introduction 5.1 what is learning? 5.2 different learning...

Introduction

5.1 What is learning?

5.2 Different learning styles and strategies

5.3 Implications for facilitation

5.4 What if ... ? Some scenarios

Learning 83

lea

rn

ing

Introduction

This window provides a practical way of exploring a range of views about learning, applications fortraining and education and some implications for the role of facilitator.

How you approach this material will depend to an extent on your current concepts of and assumptionsabout learning, about thinking, about cogitive development, about intelligence and the nature ofknowledge.

“The process of adopting, adjusting ordeveloping a theoretical perspective is a vital one. It canbe implicit or explicit; it can be homespun or informed byresearch; it can be eclectic or pure; but some view aboutlearning is essential. It gives coherence to the activities of

a [facilitator] and provides a touchstone on whichpractice is based”.

(Candy, 1993:105)

Learning 84

lea

rn

ing

5.1 What islearning? 5.1.1 Learning is observable change

Learning is observable change in knowledge, skills, attitudes or values.

Learning new knowledgeIn this process we change our cognitive structure and acquire new information. This involvesunderstanding it and storing it in our memory so we can access it if/when we need to.

Learning new skillsWe can learn both physical skills and cognitive skills. Learning new physical skills involves changing ourphysical control or ability (eg we might learn how to walk, knit, swim, drive a car). Learning newcognitive skills involves changing our cognitive control or ability (eg we might learn how to makejudgements, generalise, infer, hypothesise, extrapolate)

Learning new attitudesIn this process we experience a change in motivation eg we might learn to like something or to dislikesomething

Learning new valuesIn this process we experience a change in fundamental beliefs or ideology eg we might experience a shiftin what we consider important or unimportant, what we think positive or negative.

Learning 85

lea

rn

ing

5.1 continuedWhat is learning? 5.1.2 Some more thoughts on learning

Learning is a personalexperience which can take many

forms and can occur in manyplaces. In fact, we all learn all the

time with varying degrees ofefficiency.

For formal learningto be successful learnersneed to feel a sense of

progress.

Confidence is a vitalingredient for successful

learning.

Our previous learningexperiences influence

how, and how well, welearn.

All learners havetheir own capacity/facility for learning.

Individualshave preferred

ways oflearning.

Significant learningfor any individual integrates personal

and experiential knowledge,imagination, information and action.

Learning 86

lea

rn

ing

Not all learning isconscious. At any time

we may incidentallylearn many things.

5.1 continuedWhat is learning?

People learn indifferent ways and at

different rates.

Learning is affected bylearner motivation,

aptitude, goals.

Any theory of learning mustconsider why people are learning.

The reasons for learning can be personalgrowth or self actualization; it can be toimprove organizational effectiveness or

achieve social integration, or anycombination of these.

What we believeabout learning greatly

influences how we approach it,how it progresses, how

successful it is and how weevaluate it.

Learners must developskills for giving structure

to what they learn.

Learning 87

lea

rn

ing

5.1 continuedWhat is learning? 5.1.3 Adult learners

Adult learners are motivated to learn when individual differences are recognised and when theyhave some control over what and how they learn.

Adults are more likely to learn, retain and use what they perceive is relevant to their personal andprofessional needs and concerns.

Adults who participate in small groups and/or who have a learning partner (particularly a trustedother) are more likely to move their learning beyond understanding (saying ‘yes’ to the concept) toapplication, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Learning 88

lea

rn

ing

5.1.4 What do you understand about learning and yourself as a learner?

Your concepts of learningLearners construct their own knowledge and meaning both individually and socially so a good startingpoint for this section is an opportunity for you (in this case the learner) to bring your meaning of learningto this material.

5.1 continuedWhat is learning?

What do you think when you see or hear the word learning?Whether you are aware of it or not, you already have ideas about and have constructed meaning for theterm learning.

Spend a few moments making your ideas visible by drawing an image or listing words that showwhat learning means for you.

What brought you to this view(s)? How might this view of learning influence your role asfacilitator?

How we define something determines how we do things and how we work with individuals and groups.

If we change the metaphor from teacher as expert to teacher as facilitator, how do assumptionsabout learning change? How might this determine practice?

