NOTES

Introduction Arthurian Romance and Political

Language in Fifteenth-Century England

1. Sir Thomas Malory, The Works of Sir Thomas Malory, ed. by Eugène Vinaver,

rev. by P. J. C. Field, 3 vols., 3rd edn. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990),

1242.22–29. Henceforth, Works referred to by page and line number.

2. Terence McCarthy, “Le Morte Darthur and Romance,” in Studies in Medieval English Romances: Some New Approaches, ed. Derek Brewer (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 1988), 149.

3. There are a few scattered references to Arthur in earlier sources, most

importantly, Gildas’s De Excidio Britanniae (The Ruin of Britain) and

Pseudo-Nennius’s Historia Brittonum (The History of the Britons). Most

scholars credit Geoffrey with expanding and shaping the Arthurian

tradition. Later writers such as Layamon, Wace, and Robert Mannyng

adopted the story that became part of the Brut tradition in the Middle

Ages. For a modern translation of Geoffrey with the relevant sources

see The History of the Kings of Britain, trans. and ed. Michael A. Faletra

(Toronto: Toronto Broadview Editions, 2008). On Geoffrey’s inf luence

on the medieval chronicle tradition see Richard J. Moll, Before Malory: Reading Arthur in Medieval England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,

2003), 11–17; Christopher Dean, Arthur of England: English Attitudes to King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 3–20; Lister M.

Matheson, “King Arthur and the Medieval English Chronicles,” in King Arthur through the Ages, ed. Valerie M. Lagorio and Mildred Leake Day

(New York and London: Garland, 1990), 1.248–74.

4. Geoffrey’s version of events was challenged by some contemporary histo-

rians, particularly William of Malmesbury and William of Newburgh. In

the fourteenth century, Ranulph Higden’s Polychronicon offered an alter-

native to the Galfridian tradition on Arthur although his translator, John

Trevisa argued in favor of Geoffrey’s version of events. Matheson, “King

Arthur,” 255–57; Moll, Before Malory, 72–78.

5. Patricia Clare Ingham, Sovereign Fantasies: Arthurian Romance and the Making of Britain (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001),

3–6, 10–13; Geraldine Heng, Empire of Magic: Medieval Romance and the

N O T E S178

Politics of Cultural Fantasy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003),

1–11.

6. Lee Patterson, Negotiating the Past: The Historical Understanding of Medieval Literature (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 160.

7. Winston S. Churchill, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples, vol. 1, The Birth of Britain (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1956), 60.

8. Lord Alfred Tennyson, Idylls of the King, ed. J. M. Gray (London: Penguin,

1983, repr., 1996), Merlin and Vivien, 54. Moll, Before Malory, 3; Mark

Girouard, Return to Camelot: Chivalry and the English Gentleman (New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), 178–94.

9. Paston Letters and Papers of the Fifteenth Century, vols. 1 and 2 ed. Norman

Davis. EETS s.s. 20, 21. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2004), Part I, Letter

330, lines 34–37. Henceforth PL, part, letter, and line numbers. “And asfor

the Dwkys coort, as of lordys, ladys, and gentylwomen, knytys, sqwyirs,

and gentyllmen, I herd neuer of non lyek to it saue Kyng Artourys cort,

By my trowthe, I haue no wyt nor remembrans to wryte to yow halfe the

worchep that is her.”

10. N. F. Blake, Caxton and His World (New York: London House and

Maxwell, 1969), 110–11; D. Thomas Hanks Jr., “Textual Harassment:

Caxton, de Worde and Malory’s Morte Darthur,” in Re-viewing the “Morte Darthur”: Texts, Contexts, Characters and Themes, Arthurian Studies 60,

ed. K. S. Whetter and Raluca Radulescu (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer,

2005), 30; Kevin Grimm, “The Reception of Malory’s Morte Darthur: Medieval and Modern,” Quondam et Futurus 2, no. 3 (Fall 1992): 7–8.

Grimm rightly emphasizes that it is Lancelot and not Arthur who holds

the reader’s attention.

11. I discuss the national claims of Caxton’s preface further in chapter 1.

Since Caxton’s Malory was the only available early edition of the Morte Darthur before 1934, Caxton’s preface was reprinted in nineteenth- and

early twentieth-century editions including the 1816 and 1817 editions of

the Morte, the first to be issued in almost 200 years. For a detailed catalog

of Malory editions see Barry Gaines, Sir Thomas Malory: An Anecdotal Bibliography of Editions, 1485–1985 (New York: AMS Press, 1990). Works, cxliii–cxlvi. Vinaver’s scholarly edition based on Winchester includes

Caxton’s preface and lists Caxton’s book and chapter titles at the begin-

ning of each section.

12. Vinaver, introduction to Works, xxxiii.

13. Robert H. Wilson, Characterisation in Malory: A Comparison with His Sources (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1934), 119.

14. For examples see Edward D. Kennedy, “Malory and His English Sources,”

in Aspects of Malory, Arthurian Studies 1, ed. Toshiyuki Takamiya and

Derek Brewer (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1981), 44; Stephen Knight,

Arthurian Literature and Society (London: Macmillan, 1983), 109–12;

Hyonjin Kim, The Knight without the Sword: A Social Landscape of Malorian Chivalry, Arthurian Studies 45 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 61–62;

K. S. Whetter, “The Historicity of Combat in Le Morte Darthur,” in

N O T E S 179

Arthurian Studies in Honour of P. J. C. Field, Arthurian Studies 57, ed.

