only study

of the microbes but also pollution by the gases that exert specific biological effect .

Aerobiology is the branch of biological science, which deals with study of (air

borne) microorganisms. Microbes are either unicellular or multi-cellular.

Microorganisms are ubiquitous in nature. They are present in air, soil, water and

under all climatic conditions. Microbes also occur in the upper horizon of the

atmosphere but in gradually diminishing quantities. The ubiquitous nature of

microbes indicates their rapid and easy growth under favourable condition of

temperature, moisture and availability of food materials. Microbes are present in the

food we eat, in the water we dnnk, in the air we breathe in and cause pollution of

biological origin which includes not only the spores of fungi, myxomycetes,

bryophytes and pteridophytes but also pollen grains, moss, gemmae propagules or

lichens, cells of algae, vegetative cells and spores of bacteria, cysts of protozoa,

scales and parts of minute insects. All these aforesaid components of biological

origin occur in the air and constitute the "Airspora". Air is in constant motion; spores

remain suspended in the air for as far as long as their fall speeds are less than the

speeds of frequently recurring upward air currents.

Aerobiology is a branch of science which deals with the source of organisms

or the other materials and their release into the atmosphere, dispersion, deposition

and their impact on various kinds of living beings like animals, plants and human

beings. In other terms, it can be explained as the "Microbiology of the atmosphere".

According to the I.U.B.S. Commission on Aerobiology, it has been defined as a

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scientist as a scientific discipline focused on the transport of organism and

biologically.

Hence, aerobiology is a branch of science, which deals with the source of

organism or the other materials and their release, dispersion and deposition into the

atmospheric and their impact on various kinds of living system like animals, plants

and human beings. In other words, it can be termed as the "microbiology of the

atmosphere" The aerobiological studies are under two head on the bases of place or

site of investigations. If aerobiological investigation is carried on inside building or in

rather close atmosphere for that detection and trapping of air borne biological

significant organisms or practical than it is called indoor or "Intramural aerobiology". If

aerob1ological investigation are carried out in open field air for detection and trapping

of the airborne microorganisms then is called as the outdoor or "extramural

aerobiology". The indoor aerobiology mainly deal with dispersion of microbes in

closed atmosphere i.e. in green houses, caves, glass houses, cattle sheds, poultry

forms, hotels, hospitals etc. Where as in the outdoor aerobiological investigation of

the microbes in open atmosphere i.e. crop fields, markets, gardens, out side of the

buildings etc.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNT:

History of the aerobiology is an interesting aspect. It dates back to period of

Hippocrates with the invention of simple magnifying lens devised by Anton Von

Leeuvenhock that the dynamic nature of air pulsating with the presence of life was

definitely proved in the early 17th century which also lead to establishment of the

presence of minute organisms in the air by the end of 18th century.

It is after a long gap, Pasteur (1861) by his "germ theory of disease" showed

that airborne bacteria and fungal spores in the air are the carriers of many common

germs. Meier introduced the term aerobiology in (1930) U.S. Extensive study on

airspora have been carried out by Gregory (1945 and onwards) from U.K. and he

proposed the term "Airspora" to describe airborne pollengrains and fungal spores, the

composition of which varies from place to place and time to time.

AEROBIOLOGY IN ABROAD

The aerobiological studies were carried out extensively in the countries like the

United Kingdom, USA New Zealand, Australia, Canada etc. since 1940, in India, it is

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fa1rly a new branch and has got national significance and many scientists started their

work from 1960.

De-Berry ( 1886) studies comparative morphology and biology of the fungi

mycetozoas and Bacteria Clerenden. Roger and Meir (1936) collected

microorganisms above 36,00 feet. Rittenberg (1939) studied on microbiology of

marine air. Gregory (1945) studied the dispersion of air borne spores. Harsh and

Allen (1945) observed fungal spore contaminants of the air over San Diego and

VIcinity. Newman (1948) studied the aerobiology of commercial air routes. Hyde and

Williams (1949) studied the census of mould spores in the atmosphere. Ainswarth

(1952) studied the incidence of air borne Cladosporium in the London region. Di­

Menna (1955) quantitatively studied the airspora of Dnedin (New Zealand).

Cammack (1955) studied the seasonal changes in the airspora components of

Southern Nigeria.

The real experimental aerobiology started with experiments of Miquel ( 1883)

who elaborated techniques to analyze the microbial population of air. Meir et. at.

(1933) introduced the term aerobiology. Gregory (1952a) proposed the term airspora

to describe the air borne pollen grains and fungal spores. The composition of

airspora came into existence with the first published work of microorganisms by

Ehrenberg (1872).

Abroad on airspora have been carried out by Gregory (1952 onwards), Pady

and co-workers (1951 onwards) at Kansas USA, Meredith (1961 onwards) at

Jamaica West-Indies. Ainsworth (1952) in London, Kuribayashi and Ichikawa (1952)

in Japan, Pady and Kapica (1953) studied in Arctic and other part of Canada. Pady

et.al. (1953) studied the microorganism in Astei air. Pady and Kelly (1954) in Atlantic

Ocean. Richards (1954) in Britain, Cammack (1955,58) in Africa, Pady and Gregory

(1963) in England, Zhukova and Kondrater (1964) in Moscow, Schenck (1968) in

Florida, Suzuki (1969) in Japan, Lacey (1962) in U.K., all these workers have tried to

collect and use data of airspora at different localities.