Learning 89

lea

rn

ing

5.2 Differentlearning stylesand strategies

Learning takes many forms. We learn on our own. We learn by trial and error. We learn with others. Welearn through instruction, through story, play, reading, reflection, listening and doing.

Learning Schools of Thought

• experimental

• natural

• self-directed

• life-long• social

cognitivist

• cognitivist

• operantconditioning

• unintended• exploratory• exploitative• organisational

• formal• incidental• intended

• constructivist• behavourist

Learning 90

lea

rn

ing

5.2 continuedDifferent learningstyles and types

5.2.1 Learning styles

Learners can and do learn in more than one way, but all of us have ways of learning which we prefer,learning activities which are familiar and comfortable, useful, relevant, non-threatening. Ways of learningwhich we like because they work for us.

Differences in learning styles result from psychological and cognitive variation. They are not determinedby ethnic or cultural background. In all language, culture or ethnic groups you will find representatives ofthe range of learning styles.

It is important for learners and facilitators to develop an awareness of their own learning preferences.Often these are habitual, we do them subconsciously. We need to develop those strategies of learningwhich work best for us, which we prefer. We also need to become familiar with other ways of learning,approaches and strategies which others might be using.

Learning 91

lea

rn

ing


5.2.2 Types of learners

It is possible to categorise learners into four broad categories. Though no individual will fall exclusivelyinto any single category. There will always be a degree of overlapping.

Consider these learner types:

The Communicative learnerThese learners prefer to learn by

interacting or socialising with other people

talking and listening

watching and listening to the media

working with others in a group

The Authority-focussed learnerThese learners prefer to learn by

having an expert (or someone who knows)explain things

writing things down (keeping writtenrecords)

following instructions

using course books or study notes

Learning 92

lea

rn

ing


The Concrete learnerThese learners prefer to learn by

participating in activities

using visuals

being involved in hands-on activities(learning by doing)

experimenting and learning by doing

The Analytical learnerThese learners prefer to learn by

studying rules and regulation

learning alone

analysing mistakes and solving problems

Learning 93

lea

rn

ing

Activistsinvolve themselves fully and without bias in new experiences. They enjoy the here and now and arehappy to be dominated by immediate experiences. They are open-minded, not sceptical, and this tends tomake them enthusiastic about anything new. Their philosophy is: ‘I’ll try anything once’. They tend to actfirst and consider the consequences afterwards. Their days are filled with activity. They tackle problemsby brainstorming. As soon as the excitement from one activity has died down they are busy looking forthe next. They tend to thrive on the challenge of new experiences but are bored with implementation andlonger term consolidation. They are gregarious people constantly involving themselves with others but, indoing so, they seek to centre all activities around themselves.

Reflectorslike to stand back to ponder experiences and observe them from many different perspectives. They collectdata, both first hand and from others, and prefer to think about it thoroughly before coming to anyconclusion. The thorough collection and analysis of data about experiences and events is what counts sothey tend to postpone reaching definitive conclusions for as long as possible. Their philosophy is to becautious. They are thoughtful people who like to consider all possible angles and implications beforemaking a move. They prefer to take a back seat in meetings and discussions. They enjoy observing otherpeople in action. They listen to others and get the drift of the discussion before making their own points.They tend to adopt a low profile and have a slightly distant, tolerant unruffled air about them. When theyact it is part of a wide picture which includes the past as well as the present and others’ observations aswell as their own.


5.2.3 Styles of learning

Learning 94

lea

rn

ing

Theoristsadapt and integrate observations into complex but logically sound theories. They think problems throughin a vertical, step-by-step logical way. They assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories. They tend tobe perfectionists who won’t rest easy until things are tidy and fit into a rational scheme. They like toanalyse and synthesise. They are keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories models and systemsthinking. Their philosophy prizes rationality and logic. ‘If it’s logical it’s good’. Questions they frequentlyask are: ‘Does it make sense? ‘How does this fit with that?’ ‘What are the basic assumptions?’ They tendto be detached, analytical and dedicated to rational objectivity rather than anything subjective orambiguous. Their approach to problems is consistently logical. This is their ‘mental set’ and they rigidlyreject anything that doesn’t fit with it. They prefer to maximise certainty and feel uncomfortable withsubjective judgements, lateral thinking and anything flippant.