Bonnie Wheeler (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2004), 262; Kenneth

Hodges, “Guinevere’s Politics in Malory’s Morte Darthur,” Journal of English and Germanic Philology 104, no. 1 (2005): 55. Peter Korrel, An Arthurian Triangle: A Study of the Origin, Development and Characterization of Arthur, Guinevere and Modred (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1984), 252–69 points out

that Arthur shows reprehensible qualities as well as noble ones, but con-

cludes that the inconsistent picture of Arthur is a product of Malory’s lack

of control over his sources. Laura K. Bedwell, “The Failure of Justice,

the Failure of Arthur,” Arthuriana 21, no. 3 (2011): 3–22 contributes to

the picture of Arthur’s kingship, suggesting justice is problematic in

the Arthurian realm, but sees Arthur’s accession, coronation, and some

aspects of his rule in a positive light.

15. Elizabeth T. Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda: “Le Morte Darthur” as an Historical Ideal of Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,

1971), 54–58, 66, 79–81. Pochoda sees the Arthurian story as a means for

Malory to press a didactic program of political morality on his readers,

although she goes on to expose the f laws of the chivalric ideal.

16. Raluca L. Radulescu, The Gentry Context for Malory’s “Morte Darthur,”

Arthurian Studies 55 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2003), 98, 102.

17. Mark Lambert, Malory: Style and Vision in “Le Morte Darthur” (New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1975), 63–65; Andrea Clough, “Malory’s Morte Darthur: The ‘Hoole Book,’” Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s., 14 (1986):

136–56; Felicity Riddy, Sir Thomas Malory (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987),

98–99; Helen Barr, “Contemporary Events,” in A Concise Companion to Middle English Literature, ed. Marilyn Corrie (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,

2009), 204–6.

18. Jill Mann, Narrative of Distance, the Distance of Narrative in Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” The William Matthews Lectures (Birkbeck College: University

of London, 1991), 2–17.

19. Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1456.

20. Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1456; Raluca L. Radulescu, “Malory

and Fifteenth Century Political Ideas,” Rhetorical Approaches to Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur,” ed. Ann Dobyns and Anne Laskaya, Special issue,

Arthuriana 13, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 44–45.

21. Dorsey Armstrong, “Mapping Malory’s Morte: The (Physical) Place and

(Narrative) Space of Cornwall,” Arthurian Literature 29 (2012): 173.

22. Kenneth Hodges, “Why Malory’s Launcelot Is Not French: Region,

Nation and Political Identity,” PMLA 125, no. 3 (2010): 557–60.

23. Quotation from Hodges, “Why Malory’s Launcelot,” 564.

24. Helen Cooper, “The Book of Sir Tristram de Lyones,” in A Companion to Malory, Arthurian Studies 37, ed. Elizabeth Archibald and A. S. G.

Edwards (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1996), 184–86.

25. Vinaver, introduction to Works, xxxi. Richard R. Griffith, “The Political Bias

of Malory’s Morte Darthur,” Viator 5 (1974): 380; Beverly Kennedy, Knighthood in the “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 11 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985),

N O T E S180

54–55; P. J. C. Field, Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory, Arthurian Studies

29 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1993), 146.

26. For critics who have linked Malory and his work more directly to the

historical events of the Wars of the Roses either as a ‘ref lection’ of those

events or in order to uncover the politics of the author see Field, Life and Times, 123–25, 146–47; P. J. C. Field, Malory: Texts and Sources, Arthurian

Studies 40 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1998), 47–71; P. J. C. Field,

“Malory and the Battle of Towton,” in The Social and Literary Contexts of Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 42, ed. D. Thomas Hanks

Jr. (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 68–74; Griffith, “Political Bias,”

365–85 includes an overview of earlier debates on Malory’s personal poli-

tics; Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda, 29–33. B. Kennedy, Knighthood, 1–8;

Kim, Knight without the Sword, 6–17; Radulescu, Gentry Context, 3–5.

27. John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1996), 364–66.

28. Lambert, Style and Vision, 92–96.

29. Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1446. I discuss Arthur’s status as a knight

in chapters 1 and 3.

30. D. S. Brewer, “The hoole book,” in Essays on Malory, ed. J. A. W. Bennett

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 41–63; Clough, “Malory’s Morte,” 139;

Barr, “Contemporary Events,” 204–6.

31. Key to the debate on the unity of Malory’s book are: Brewer, “The hoole

book,” 41–63; Clough, “Malory’s Morte,” 136–56; R. M. Lumiansky,

“The Question of Unity in Malory’s Morte Darthur,” Tulane Studies in English 5 (1955): 29–40; R. M. Lumiansky, ed., introduction to Malory’s Originality: A Critical Study of “Le Morte Darthur” (Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins Press, 1964), 3–4. For an overview of the debate and its impli-

cations for editing Malory see Carol M. Meale, “‘The Hoole Book’:

Editing and the Creation of Meaning in Malory’s Text,” in Archibald

and Edwards, A Companion to Malory, 3–17. For discussion of the divisions

in Winchester see Helen Cooper, “Opening up the Malory Manuscript,”

in The Malory Debate: Essays on the Texts of “Le Morte Darthur,” Arthurian

Studies 47, ed. Bonnie Wheeler, Robert L. Kindrick, and Michael N.

Salda (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 255–84.

32. Vinaver, preface to the first edition of Works, x; Vinaver, headnote to

commentary to Works, 1263, on the nature of his work: “In the follow-

ing pages, I have set myself the seemingly thankless task of giving, in

addition to what is normally expected of a commentary, the results of a

word-for-word comparison of Malory’s works with their available sources.