The US/IBP aerobiological programme was initiated in 1964 providing

cohesive framework by placing aerobiology in a system analysis framework, where

each particle 1s considered with respect to its source, release and dispersion in the

atmosphere, deposition and its impact on the object. This work culminated in 1974,

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when the International Association for Aerobiology was formed under the auspices of

the International Union of Biological Sciences. At present IAA is the biggest

International integratiOn of Aerobiology. It organizes international conferences every

four years, in1978, 1982, 1986, 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002. It also publishes the

International aerobiology News letter twice a year, providing the information on the

recent researches 1n aerobiology from all over the world.

In Europe, the first created Nordic Aerobiological Federation (NAF) has been

followed by the Italian Association of Aerobiology (IAA), French Association of

Aerobiology (FAA), British Federation of Aerobiology (BFA); In India, Indian

Aerobiological Society (lAS) and in America Pan American Association of

Aerobiology (PAAA) have been founded. Aerobiology is composed of many

discipline, but the development of each is for form being balance today.

AEROBIOLOGY IN INDIA

During last 50 year aerobiology has emerged as an important applied subject

in India. The first work was carriedout by Cunningham (1873) at Calcutta jail, which

he published in the from of a book Microscopic Examination of air. Later on Mehta

(1940-1952) of Agra college, Agra extensively carried out investigation of airospora of

the air for the presence of wheat rust spores. Mehta (1952) studied the dissemination

and spread of wheat rust spores and use different methods for catching uredospore

of the three rusts of wheat and barely at 62 location in country. Padmanabhan (1953)

studied the occurrence of conidia of Helminthosporium oryzae (responsible for the

famous Bengal Famine) in the air over paddy field at Cuttak. Rajan et.af (1952) at

Kanpur, and Karla and Dumbrey (1957) also recorded air borne fungi at Calcutta.

After Mehta's works. Systematic and intensive studies of aerobiology in India

can be said to have started by Prof. Sreeramulu (1958) by using Hirst Volumetric

spore trap. The construction of an "Automatic Volumetric Spore Trap" by Hirst (1952).

He studied a new era in aerobiological research all over world including India.

Aurangabad and Mysore, came into existence during the middle of nineteen hundred

sixties (T1Iak at Aurangabad and Ramalingam at Mysore). Aurangabad has a unique

place in the development of Aerobiology in India. After Tilak, Pande is looking the

Aurangabad centre. Aerobiological studies were initiated during mid of nineteen

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seventies at Bose Institute, Calcutta by Chanda. Smce its inception 1n 1973, the

Bangalore centre has been involved in conducting aerobiolog1cal studies. Apart from

these centers more centers came into existence, like Allahabad, Nagpur, Gorakhpur.

Gwal1or. Jabalpur, Raipur Manipur, Bodhgaya etc.

Aerobiological investigation has been studies by various scientist with special

reference to disease on crops, vegetables and fruits etc. Sreeramulu and

Seshavataram (1962) worked on spore content of air over paddy field. Nair (1963),

observed the atmospheric pollen and fungal spore and other vegetable matter at

vellor. Sreeramulu and Ramalingam (1963) reported spore content of air over paddy

field II. Mishra and Shrivastava (1969) studied air spore over wheat and barley fields.

In (1970) they studied spore concentration in air within and above field of Sugarcane,

Rice, Sorgham and Banana. Sreeramulu (1970) worked on conidial dispersal in two

species of Cercospora causing Tikka disease leaf spot on groundnut. Sreeramulu

and Vittal (1966) studied periodicity in the uredospore content of air within and above

sugarcane field. In (1966 a) they studied spore contents over a paddy field.

Sreeramulu (1974) studied air spore of crop field and its applications. Pande (1976)

studies in air spora over some field at Nanded. Tilak and Kulkarni (1978) studies Rust

and Smut content of air above sugar cane field. Reddy (1978) studied vertical profiles

of spore concentration within and above a Sorgham crop. Verma and Kamal (1982)

studies airospora arhar (Cajanus cajan). Tilak and Babu (1983) studies aerobiology

of Pyricularia leaf spot of disease of bajra in relation to weather condition. Tilak

(1984) observed aerobiology and cereal crop disease. Tilak (1988 a) discuss

aerobiology and epidemiology of groundnut diseases. Tilak and Babu (1981, 1983,

and 1984) discuss the aerobiological approaches to leaf spot spot disease of bajra.

Quazi ( 1985) studies Aerobiological approach to some crop disease at Aurangabad.

Singh et. a/ (1987a, 87b) observed the arsporea of mustard and pea field in lmphal.

Sreeramulu and Ramalingam (1967) under took two years study of the air

spora of paddy field at Visakhapatnam. Tilak and Kulkarni (1970) studied airspora

over sugarcane fields. Tilak and Chakre (1978) observed atmospheric concentration

of C/aviceps microcephala over Bajra field. Mane (1978) studied in airspora over

some fields. Mane and Tilak (1980) studied aerobiological approach to green ear

disease of BaJra II. Mallaih and Rao (1980 a b) studied aerobiology of two species of

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Cercospora pathogenic to groundnut and aeroallergins over groundnut respectively.