Pragmatistsare keen on trying out ideas, theories and techniques to see if they work in practice. They positivelysearch out new ideas and take the first opportunity to experiment with applications. They are the sort ofpeople who return from management courses brimming with new ideas that they want to try out inpractice. They like to get on with things and act quickly and confidently on ideas that attract them. Theytend to be impatient with ruminating and open-ended discussions. They are essentially practical, down toearth people who like making practical decisions and solving problems. They respond to problems andopportunities ‘as a challenge’. Their philosophy is: ‘There is always a better way’ and ‘If it works it’s good’.

Source:Honey and Mumford (1986)


Learning 95

lea

rn

ing


Look again at your responses to 5.1.3, Types of Learners (5.2.2) and Styles of Learning (5.2.3). Drawsome conclusions about your preferred learning style. Think also about how you approach any challengethat will require learning something new.

What strategies have you used in past learning situations?

How have you organised your learning in the past?

How have you tried to maximise learning success for yourself.

How have you tried to remember things.

What things have made learning difficult for you?

When have you abandoned an attempt to learn? Why?

How would you classify yourself as a learner?

Which of the four categories seems most like you?

Learning 96

lea

rn

ing

5.3 Implicationsfor the

facilitatorThe role of facilitation in learning

1) Facilitators must be clear about their own view about learning as a guide to practice. Thefacilitation process, the design of the learning experiences, the presentation of content must beviewed through the learners’ eyes.

The aim of effective facilitation is to create the conditions and learning environments, orchestrateprocesses and tasks and associated content, and shape experiences in ways that optimiselearning. It is about making learning possible.

2) Regardless of which theory of learning you use, there is a role for facilitation.

3) There is no one best way, no one theory that can be accepted as fully explaining all aspects offacilitation and no one method or technique can by itself adequately encompass the complexityand variations of learning.

Effective facilitators are “aware of their own and other’s representational systems (how they prefer toperceive the world), cognitive preferences (how they like to learn and make meaning of experience) beliefsytems, and /or communication styles, and they are able to flex - to draw upon a wide repertoire ofstrategies to communicate effectively in each divergent situation”.

(Costa & Garmston,1994:81).

Learning 97

lea

rn

ing

5.3 continuedImplications for the

facilitator5.3.1 Some learning principles and their implications for facilitation

Personal meaning:The making of personal meaning is an essential step for all people in any learning process.

No two people see the world in the same way. It is essential for a facilitator to be aware of this and tounderstand that the way people think influences how they learn.

focus people’s thinking

make people’s thinking visible

make it as safe as possible to surfacedifferences in thinking

acknowledge opinions and ideas, and clarify,accept and address feelings on the contentor process

use people’s past experiences and currentunderstandings as a base on which to buildthe session

utilise and build on people’s existingstrengths, extending theirpresent skills, rather than underminingthem.

NOTEA range of learning tools exist with which people’s thinking can be made visible and with which peoplecan organise their thinking. The tools are called cognitive organisers and include the PMI chart, the KWLchart, mind maps, concept maps and Venn diagrams.

Learning 98

lea

rn

ing

5.3.2

This is the constructivist view of learning. This view asserts that knowledge is not simply transmitted butis constructed in the mind of the learner (often to fit their existing ‘map of reality’).

5.3 continuedImplications

for the facilitator

Learning is an active process of constructing knowledgeand making sense of things. We understand and

construct our world by interacting with it.

help people to make their thinking visible to themselves and others (see 5.3.1)

model the kind of behaviour and processes that they are espousing

provide various forms of examples rather than simply telling.

Learning 99

lea

rn

ing

5.3.3


for the facilitator Learning is linked to expectations and emotions, and isinfluenced by the individual’s environment. Stress in the learning

environment is one of the main reasons why people havedifficulty learning. An individual’s past experience with learningwill influence their attitude to and feelings about new learning.

create a learning environment which is safe, stimulating and which takes into account learners’current expectations and past learning experiences.

establish an environment of trust where there is high challenge and low stress, mutual respect andacceptance.

To reduce the likelihood of people feeling threatened

use fun examples to illustrate a point

use case studies

‘step up’ gradually to activities that are likely to be more threatening

use cooperative group work.