When one ref lects for this purpose a very large part of what Malory

wrote—over a thousand pages in the present edition—has had to be col-

lated with still more voluminous and often much less readable works, one

may well wonder whether the effort has been worth while; but no such

thought can enter one’s mind while the journey through this unexplored

region lasts. Instead of being tedious, it acquires an attraction similar to

that which a quest for an unknown knight had for Arthurian characters.”

N O T E S 181

33. P. J. C. Field, Romance and Chronicle: A Study of Malory’s Prose Style (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971), 7.

34. Vinaver, introduction to Works, lvii–lxiv; Larry D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 28–33 also

emphasizes the principle of selection and the balance in the structure of

the tales. Bonnie Wheeler, “Romance and Parataxis and Malory: The

Case of Sir Gawain’s Reputation,” in Arthurian Literature XII, ed. James P.

Carley and Felicity Riddy (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1993), 111–12.

35. Brewer, “The hoole book,” 41–63.

36. J. G. A. Pocock, “Texts as Events Ref lections on the History of Political

Thought,” in Politics of Discourse: The Literature and History of Seventeenth Century England, ed. Kevin Sharpe and Steven N. Zwicker (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1987), 25.

37. Pocock, “Texts as Events,” 25–28. Quentin Skinner, “Meaning and

Understanding in the History of Ideas,” in Meaning and Context: Quentin Skinner and His Critics, ed. James Tully (Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1988), 64.

38. J. G. A. Pocock, “The Concept of Language and the métier d’historian:

Some Considerations on Practice,” in The Languages of Political Theory in Early Modern Europe, ed. Anthony Pagden (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1987, 1990), 21.

39. Carpenter, “Introduction: Political Culture, Politics and Cultural History,”

in Political Culture in Late Medieval Britain, The Fifteenth Century 4, ed.

Linda Clark and Christine Carpenter (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004),

9–10 gives an overview. For studies see Christine Carpenter, Locality and Polity: A Study of Warwickshire Landed Society, 1401–1499 (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1992), especially chapter 1. Watts, Henry VI, 13–80; G. L. Harriss, Henry V: The Practice of Kingship (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1985), 1–24; Edward Powell, Kingship, Law and Society: Criminal Justice in the Reign of Henry V (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1989), 1–8; Richard Firth Green, A Crisis of Truth: Literature and Law in Ricardian England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999),

1–8; Helen Castor, King, Crown and Duchy of Lancaster: Public Authority and Private Power, 1399–1461 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000),

3–20.

40. Watts, Henry VI, 7.

41. Pocock, “Concept of Language,” 33.

42. Steven Justice, Writing and Rebellion: England in 1381 (Berkeley and Los

Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 1–11 and especially chap-

ter 3; Helen Barr, Socioliterary Practice in Late Medieval England (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2001); Paul Strohm, Politique: Languages of Statecraft between Chaucer and Shakespeare (Notre Dame: University of

Notre Dame Press, 2005), 1–18; Nicholas Perkins, Hoccleve’s “Regiment of Princes”: Counsel and Constraint (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2001), 1–6,

9–20, 29–47, 50–7, 61–83.

43. Strohm, Politique, 21–23.

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44. Lambert, Style and Vision, ix. “Malory narrows, concentrates, intensi-

fies.” Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 51–64.

45. Jill Mann, “Malory: Knightly Combat in Le Morte D’Arthur,” in The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, vol. 1, Medieval Literature, ed. Boris

Ford (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1954, repr. 1982), 331–32.

46. Kenneth Hodges, Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur” (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 6–10.

47. Robert L. Kelly, “Malory and the Common Law: ‘Hasty jougement’

in the ‘Tale of the Death of King Arthur,’” Medievalia et Humanistica,

n.s., 22 (1995): 111–40; Robert L. Kelly, “Royal Policy and Malory’s

Round Table,” Arthuriana 14, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 43–71; E. Kay Harris,

“Censoring Disobedient Subjects: Narratives of Treason and Royal

Authority in Fifteenth-Century England,” in Reputation and Representation in Fifteenth-Century Europe, ed. Douglas L. Biggs, Sharon D. Michalove, and

A. Compton Reeves (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004), 211–33; Megan

Leitch, “Speaking (of ) Treason in Malory’s Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Literature 27 (2010): 103–34.

48. Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda, especially chapter 1 on political ideals;

Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” especially chapter 3 on chivalry; Kennedy,

Knighthood discusses both extensively.

49. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 171–73 on romance as a model for real knights.

50. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 138–39, 201; Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda,

52–53.

51. Thomas H. Crofts, Malory’s Contemporary Audience: The Social Reading of Romance in Late Medieval England, Arthurian Studies 66 (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 2006).

52. Radulescu, Gentry Context, 1–4.

53. Quotations from Radulescu, Gentry Context, 102, 145. For further dis-

cussion of the Morte as ref lective of its historical context see especially 13,

93, 99–102, 104, 142, 145–46.

1 Kingship, Justice, and the “Comyns” in

The Tale of King Arthur

1. William Kuskin, Symbolic Caxton: Literary Culture and Print Capitalism

(Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008), 193–95.

Russell Rutter, “Printing, Prophecy, and the Foundation of the Tudor

Dynasty: Caxton’s Morte Darthur and Henry Tudor’s Road to Bosworth,”

in Prophet Margins: The Medieval Vatic Impulse and Social Stability, ed.