Tiwari and Godheja (1985) studied air spora over brinjal vegetables. Wadge and

Deshpande (1986) studied microflora of cotton. Tialk and Ramachandra Rao (1987)

studied relevance of rust spore load over a bajra crop. Ghai (1987) studied the

a1rspora of Chembur. T1lak and Jogdand (1989) studied aerobiology epidermiological

and forecasting of some Jawar diseases. Murdhnkar and Pande (1981) studied

aerobiology and epidemiology of foliar spora of groundnut at Aurangabad as

obtained by settle plate method Tilak and Pandey (1989) studied aerobiology,

epidermiology of Bajra disease. In (1989) they also studied the aerobiology of

sunflower diseases. Ga1kwad and Sonkaye (1991) study of fungal air spora over

sunflower field. Patil and Kulkarni (1991) studies fungal air spora over tobacco field.

Pillai (1991) studied aerobiological approach to leaf spot disease of Cajanus cajan.

Verma and Agrawal (1993) studied aeromycology of rice field with special reference

to circadian periodicity of some dominant fungal. Singh and Pandey (1994) observed

aeromycoflora over vegetable field at Aurangabad. Uaddin and Chakravarty (1995),

observed airsopra measure in paddy field in west Bengal. Sahu ( 1995) studied a

comparative study of aerophyllomycoflora of onion plant. Tiwari et.al (1995) studied

aeromycoflora ove Abelmoschus esculentum. Sahu et.a/ (1 996) studied Alternaria sp

over potato crop field at Raipur. In (1996) he studied the mycoflora associated with

Spinach. In (1997) he studied fungal spora over pulse crop. Jadhav (1 996) studied

the aeromycoflora over rice field at Baloda Bazar. In (1996) he studied the mycoflora

associated with Spinach. In (1997) he studied fungal spora over pulse crop. Sahu

and tiwari (1988) studied aerobiological approach to green ear disease of Bajra II.

Sahu (1998) studied aeromycological studied over wheat crop field at Raipur. Sahu

and Tiwari (1988) studied mycoflora of Mommordica charatia, in (1994) they studied

the mycoflora over cauliflower. Chakarvarty and Uddin (1991 ,94) studied the airspora

of jute and wheat field in West Bengal respectively. Majumdar and Bhattacharya

(2000), Recorded the Aeromycoflora at the foot hill of eastern Himalayas. Sharma

(2001) studies of aeromycoflora m relation to leaf surface mycroflora of Ocimum

sanctum at Raipur. Aher et.al (2002), Studies the aeromycoflora of groundnut field.

Kulshrestha and Cahuhan (2002), observed the aeromycoflora of vegetable and fruit

market. Jagnnath and Gaikwad (2003), Studies of airsopra over cotton field and their

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importance in disecae forecast. Mogarkar and Patel (2002) sugied seasonal variation

of Alternana spores over vegetable field at Nasik. Aher et a/ (2003) stud1ed

aerobiological approach to pathogenic fungal spores over ground nut field. Chauhan

and Kulshrestha (2004) studied comparative incidence of air borne fungal spore at

two garden of Agra city. Tiwari and Jadhav (2004) studied of aeromycoflora of

different height Devi and Singh (2005) studied fungal, airsopra over a rice field in

Thoubal Athokpam. Karne and Pande (2005) studied of Alternaria spore in the

atmosphere over potato fields. Bede and Singh (2005) observed the aeromycoflora

of fruit market in lmphal.

Apart from the crops, and places indoor and outdoor arobiological work have

been also studied by different scientist. Baruah (1961) studied the airspora of

cowshed. Sreeramulu (1961) observed the concentration of fungal spores in the air

inside cattle shade. Tilak and Kulkarni (1972) studied the microbial content of air

inside and outside the caves at Aurangabad. Tialk el.a/ (1972) studied in the

microbiological deterioration of paintings of Ajanta and Ellora. Rati et.al (1980)

studies airspora of a poultry shed at Mysore. Tilak and Vishwe (1975) studied

microbial contents of air inside library. Tilak et.al (1981) studied the components of

airspora inside the library and its relevance to book deterioration. Bunnag et.al.

(1982) comparative study in the incidence of indoor and outdoor mold spores in

Bangkok. Tilak and Saibaba (1969) studied aerobiological approach to book

deterioration in libraries. Singh and Singh (1991) studied the air borne fungi in a

hospital environment Subbareddi (1991) observed air borne bacterial population out

doors at Vishakhaptnarn. Mishra and Zomil (1991) observed the fungi in the indoor

environmental of flourrnills. Pandit and Singh (1992) recorded the airborne fungi in a

sugar factory. Pande and Tiwari (1994) studied the aerornycoflora in library. Singh

et.al. (1994) observed airborne fungi in the hospital in metropolitan city. Tiwari et.al

(1995) observed Aeromycoflora of green hour. Giri (1995) studied aeromycological

studies in indoor enwonment at Nagpur. Jadhav et al (1996) observed aeroflora of

chemistry lab at Baloda Bazar. Chitnavis and Khilare (1997) studied the

aeromyclogical seed godown in Kolhapur. Pugalmoran and Vittal (1997) observed

aeromycological survey of indoor environment in leather godowns Zahid et.al. (1997)

recorded the fungal spores in the indoor environment of a food grain godowns at

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Ahmednagar. Pugalmoran and Vittal (1999) observed the fungal diversity m the

indoor and outdoor environment and dust of grain storage godowns.