Learning 100

lea

rn

ing

5.3.4


for the facilitatorLearning is not a single process. It is open ended and exploratory.

Learning must be led by the learners. There is no point in standingout in front of a group of people and talking at them about how

they should see the world or where their learning should be going.

build in flexibility by providing broad learning goals within which people have choice.Strategies for providing choice might include:

• dividing the material into interest areas and asking individuals to choose an area on which to workwith others

• asking individuals to choose an aspect to learn more about

• providing focus for discussion

• encouraging learners to engage with the material in their own ways

encourage learners to review how and what they have learned.

Learning 101

lea

rn

ing

evaluation(how do I

know I havelearned

anything?)

reflection(how do I feelabout what Ihave learned?

what else do Iwant to learn?)

synthesis(what are

the keyideas?)

analysis(what doI alreadyknow /

do?)

application(how can I

use this?what are theimplications

of this for...?)

tacitknowingor under-standing

(saying ‘yes’)


for the facilitatorWe automatically register the familiar while simultaneously

searching for and responding to the novel and curious.

5.3.5

build a stable, familiar learning environment which is high in novelty, challenge and discovery

provide processes to move the learning from:

Learning 102

lea

rn

ing

5.3.6


for the facilitatorWe simultaneously process ‘parts’ and ‘wholes’.

begin a learning session(s) with the big picture overview. This can be visual or in words.

provide people with the parts of the whole picture and ask them to discuss how the parts relate toeach other and to the whole

break the learning into bite-size bits (chunks) and at the same time provide a way for people to seehow the bits are interconnected

have logical threads that weave. Powerful threads can often be provided by visuals, metaphors orstories.

Learning is an active, on-going process. Follow through is crucial. A series of several sessions - withintervals between in which people have a chance to try things (with some access to help or to otherresources) - is much more powerful than even the most stimulating one-shot workshop.

Learning 103

lea

rn

ing

5.4 What if ... ?Some scenarios Scenario 1

The group regard learning as a formal and passiveactivity where the only legitimate knowledge iswhat they read, find in research or hear from anexpert.

They expect to sit and take notes while you deliverknowledge.

Help individuals and groups to:

make their thinking visible to themselves andothers challenge their ownand other’s assumptions about learning

clarify the role of the facilitator

use reflection and questioning

build on their own experience and reflectionsto explore othermore active ways of learning.

Scenario 2

People within the group refuse to move outsidetheir comfort zones or allow themselves to bechallenged in their learning.

Keep people moving by:

providing a safe environment in which toexperience new ways of learning

allowing people to express frustrations.Make it okay for individuals to show a rangeof feelings and make it okay to express them

providing the support that is needed. Thiscould be in the form of resources, extrainformation, staging the learning and time

building relationships in the group

trusting people’s capacity to learn and tosolve their own dilemmas.

Learning 104

lea

rn

ing

References References for learning

Candy P.C.(1993) Learning Theories in Higher Education: Reflections on the Keynote Day, HERDSA,1992, Higher Education Research & Development, Vol 12. No.1

Costa A.L & Garmston R.J (1994) Cognitive Coaching: a foundation for Renaissance Schools,Christopher-Gordon Publishers

Jessup G. (1991) Outcomes, NVQS and the Emerging Model of Education and Training,The Falmer Press

Novak & Gowin (1984) Learning How to Learn, Cambridge University Press

Vaill P.B.(1996) Learning as a Way of Being: Strategies for Survival in a World of Permanent WhiteWater, San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Pub.

Learning 105

lea

rn

ing

Further readings Suggestions for further readings

Dixon N. (1994) The Organisational Learning Cycle: How we can learn collectively, McGraw-Hill

Garmston R.J. & Wellman B.M. (1992) How to Make Presentations that Teach and Transform,Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Guild P. & Garger S. (1985) Marching to Different Drummers, Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment

Rosenshine B. (1995) Advances in Research on Instruction, Journal of Educational Research May/JuneVol 88. No 5. pp262 - 268

Senge P.M. et.al. (1994) The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a LearningOrganisation, Currency Doubleday, New York

Sylwester R. (1995) A Celebration of Neurons: an Educators Guide to the Human Brain, Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development

introduction 5.1 what is learning? 5.2 different learning...

Documents