E. L. Risden, Karen Moranski, and Stephen Yandell, Studies in the

Humanities: Literature–Politics–Society 67 (New York: Peter Lang,

2004), 125.

2. Vinaver, introduction to Works, xxxix. Lumiansky, “Sir Thomas Malory’s

Le Morte Darthur, 1947–1987: Author, Title, Text,” in King Arthur through the Ages, ed. Valerie M. Lagorio and Mildred Leake Day (New York and

N O T E S 183

London: Garland, 1990), 299–300. Stephen Knight, Arthurian Literature and Society (London: Macmillan, 1983), 105. Knight suggests Malory’s

“Arthuriad” as an alternative title.

3. The titles of various recent editions point up the complexities of the

debate and the continuing recognition of Caxton’s title. Vinaver’s hard-

back editions published by Oxford University Press—1947 (reprinted

with corrections in 1948), 1967, and 1990 (revised by P. J. C. Field)—

were titled The Works of Sir Thomas Malory. This edition remains vitally

important to Malory studies although most critics have distanced them-

selves from Vinaver’s vision of Malory’s book as a series of works, pre-

ferring to see it as a whole book. Vinaver’s paperback edition of 1971 is

called Malory: Complete Works, but a modernized-spelling abridged ver-

sion of the Winchester Manuscript, King Arthur and His Knights: Selected Tales by Sir Thomas Malory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956, 1968,

1975) refocused the text on Arthur. The competing edition of Caxton’s

text, edited by James W. Spisak and William Matthews is titled Caxton’s Malory: A New Edition of Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur (Berkeley

and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983). Helen Cooper’s

abridged edition of the Winchester text is Le Morte Darthur: The Winchester Manuscript (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). For a full list of

editions up until 1985, see Barry Gaines, Sir Thomas Malory: Anecdotal Bibliography of Editions, 1485–1985 (New York: AMS Press, 1990).

4. Kuskin, Symbolic Caxton, especially 16–20, 193–213; William Kuskin,

“Reading Caxton: Transformations in Capital, Authority, Print and Persona

in the Late Fifteenth Century,” New Medieval Literatures 3 (1999): 149–83;

Thomas H. Crofts, Malory’s Contemporary Audience: The Social Reading of Romance in Late Medieval England, Arthurian Studies 66 (Cambridge: D. S.

Brewer, 2006), 40–60; Catherine Batt, Malory’s “Morte Darthur”: Remaking Arthurian Tradition (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 38–42.

5. N. F. Blake, Caxton and His World (New York: London House and

Maxwell, 1969), 110; D. Thomas Hanks Jr., “Textual Harassment: Caxton,

de Worde and Malory’s Morte Darthur,” in Re-viewing the “Morte Darthur”: Texts, Contexts, Characters and Themes, Arthurian Studies 60, ed. K. S.

Whetter and Raluca Radulescu (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2005), 30–32;

Kevin Grimm, “Wynkyn de Worde and the Creation of Malory’s Morte Darthur,” in The Social and Literary Contexts of Malory’s “Morte Darthur,”

Arthurian Studies 42, ed. D. Thomas Hanks Jr. (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer,

2000), 137–40. Caxton’s (and later Wynkyn de Worde’s) textual apparatus

also contributed to the picture of Arthur as the main focus of the book.

6. N. F. Blake, “Caxton Prepares His Edition of the Morte Darthur,”

Journal of Librarianship 8 (1976): 273; N. F. Blake, “Caxton at Work:

A Reconsideration,” in The Malory Debate: Essays on the Texts of “Le Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 47, ed. Bonnie Wheeler, Robert L. Kindrick,

and Michael N. Salda (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 250. The table

of contents and preface were probably produced after the date in the

colophon. Blake considers that although the chapter and book divisions

N O T E S184

were set up during compositing, it is possible that the titles were only

added after printing. Terence McCarthy, “Old Worlds New Worlds:

King Arthur in England,” in Hanks, Social and Literary Contexts, 7–8.

7. Chris Given-Wilson, Paul Brand, Anne Curry, Rosemary Horrox,

Geoffrey Martin, Mark Ormrod, and Seymour Phillips, eds. The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, CD-ROM (Leicester: Scholarly Digital Editions,

2005), 6.241. Henceforth RP.

8. Sean Cunningham, Henry VII (London and New York: Routledge, 2007),

47–48

9. Patricia Clare Ingham, Sovereign Fantasies: Arthurian Romance and the Making of Britain (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 195–98.

10. Mark Lambert, Malory: Style and Vision in “Le Morte Darthur” (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 31.

11. Tomomi Kato, Concordance to the Works of Sir Thomas Malory (Tokyo:

University of Tokyo Press, 1974), 868–70. Works, 35.16.

12. Lambert, Style and Vision, ix–x, 8–32, Jill Mann, The Narrative of Distance, the Distance of Narrative in Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” The William Matthews

Lectures (Birkbeck College: University of London, 1991), 2; Jill Mann

“Malory: Knightly Combat in Le Morte D’Arthur,” in The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, vol. 1, Medieval Literature, ed. by Boris Ford

(Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1954, repr. 1982), 331–39; Andrew

Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms: The Narrative of Combat in “Le Morte Darthur,”

Arthurian Studies 39 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1997), xiv–xv, 28–38. I

discuss the political valences of these knightly terms in chapters 3 and 4.

13. Laura K. Bedwell, “The Failure of Justice, the Failure of Arthur,”

Arthuriana 21, no. 3 (2011): 5–13. I discuss the Pentecostal Oath in detail

in chapter 2.