Arya, et.al. (2001) studied indoor mycoflora of Baroda museum and

deterioration of Egyptian mummy. Begum, et at (2001) observed mycoflora in the

mdoor a1r of a p1g farm at Khanapara. Sa hay et.al. (2001) studied aeromycoflora

Inside a library of Allahabad University. Rana and Gondhe (2002) observed fungal

associat1on with library dust at Jalgon. Sahay and Purwar (2002b) studied indoor

a1rspora of a hospital ward at Allahabad. Kulshrestha and Chauhan (2003) observed

aeromycoflora around various historical monuments of Agra. Mohammed et.af (2003)

studied aeromycoflora of Gulbarga University Library. Verma and Shrivastava (2003)

observed efficiency of Anderson and Burkard air sampler in poultry workers

environment in relation to fungal concentration. Reddy, et.af (2004) recorded the

relation between indoor and outdoor fungal airspora of some working environments.

Millington and Carden (2005) recorded long term trends in outdoor Aspergillus/

Pemciffiun spore concentration in derby.

The different scientists have performed aerobiological surveys of the different

places. Chaubal and Deodkiar (1964) studied airspora around Poona University.

Sandhu et.al (1964) studied on the air borne fungal spore in Delhi. Sreeramulu and

Ramalingam (1964) studied some periodic change in the atmospheric spore contents

associated with changes in the weather and other conditions. Talde (1969) observed

airspora of Parbhani. Mishra and kama! (1971) studied aeromycology and

Gorakhpur-111 seasonal variation in fungal spora. Ramalingam (1971) studied airspora

at Mysore. Tilak and Srinivasulu (1967, 1971) studied airspora of Aurangabad.

Sandhu and Randhawa ( 1972) studied on the air borne fungal spore at Amritsar.

Mishra (1972) studied aeromycology of Gorakhpur. Chitaley and Bajaj

(1973, 1974, 1975) studied airspora of Nagpur at high altitudes. Gaikward (1981)

studied airspora at Ahmadpur. Kumar eta! (1974) observed the fungal airsopra of

Nawada (Bihar). Kamal and Singh (1974) studied an investigation on mycoorganic

content of air over sugarcane field at Gorakhpur (U.P.). In (1975) they also studied

the fungal flora over cowpea and maize field at Gorakhpur. Agashe and Pratibha

(1975) aerobiological studied of Bangalore city. Bartzokas (1975) recorded relation

between the metrological condition and the air borne fungal of the Athen

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metropolitan. Moustafa and Kamal (1976) studied of fungal spore population in the

atmosphere of Kuwait. Tilak and Bhalke (1978) studied aeromycology at Aurangabad

with special reference of Deuteromycetes. Tilak and Bhalke ( 1976) studied of

aeromycoflora at Aurangabad with special reference to ascospore. Verma and Kamal

(1977) studied air spora over Urd (Vigna Radiata (Roxb) Linn. At Gorakhpur as

obtained by settle plate method. Kamal and Singh (1979a, 1979b) studied of fungi of

Gorakhpur Sarana and Govil (1979) observed the survey of arisopra of Jaipur city.

Janaki Bai (1979) studied airspora of Vishakhapatnam Chakare (1979) studied the

microbial population of the air at Aurangabad. Tilak (1980) observed aeromycology of

ascospore at Aurangabad. Agashe and Vi nay (1 980) aerobiological studied of

Banglore City. Sulia and Khan (1980) airspora of Banglore city market and its relation

to the accurance of market disease. Babu (1983) aerobiological studied of

Aurangabad. Bhagwan (1983) studies in arisopra over some field of Nanded district

Aurganbad. Saibaba (1983) aerobiological studied at Aurganbad. Jogdand (1987)

studied airspora at Auragabad. Tilak and Babu (1987) observed aeromycology at

Aurangabad with special reference phycomycetes. Khillare (1 989) observed airspora

at Ahmadnagar. Verma and Khare (1987a, 87b) studied of airsopre around Jabalpur

and study the agent, which damage the paper material in library. Ramchandra Rao

(1 987) studied aerobiological investigation at Aurangabad. Kumar et.al. (1 991)

studied atmospheric fungal spores around Garhwa Palamau. Nagpurne and

Gaikward (1991) studied the aerobiology and epidemiology of certain fungal diseases

of vegetables Nagpurne (1993) studied in the airspora of khandhar. Naik and

Pandey (1994) observed volumetric aerobiological survey of Aurangabad. Wankhade

(1983) studied airspora of Aurangabad. Pragyna (1992) studied aerobiology at

Hyderabad. S. Nilson (1992) observed aerobiology an interdisciplinary and limitless

science. Appana (1997) observed the fungal airsopra at Vijaywada. Tiwari (1999)

aerobiological studied of Raipur with special reference of fungal spore. Amigo! (2000)

an aerobiological study the rural area of Aragan. Kulshrestha and Chauhan (2000)

studied aerobiological of the rural areas of Arangan. Alturi and Padmini (2002)

studied the Aeromycoflora of Andhara University. Devi, et.a/ (2002) studied airspora

of semi urban area of Guwahati city. Agashe (2002) studied monitoring of airborne

mold spores and it significance in health hazards.

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Dah1ya and Gupta (2003) observed aeromycoflora of Rohtak city, Haryana

Jagnnath and Gaikwad (2003) studied the airspora over cotton fields and the1r

importance in disease forecasting. Mohammed, et.al. (2003) oserved aeromycoflora

of Gulbarga University. Knshnanamohan, et.af (2003) observed aeromycology of five

different working environments in Thiruvanathapuram city, Kerala. Udaya, et.a/.

(2003) observed atmosphenc mycoflora of a coastal environment in Chennai. Verma

and Shrivastava (2003) observed efficiency of Anderson and Burkard air sampler in

poultry workers environment 1n relation to fungal concentration. Verma and Jacob

(2003) studied the aeromycology and used the Burkard and Anderson sampler.

Sarma, et.al. (2004) studied airborne fungal spores in Library and their association

with paper and leather materials. Sawane and Saoji (2004) reported the Pencillium

spores in the intramural and extramural air of residential areas of Nagpur city.

Sharma, eta/. (2004) studied the seasonal and annual variation of atmospheric

pollen and fungal spore of great Silchar, Assam. Tiwari el.al (2004a) studied the

aeromycoflora of different heights. Tiwari et.al (2004b) studied of aeromycoflora of

Library, Botany Department and Garden. Devi et.al. (2005) studied the fungal

airspora over a Rice field in Thoubal Athokpam, Manipur. Prakash (2005) studied

atmosphere fungal spores in Austin, Texas, U.S.A. Pund, et.al. (2005) observed the

qualitative analysis of airborne biocomponents at Amravati. Tiwari and Jadhav (2005)

studied the aeromycoflora of Dairy at Raipur and they also studied the slum area at

Raipur.

Aher and Pande (2005) studied the aeromycological studies of warehouse at

Ahmednagar. Agashe et.al (1983) studied aeromycoflora of Bangalore.

Paramasivam and Gnanarethinum (1986) reported preliminary survey of atmospheric

fungal flora of T1ruchirapalli. Patil and Vyawahe (1981) studied the aeromycoflora of

Ganeshkhmd, Pune. Vital and Krishna Moorthy (1981) studied the airspora of an

agricultural farm in Madras. Ahire (1990) studied the airspora at Nasik. Ahuja (1991)

studied the airspora of Aurangabad. Appanna (1997) observed the fungal flora at

Vijaywada Bhandane (1991) studied the aerobiology of Dhulia. Bhagwan (1983)

studied in airspora over some field of Nanded. Rai (1969) observed the air fungal

flora of Varanasi. Bhati and Gaur (1979) studied the atmospheric fungal spores.

Chari et.al. (1994) observed the airspora at Ahmadnagar. Ghani and Kale (1992)

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observed aeromycoflora of Bhagalpur. Giri and Sao)i (1996) observed fungal flora of

Nagpur Shrestha and Sharma (1994) studied the seasonal and locational variatiOn

of aeromycoflora of Kathmandu. Jadhav and Tiwari (1994) observed the

aeromycoflora of Ravan VIllage Mishra et.al. (1994) observed the airspora of

Jabalpur Pandey and Tiwari (1991) observed aeromycoflora of Raipur. Pateria et.al.

( 1981) observed aerobio/ogical survey of Sauger. Pawar ( 1991) studied airspora at

Nasik. Ramalingam (1971) observed airspora of Mysore. Roy (1988) observed

airspora of Santiniketan. Sarna and Govil (1979) observed the airspora of Jaipur city.

Chanda (1992) reported about the aerobiology as inter and multidisciplinary

approach. Sattar (1997) observed airspora of Nizamabad. Singh and Babu (1995 b)

observed fungal spores of Delhi.

For the benefit to aerobiologist, several books also written by the different

scientist. Jacobs (1951) informed about aerobiology in "compendium of

meteorology". Sreeramulu (1967) reviewed aerobiology in India Edmonds and

Bennighoof (1973) informed aerobiology and its modern application. Nilson (1973)

has written the book on Scandinavian aerobiology. Nilson et.al. (1977) published the

atlas of airborne pollen grains and spores in Northern Europe. Tilak (1989a)

published the "atlas of airborne pollen grains and fungal spores". Frinking (1978)

published the article on aerobiology and plant pathology. Tilak (1987 b) also gave the

presidential address on expanding horizon on aerobiology and in (1989 b) has written

a book on "Airborne pollen and fungal spores". Tilak (1987) also published the

"practical manual on air monitoring". Chanda (1991) gave presidential address on

aerobiology-science in progress, Frankland (1991) reviewed aerobiology in medicine.