14. This episode is only available in Caxton’s printed edition since W has

one quire missing from the beginning. N. Ker, The Winchester Malory: A Facsimile, EETS s.s. no. 4 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976),

ix; Malory, Caxton’s Malory, I.7. Cited by book and chapter. Henceforth

Caxton’s Malory.15. Other uses of the “comyns” in this sense: 19.23; 204.20; 414.4. Kato,

Concordance, 299. Works, 1228.3. In the final books, the “comyn voyce” is

for Mordred and the political support of the people enables him to oppose

Arthur. See chapter 5.

16. Raluca L. Radulescu, The Gentry Context for Malory’s “Morte Darthur,”

Arthurian Studies 55 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2003), 98.

17. H. O. Sommer, ed., The Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances, vol. 2,

Lestoire de Merlin (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute, 1908–16.

Reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1979), 85. Hereafter cited as Lestoire de Merlin. Malory’s Tale of King Arthur is based mostly on the Suite du Merlin,

extant in two manuscripts known as Huth and Cambridge. The Suite du Merlin is aligned with the Vulgate Lestoire de Merlin up until the concep-

tion of Mordred, but it is possible that Malory knew a version closer to

the Vulgate than the manuscripts now extant or even parts of the Vulgate

N O T E S 185

itself, so I have considered both here in comparison to the Morte. Gaston

Paris and Jacob Ulrich, eds., Merlin: Roman en Prose du XIIIe Siècle, 2 vols.

(Paris: Librairie de Firmin Didot, 1886), 141. In the Suite du Merlin, those

who weep for joy are called “li pueples.”

18. Lestoire de Merlin, 84–88. See also Norris J. Lacy, ed., Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation, 5 vols. (New

York and London: Garland, 1993–96), 1.214–16. Cited by volume and

page number. Henceforth Lancelot-Grail.19. Helen Cooper, The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from

Geoffrey of Monmouth to the Death of Shakespeare (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2004), 340.

20. See Lestoire de Merlin, 84.34–39; 85.1–14.

21. Cooper, Romance in Time, 342–43. Mary Flowers Braswell, ed., Sir Perceval of Galles and Ywain and Gawain, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval

Institute Publications, 1995), 21 lines, 529–44.

22. Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957, reprinted with

preface by William Chester Jordan, 1997), 328–31.

23. Cunningham, Henry VII, 47. Helen Cooper, “Romance after Bosworth,”

in The Court and Cultural Diversity: Selected Papers from the Eighth Triennial Congress of the International Courtly Literature Society, ed. Evelyn Mullally

and John Thompson (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1997), 151–52; Cooper,

Romance in Time, 355.

24. Jean Dunbabin, “Government,” in The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought, c. 350–1450, ed. J. H. Burns (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1988), 514.

25. Robert S. Hoyt, “The Coronation Oath of 1308,” EHR 71, no. 280

(1956): 355–56; L. B. Wilkinson, “Notes on the Coronation Records of

the Fourteenth Century,” EHR 70, no. 277 (October 1955): 582. Richard

Firth Green, A Crisis of Truth: Literature and Law in Ricardian England

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 233, 236.

26. Leopold G. Legg, English Coronation Records (Westminster: Archibald

Constable, 1901), 82; Wilkinson “Notes,” 582; Percy Ernst Schramm, A History of the English Coronation, trans. by L. G. W. Legg (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1937), 170–71 for comments on the Lytlington revision.

27. Nigel Saul, Richard II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997),

25–27.

28. Anne F. Sutton and P. W. Hammond, eds., The Little Device in Coronation of Richard III: The Extant Documents (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1983),

218–19 (hereafter Little Device); C. A. J. Armstrong, “The Inauguration

Ceremonies of the Yorkist Kings and Their Title to the Throne,” TRHS, 4th ser., 30 (1948): 64.

29. Legg, Coronation Records, 85–87. The archbishop calls to the plebem and

the questions addressed to the king refer to both plebi and populo.30. Hoyt, “Coronation Oath,” 366–67; Wilkinson, “Notes,” 582.

31. Wilkinson, “Notes,” 583–84.

N O T E S186

32. Kantorowicz, King’s Two Bodies, 361. Kantorowicz argues that the ‘com-

munity of the realm’ were those who swore to uphold the Crown, the

councilors, officials, and spiritual and temporal lords that he describes as

the “responsible portion of the realm.”

33. John Watts, “Public or Plebs: The Changing Meaning of ‘The Commons’,

1381–1549,” in Power and Identity in the Middle Ages: Essays in Memory of Rees Davies, ed. Huw Pryce and John Watts (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2007), 244, 253–54.

34. I. M. W. Harvey, Jack Cade’s Rebellion of 1450 (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1991), 191.

35. Harvey, Cade’s Rebellion, 189, 191. The several versions of this manifesto,

plus one produced earlier and aimed at the men of Kent, are described

by Harvey, Cade’s Rebellion, 186–91. For variants along with commen-

tary see Margaret Lucille Kekewich et al., eds., The Politics of Fifteenth Century England: John Vale’s Book (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1995), 204–7.

A version reproduced with some changes in 1460 is also in Kekewich

et al., John Vale’s Book, 210–12. The manifesto was copied by John Stowe,

“Historical Memoranda,” in Three Fifteenth-Century Chronicles with Historical Memoranda by John Stowe, ed. James Gairdner, Camden Society,

n.s., 28 (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1965), 94–99. Here “the holl

comyns of Ingelond” are described as impeaching Suffolk.