Hirst (1991) reviewed aerobiology and plant pathology. Talde (1994) edited the book

"advance in mycology and aerobiology". Agashe (1997) edited the book Aerobiology.

Leaf surface is the platform of numerous fungal spores present in the air.

During suitable microhabitat, these spores settle down on this having platform and try

to colonized. After settle down fungal spores, a triangular relationship appears

among the microorganisms, leaf surface and the environment.

Last (1955) introduced the term "phyllosphere" rhizosphere is root,

phyllosphere 1s the leaf. Ruinen (1956) defined "phyllosphere" as the external surface

of the leaf, as an environment of microorganisms. Prasad and Bilgrami (1969) also

12

defined the phyllosphere as "all those organisms" (including fungi, bacteria and

actinomyctes), which are in some way or other under the influence of the expose part

of the plants like leaves, stem, bud, flower and fruits etc". Bessems (1973) also

defined the term phyllosphere as "the environment of the microorganisms". Kerling

(1958) phylloplane as active population of fungi present on the surface green leaves

termed as phylloplane. Sharma (1973a) defined the phylloplane as the leaf surface

medium where a heterogeneity with the micro-organisms grow, reproduce and

multiply in dynamic equilibrium with the interacting environment of the leaf surface.

Leben ( 1965) also defined the phylloplane "as a natural habitat on the leaf surface

which represented heterogenous population comprising of both pathogens and non­

pathogens". Di-menna (1971), Mukherjee (1974), Mishra (1975,76), Tiwari (1977)

also defined the phylloplane as the microorganisms present on the leaf surface.

Kerling (1958) suggested that the term phylloplane should be used when referring to

actual leaf surface or to the leaf surface habit. Kendrick and Burges (1962),

Dickinson (1965,67), Kapooria and Sinha (1969), Last and Warren (1972) has been

described the Phylloplane as an actual leaf surface.

Study of the phyllosphere or phylloplane in different crops and vegetables,

done by many scientists. Kerling (1964) studied in the phylloplane of leaves of rye

and strawberry. Dickinson (1965) studied the microflora associated with Helimione

protulocoides. Last and Deighton (1965) studied non-parasitic microbes colonizing

green leaves. Sinha (1965) studied microbial complex of phyllosphere and disease

control. Hogg and Hudson (1966), The studied micofungi on leaves of Fagus

sylvatica.

Mishra and Tiwari (1968) studied the plant height as a factor in relation to leaf

surface mycoflora of Cass1a tara. Gregory (1968), observed the interesting plant

disease dispersal. Kapooria and Sinha (1969) studied the phyllopolane mycoflora of

peral millet and its influence of the development of Puccmia pennisetti. In (1971) he

studied the microflora on leaves of Capsicum annum, Solanum melangena, Solanum

tuberosum and Lycopersicum esculentum plants. Qadeer (1969) studied the fungi

associated with the living leaves of gram. Mishra and Shrivastava (1970) studied leaf

surface microflora of triticum aestivum and oryzu sativa. Pugh and Buckly (1971)

13

studied of leaf surface as in substrate for colonization by fung1. Sharma and

MukherJee (1971) studied of fungi on cotton leave.

Lamb and Brown ( 1970) studied the non-parasitic micro flora on leaf surface of

Paspalum, Salik and Eucalyptus plants. Mishra and Srivastava (1970 a, b, c) studied

the leaf surface mycoflora of Hordeum vulgare. Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa

respectively. In (1971a) they also studied the microflora of leaf surface in relation to

various infection. Mishra and Khanuja (1971) studied on phyllosphere fungi of

Lycopersicum escu/entum in relation to cobalt chloride. Pugh and Muldher (1971)

studied mycoflora associated with Typha latifolia. Last and Warren (1972) studied

non-parasitic microbes colonizmg green leaves. Kulkarni et.a.l (1973) studied the

phylloplane microflora of some vegetable crops. Sharma and Mukherjee (1972)

studied the microbial colonization of aerial part of plant. In (1974a) they studied the

Candida albicans a natural inhabitant of phyllosphere and in (1974b) they studied the

incidence of pathogenic fungi of leaves. Dickinson (1973b) studied the effect of

ethirimol and zinbe on phylloplane microflora of barley. Rai (1973) studied the

succession of fungi on decaying leaves of Saccharum munja. Kumar and Sinha

(1975) studied the phyllosphere mycoflora of wheat and its influence on the

development of Alternaria tnticma. Dickinson (1976) studied fungi on the aerial

surfaces of higher plants. Fokkema (1978) studied fungal antagonism in the

phyllosphere. Kumar and Gupta (1976a) studied phyllosphere microflora of three

potato varieties in relation to microclimates and meteorological factors. Sharma eta/.