36. For public engagement in politics see Charles Ross, “Rumour, Propaganda

and Popular Opinion during the Wars of the Roses,” in Patronage, the Crown and the Provinces in Later Medieval England, ed. Ralph A. Griffiths

(Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1981), 15–32; Harvey, “Was There a Popular

Politics in Fifteenth-Century England?,” in The McFarlane Legacy: Studies in Late Medieval Politics and Society, ed. R. H. Britnell and A. J. Pollard,

The Fifteenth Century Series 1 (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1995), 157–58. John

Watts, “The Pressure of the Public on Later Medieval Politics,” Political Culture in Late Medieval Britain, The Fifteenth Century 4, ed. Linda Clark

and Christine Carpenter (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004), 159–80.

Watts points out that such action by insurgents was only necessary if the

needs of the community were not conveyed by its representatives.

37. Harvey, “Popular Politics,” 157.

38. G. L. Harriss and M. A. Harris, eds., John Benet’s Chronicle in Camden Miscellany 24, Camden 4th Series 9 (London: Royal Historical Society, 1972), 198. J. A.

Giles, ed., Incerti Scriptoris Chronicon Angliae de Regnis Henrici IV, Henrici V et Henrici VI (London, 1848), 38–42; William Marx, ed., An English Chronicle 1377–1461: A New Edition (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003), 67–71.

London chroniclers and the author of the Brut continuation state the facts

of the brutal murder without incorporating detail about the extralegal pro-

ceedings that surrounded it. C. L. Kingsford, ed., “Vitellius,” in Chronicles of London (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905), 159. Henceforth “Vitellius.” James

Gairdner, ed., Gregory’s Chronicle in The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London in the Fifteenth Century, Camden Society, n.s., 17 (London: Camden

N O T E S 187

Society, 1876), 190; A. H. Thomas and I. D. Thornley, eds., The Great Chronicle of London (London: G. W. Jones, 1920), 181.

39. R. S. Dobson, The Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 (London: Macmillan, 1970),

130. See Harvey, “Popular Politics,” 167–68 for the inf luence of 1381

on later revolts. Paul Strohm, Hochon’s Arrow: The Social Imagination of Fourteenth-Century Texts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,

1992), 34–56; Watts, “Pressure of the Public,” 160; Watts, “Public or

Plebs,” 242–46. Strohm and Watts see the deployment of the language of

‘commons’ as a claim to legitimate involvement in government. Steven

Justice, Writing and Rebellion: England in 1381 (Berkeley and Los Angeles:

University of California Press, 1994), 172–73. Justice sees ‘commons’ as

more limited in meaning, referring to the local communities or vills.

Susan Crane, “The Writing Lesson of 1381,” in Chaucer’s England: Literature in Historical Context, ed. Barbara A. Hanawalt, Medieval

Studies at Minnesota 4 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,

1992), 201–17; Helen Barr, Socioliterary Practice in Late Medieval England

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 107–13 for responses to the

commons.

40. “Bill from the duke of York to the king calling for justice upon the traitors,”

in Kekewich et al., John Vale’s Book, 189; John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 272–74.

41. Watts, Henry VI, 278–82.

42. P. J. C. Field, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory, Arthurian Studies

29 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1993), 124–25; Raluca L. Radulescu,

“Malory and Fifteenth Century Political Ideas,” Rhetorical Approaches to Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur,” ed. Ann Dobyns and Anne Laskaya, Special

issue, Arthuriana 13, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 38–39.

43. Cora L. Scofield, The Life and Reign of Edward the Fourth (London:

Longmans, Green, 1923), 150; Christine Carpenter, The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437–1509 (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1997), 147–49.

44. Ralph Flenley, ed., introduction to Six Town Chronicles of England (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1911), 78; “Gough London 10” in Six Town Chronicles, 161. Gough London 10 is similar, the two probably having been compiled

from the same source.

45. Armstrong, “Inauguration Ceremonies,” 53 on the role of ‘inheritance’

in legitimizing Yorkist kings.

46. Gairdner, Gregory’s Chronicle, 215. See Mary Rose McClaren, The London Chronicles of the Fifteenth Century: A Revolution in English Writing (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2002), 30–33. McClaren provides informa-

tion about the author who was unlikely to have been Gregory. For con-

venience, I will continue to refer to this text as Gregory’s Chronicle.47. Armstrong, “Inauguration Ceremonies,” 56.

48. Armstrong, “Inauguration Ceremonies,” 68. Scofield, Edward the Fourth,

163–83. The coronation took place on 28 June, once Edward had secured

N O T E S188

his position by military victory at Towton, but Edward dated the begin-

ning of his reign from 4 March 1461.

49. The New Chronicles of England and France, in Two Parts By Robert Fabyan,

ed. Henry Ellis (London, 1811), 639. Henceforth, Fabyan’s Chronicle.50. Armstrong, “Inauguration Ceremonies,” 56.

51. Elizabeth T. Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda: “Le Morte Darthur” as an Historical Ideal of Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,

1971), 81.

52. Lestoire de Merlin, 2.88.5–7. Arthur swears a sainte eglize sauuer sa droiture & maintenir loialte & pais en terre & a conseillier tous desconseillies a ton pooir. & a maintenir toutes droitures & toutes loiautes & droite iustice maintenir. Lancelot-Grail, 1.216: “safeguard the rights of Holy Church, keep lawful order and

peace in the land, give help to the defenseless . . . and uphold all rights,

feudal obligations and lawful rule.”