(1977) studied veinal distribution pattern of some phyl/oplane microfungi. Singh and

Bedi (1977) studied the phylloplane mycoflora of cotton plants. Rai and Singh (1977)

studied the leaf surface mycoflora of cotton plants. Rai and Singh (1977) studied the

leaf surface mycoflora of mustard. Chandravathani (1979) studied the phylloplane

microorganisms of some weeds. Sharma and Gupta (1979) studied the phyllosphere

microflora of brown Sarsoan in relation of climatic factors and cultivers. Sharma and

Garg ( 1979) studied the phylloplane microflora of non-infected and powdery mildew

infected Barley. Pathak (1979) studies the leaf surface fungi of Mango. Tripathi and

Edward (1979) studied the phyllosphere of wheat variety. Dixit and Gupta (1980)

studied a comparative study of phylloplane and airspora of barley. Patil and Chandra

(1980) studied vanation in the number of phyllospheric nitrogen fixers. Navneet and

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Mehrotra ( 1 987) studied phylloplane mycoflora of potato in relation to climatic factors.

Hollowman ( 1 967) studied observation on the phylloplane flora of potatoes. Kulkarni

et.al. (1973) studied the phyllosphere microflora of some vegetable crops. Mishra and

Tewan (1968,75,76,78,79) observed phyllosphere microflora in different plants. 01-

menna (1959) studied yeast from the leaves of pasture plants. Barnes and Nove

( 1988) studied examination of plant surface microflora by securing electron

microscope. Preece and Dickinson (1971 ), written the book on ecology of leaf

surfaces microorganisms. Balgopal and Oblisami (1971) studied the rhizosphere and

phyllosphere microflora of bean. Agrawal and Prasad (1978) studied the

phyllosphere and rhizophere Tnchosanthes dioica. Banerjee (1975) studied the leaf

surface flora of groundnut. Di-menna (1971) studied the microflora of leaves of

pasture plants in New Zealand. Diem (1974) studied the microorganisms of the

barley phyllosphere. Grover and Pandey (1979) studied the leaf surface microfungi of

Brasicca compestris. Kumar and Gupta (1980) studied aerobiology of Alternaria

so/ani in relation to phyllosphere of potato. Khare and Singh (1981) studied the

phylloplane mycoflora of two variety of tomato. Baruah and Bora (1982) studied on

the phylloplane fungal flora of some angiospermic plants. Mishra and Dickinson

(1981) studied the phylloplane and litter fungi of L1exa qualifolium. Rai and Pathak

(1981) studied on phylloplane microflora of potato in relation air pollutnants. Garg

and Sharma (1980,85) studied phylloplane fungi of barley, and mustard. Gupta and

Mukherjee (1982) studied microbial on the leaf surface of four varieties of Corchorus

ofitorius. Gupta et.al. (1983) studied a comparative study of air spora and leaf surface

mycoflora of chilli. Purkayastha and Bhattacharya (1982) studied antagonism of

microorganism from jute phyllosphere towards Col/ectotnchum carchori. Rai (1982)

studied the fungicides on the leaf surface mycoflora of mustard. Hudson (1962)

studied the succession of microfungi on ageing leaves of Saccharum officinarum. In

(1968) also studied the ecology of fungi on plants remains above the soil.

Pugh and Buckley (1971) studied the leaf surface as a substrate for colonizing

by fungi. Sinha (1971) studied the microflora on leaves of some solanaceous plants.

Qadeer (1969) studied fungi associated with the living leaves of gram.

Sharma and Tiwari (1981) studied the leaf surface microflora of healthy and

diseased Solanum tuberosum. Shrivastava and Bisht (1982) studied phylloplane

15

m1croflora of healthy and infected leaf of pea. Pal (1980) studied phylloplane

microfungi to two legumes. He (1982) also studied the leaf surface microfungi of non­

infected and rustinfected sun hemp. Singh and Khare (1984) studied in vitro

incubation of Altemana so/am by phylloplane fungi of tomato. Reddy and

Laxminarayan (1984) studied phylloplane and gemmisphere mycoflora of brinjal in

relation to post harvest diseases. Wadje and Deshpande (1986) studied the

phylloplane microflora of cotton. Narukla and Mehrotra (1987) studied the biocontrol

potential of Phytophthora leaf blight a comparative study of the air, phyllosphere and

soil microflora of potato and paddy field of Shillong. Adhikari ( 1988) studied the

phylloplane mycoflora of three grasses of Pithoragraph. Bansal et at. (1988) studies

on aero-mycoflora and phyllosphere mycoflora of wheat. Chandel (1990) studied of

phylloplane interactions of fungi from Soyabean and Pigeon pea. Ayachi et.al. (1990)

studied the aeromycological studies the betel-wine orchard in relation to mycoflora on

phylloplane. Rai et.al. (1991) studied the influence of air pollutant on population

dynamics and growth of some phylloplane fungi on rice. Ayachi and Tiwari (1993)

studied on leaf surface microbiology of Piper betel. Kumar and Singh (1994) studied

the fungal spores of paddy leaves. Chandel and Chanedel (1993) observed

comparative incidence of aero-phyllomicroflora over soyabean in polluted and non­

polluted localities. Sahu and Tiwari (1994) studied airspora and leaf surface

microflora of cauliflower. Sahu et.al. (1994) studied the variation in the number of

aero-phyllomycolfora of potato in relation to environment factor. Sahu and Gupta

( 1995) studied the air mycolfora of Bhilainagar in relation to leaf surface mycoflora of

groundnut. Sahu (1995) studied a comparative aerophyllomycoflora of onion. Tiwari

and Sahu (1995, 1997) studied the leaf surface mylcoflora of "torai", Phasefous

mungo and Phaselous radiatus respectively. Sharma (2001) studied on

aeromycoflora in relation to leaf surface mycoflora of Ocimum santum ..