53. See also Legg, Coronation Records, xv.

54. Armstrong, “Inauguration Ceremonies,” 58. The exact oath taken by

Edward IV is unknown. The account in Gough London 10 offers the

most detail on the oath and reproduces it in substance. Legg, Coronation Records, xv for the usual coronation oath.

55. Thomas Hoccleve, The Regement of Princes in Hoccleve’s Works, ed.

Frederick J. Furnivall, 3 vols, EETS e.s. 61, 72, 73 (London: Kegan Paul,

Trench, Trubner, 1892–1925), 30.2208. Cited by page and line number.

Henceforth Regement.56. Green, Crisis of Truth, 236–37.

57. G. L. Harriss, Henry V: The Practice of Kingship (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1985), 10–11; Green, Crisis of Truth, 233–34. RP, 3.417, 419–20,

especially items 26, 34, 39. The charges against Richard opened with a

recital of the coronation oath. Harvey, Cade’s Rebellion, 189.

58. Green, Crisis of Truth, 114–15.

59. Kantorowicz, King’s Two Bodies, 155–56.

60. Kekewich et al., “Articles of the duke of York to the king and council

calling for justice upon those accused of treason and other crimes, 1450,”

in John Vale’s Book, 188.

61. Dunbabin, “Government,” 506–7.

62. Sir John Fortescue, De Laudibus Legum Anglie, ed. and trans. by S. B.

Chrimes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1949), 78–79.

63. Fortescue, De Laudibus, 24–25. See also Alan Cromartie, “Common

Law, Counsel and Consent in Fortescue’s Political Theory,” in Clark and

Carpenter, Political Culture, 49.

64. Sir John Fortescue, The Governance of England, ed. Charles Plummer

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885, repr. Hyperion, 1979), 109. Henceforth

Governance of England.

65. Kantorowicz, King’s Two Bodies, 151; Dunbabin, “Government,” 484.

66. Edward. D. Kennedy, “Malory and His English Sources,” in Aspects of Malory, Arthurian Studies 1, ed. Toshiyuki Takamiya and Derek Brewer

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1981), 42–48.

N O T E S 189

67. John Hardyng, Chronicle of Hardyng, ed. Henry Ellis (London: Rivington:

1812), 122.

68. Richard J. Moll, Before Malory: Reading Arthur in Medieval England

(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 161–66.

69. Cromartie, “Common Law, Counsel and Consent,” 56–57; Christine

Carpenter, “Law, Justice and Landowners in Late Medieval England,”

Law and History Review 1, no. 2 (Autumn 1983): 212; Edward Powell,

Kingship, Law and Society: Criminal Justice in the Reign of Henry V (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1989), 27–29.

70. Watts, Henry VI, 59.

71. J. P. Gilson, “A Defence of the Proscription of the Yorkists in 1459,” EHR

26 (1911): 516–17.

72. Watts, Henry VI, 45.

73. Fortescue, De Laudibus, 2–3. “Regis namque officium pugnare est bella

populi sui, et eos rectissime iudicare” (For it is the office of a king to

fight the battles of his people and to judge them rightfully), Fortescue

offers a similar pronouncement in Governance, 127: “Ffor though he estate

be þe highest estate temporall in þe erthe, yet it is an office, in wich he

mynestrith to his reaume defense and justice.”

74. Christine de Pisan, The Book of Fayttes of Armes and of Chyvalrye, trans. and

printed by William Caxton, ed. A. T. P. Byles, EETS o.s. 189 (London:

Oxford University Press, 1932), 10. Henceforth Fayttes.75. The Boke of Noblesse: Addressed to King Edward the Fourth on his Invasion of

France in 1475 with an Introduction by John Gough Nichols (London: Nichols

and Sons, 1860. Reprint, New York: B. Franklin, 1972), 21.

76. George Ashby, George Ashby’s Poems, ed. M. Bateson, EETS e.s. 76

(London: Oxford University Press, 1899, repr. 1965), 23.317–23. Cited

by page and line number.

77. Justice, Writing and Rebellion, 182–88.

78. Green, Crisis of Truth, 9.

79. Paul Strohm, Politique: Languages of Statecraft between Chaucer and Shakespeare (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005), 21–22.

80. Strohm, Politique, 25–32.

81. Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV in England and the Finall Recouerye of His Kingdomes from Henry VI 1471, ed. John Bruce (London: Nichols for The

Camden Society, 1838), 4. Henceforth Arrivall.82. Green, Crisis of Truth, 221.

83. Watts, Henry VI, 23–25.

84. Katherine Lewis, Kingship and Masculinity in Late Medieval England (New

York: Routledge, 2013).

85. Fayttes, 10. Michael K. Jones, “Battle of Verneuil (17 August 1424):

Towards a History of Courage,” War in History 9, no. 4 (2002): 385–88,

407–9; Diane Bornstein, “Military Manuals in Fifteenth Century

England,” Medieval Studies 37 (1975): 469–77; Anne F. Sutton and Livia

Visser-Fuchs, Richard III’s Books: Ideals and Reality in the Life and Library of a Medieval Prince (Stroud: Sutton, 1997), 77–80.

N O T E S190

86. Philippa Maddern, Violence and Social Order: East Anglia 1422–1442

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 80–98.

87. Beverly Kennedy, Knighthood in the “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 11

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985), 26–27.

88. Friedrich W. D. Brie, The Brut or the Chronicles of England, part 1. EETS

o.s. 131 (London: Oxford University Press, 1906, repr. 1960), 69.21–26.