Environmental factor play an important role for distribution of leaf surface

fungus. Burrage (1971) studied the microclimate at the leaf surface. Gregory (1971)

studied the leaf as a spore trap. Shrama (1973b) studied colonization of saprophytic

micro fungi and bacteria on aerial parts of Seasamum orientale, Gossypium hirsutm.

Diem (1974) studied the microorganisms of the leaf surface of barley phyllosphere.

Rikhy (1975) studied the ecology of micro fungi associated with leaves of Triticum

16

aestwm. Tiwari (1977) studied on the leaf surface mycoflora of some solanaceous

crop plant. Shukla el.a/. (1978) studied phyllosphere mycoflora colonizing the leaf

surface of sal in relation to some of the environmental factor. Grover and Pandey

(1979) studied leaf surface mycoflora of Brassica compestris. Pennycock and

Newhook (1981) studied seasonal change in apple mould phylloplane mycoflora.

Hirst et.al. (1983) studied fungal succession and substract utilization on leaf of three

South Georgia phenerogams. Tiwari and Sahu (1986) studied on leaf surface

mycoflora of Raphanus sat1vum. In (1987) they studied the effect temperature and

relat1ve humidity of leaf surface of mycoflora of mustard. In (1989b) study

aerophyllomycoflora of Cicer aeritinum: Tiwari and Godheja (1985) studied aerospora

and phylloplane of Brinjal at Raipur. Sahu and Tiwari (1985) studied on leaf surface

mycolfora of Abelmoshus escu/entum and Phaeso/es vulgaris Sahu el.a/ (1986)

studied leaf surface mycoflora of Cymopsis tetragonoloba. Sahu and Tiwari (1988)

studied leaf surface mycoflora and aeromycoflora of Momordica charanlia plant.

Sahu ( 1988) studied leaf surface and aeromycoflora of Trigone!/ a foenum gracium

plant. Khare and Chandra (1987) studied phylloplane mycoflora of Eichhorina in

relation to pathogenic Curvularia lunata and climatic factor. Pandey et.al. (1985)

studied variation in the number of leaf surface and aeromycoflora of Khira plant.

Pandey and Tiwari (1991) studied aeromycoflora of Raipur. Vardavakis (1988)

studied seasonal fluctuation on non-parasitic mycoflora associated with the living

leaves of Cistus incanus, Arbutus unedo, Qeurcus cocci fera. Reddy and Reddy

(1987) studied phylloplane mycoflora of maize in relation to its spermosphere. Morris

(1996) published book on aerial plant surface microbiology.

The surface mycoflora survives under the influence of the host on which is

occurs several host are known to certain chemical compound which are inhibitory to

pathogen. It is also well known that a variety of substance may be liched out from

aerial plant surface to help to check the pathogenic attack [Mac and Veech (1973),

Brill ova (1971 ), Godferey (1976), Godferey and Clements (1978)]. Apart from these

self-inhibitory and self-stimulatory problems, the the margin due to colonization of the

remaining camera by other saprophytes. Kerr and leaf surface microorganisms have

also interactive influence. Last and Deighta (1965) reported that beginning

Sporobolomyces colonies were isolated from the entire surface of the leaves. Kerr

17

and FlentJe (1957) showed that the surface mycoflora influence by the host on which

1! occurs due to the varying natures of exudates. Kovacs and Cucchi (1964), Kovacs

and Szeoke (1956), Sharma and Sinha (1971), Hislop and Cox (1969), Kapooria and

Bahadur (1966), Sinha eta/ (1967), Bahadur and Sinha (1970), Tiwari (1977) also

studied the leaf exudates 1n relation to spore germination of different plants.

The 1st international symposium was held in 1970 at the University of New

Castle in the United Kingdom, for the purpose of bringing together the few scientists

in the world who were actively looking in this important area to improve

communications and to summarize what was known about the microbiology of aerial

plant parts. The proceeding of the symposium was published and serves to bring this

important habitat to attention of the scientific communications. Since the scientists

working in this area have met every five years, in 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990,1995,2000

and 2005. Today symposium provides, the only opportunity for researches from

diverse disciplines and natures to come together to discuss and debate issues

related to microbiology of the phyllosphere. The symposium has continued, not only

to keep scientists active in the area informed of their findings and speculations, but

the scientific community as a whole with the publication of the proceedings from each

of the conferences (Blackman 1981, Fokkema and Vanden 1986, Hirano and Andrew

1991).

The seventh symposium on the Microbiology of Aerial plant surfaces was held in

Berkaley, California during 3-8 August 2000. In Eigth international symposium (July

2005) on microbiology of aerial plant surface was held at St. Catherence college

Oxford U.K theme during seminar was:

1. Leaf surface habitat description and visualizing, organisms in situ

2. Description of the leaf surface communities, and ecology and synecology.

3. Microbial interactions on the leaf surface.

4. Modeling theory and qualification in phyllosphere microbiology.

18