Cited by page and line number. Henceforth Brut.89. J. R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,

2nd edn., rev. Norman Davis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), 2–3.36–68.

Cited by page and line number.

90. Quotation from Radulescu, Gentry Context, 98–99; Hyonjin Kim, The Knight without the Sword: A Social Landscape of Malorian Chivalry, Arthurian

Studies 45 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 30.

91. Kim, Knight without the Sword, 30–35.

92. Sir Gilbert Hay, The Prose Works of Sir Gilbert Hay, vol. 3, The Buke of the Ordre of Knychthede and the Buke of the Gouernaunce of Princis, ed. Jonathan A.

Glenn (Edinburgh: Scottish Text Society, 1993), 64. Henceforth, Gouernaunce of Princis.

93. Radulescu, Gentry Context, 100.

94. Fanni Bogdanow, “The Rebellion of the Kings in the Cambridge MS of

the Suite du Merlin,” University of Texas Studies in English 84 (1955): 6–10.

95. Robert L. Kelly, “Malory’s Tale of King Arthur and the Political Geography

of Fifteenth Century England,” in Whetter and Radulescu, Re-viewing the “Le Morte Darthur,” 79–85.

96. Fayttes, 11–13, 23, 51, 62–63. For the difference between boldness and

rashness see Boke of Noblesse, 64–65.

97. Elizabeth Porter, “Chaucer’s Knight, the Alliterative Morte Arthure, and

Medieval Laws of War: A Reconsideration,” Nottingham Medieval Studies 27 (1983): 56–78.

98. Donald Sands, ed., Havelok the Dane, in Middle English Verse Romances (Exeter: University of Exeter, 1986), 110.2244–45. Cited by page and line

number. Henceforth Havelok.

99. Edward Peters, The Shadow King: “Rex Inutilis” in Medieval Law and Literature (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press), 1970, 200–1.

100. Jones, “Battle of Verneuil,” 400–3, 407–8. Charles VII’s failure to even

appear gave the English a further moral advantage. Boke of Noblesse, 17–18.

101. Cunningham, Henry VII, 39–41.

102. Daniel Wakelin, Humanism, Reading and English Literature 1430–1530

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 112–15; Lewis, Kingship and Masculinity, 24–25.

103. Stephen D. White, “The Politics of Anger,” in Anger’s Past: The Social Uses of an Emotion in the Middle Ages, ed. Barbara H. Rosenwein (Ithaca

and London: Cornell University Press, 1998), 138–45; Laura Jose,

“Arthurian Men and the Dangers of Excessive Emotion,” Conference

Presentation, 26 July 2011, 23rd Triennial Congress of the International

N O T E S 191

Arthurian Society, University of Bristol, 25–30 July 2011; Felicity Riddy,

Sir Thomas Malory (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987), 100–1.

104. Maddern, Violence and Social Order, 84–87, 95–98.

105. Raluca L. Radulescu, “‘Oute of mesure’: Violence and Knighthood in

Malory’s Morte Darthur,” in Whetter and Radulescu, Re-viewing the “Le Morte Darthur,” 121–23.

106. Arthur is noted to be fighting “as a lyon” (Works, 29.6) as well. Ban comes

into the field “fierse as a lyon” (32.32) but fights “as a wood lyon” (33.35)

only when pressed to an extreme, when he is on foot battle and alone.

107. See, for example, Gouernaunce of Princis, 25. Boke of Noblesse, 4. “As ire

egreness, and feernesse is holden for a vertu in the lion so in like manere

the said condicions is taken for a virtue and renomme of worship to all

tho that hauten armes.”

108. Larry D. Benson, ed., King Arthur’s Death: The Middle English Stanzaic Morte Arthur and Alliterative Morte Arthure, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI:

Medieval Institute Publications, 1994), 134.119. Cited by page and line

number. Henceforth Alliterative Morte Arthure. See also chapter 2, p. 63.

109. Susan Crane, The Performance of Self: Ritual, Clothing, and Identity during the Hundred Years War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002),

125–28.

110. Andrew Lynch, “‘Thou woll never have done’: Ideology, Context and

Excess in Malory’s War,” in Hanks, Social and Literary Contexts, 24–41;

Kenneth Hodges, Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur” (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 41–43; Lisa Robeson,

“Noble Knights and ‘Mischievous War’: The Rhetoric of War in Malory’s

Le Morte Darthur,” in Dobyns and Laskaya, 10–35.

111. For some critical views on this much-discussed episode see: Ingham,

Sovereign Fantasies, 205–13; B. Kennedy, Knighthood, 218–30; Crofts,

Contemporary Audience, 61–93. For comparisons of “Balin” with its source,

see Robert L. Kelly, “Malory’s ‘Tale of Balin’ Reconsidered,” Speculum 54,

no. 1 ( January 1979): 85–99; Jill Mann, “Taking the Adventure: Malory

and the Suite du Merlin,” in Takamiya and Brewer, Aspects of Malory, 71–91.

112. Kelly, “‘Balin’ Reconsidered,” 91. The Lady of the Lake is a different

person from the Lady Lyle.

113. Mann, “Taking the Adventure,” 79–80; Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms, 23–25.

114. Carpenter, Wars of the Roses, 53–54.

115. Carpenter, Wars of the Roses, 61. Carpenter, “Law, Justice and Landowners,”

205–37. For a discussion of some of these informal processes see Edward

Powell, “Settlement of Disputes by Arbitration in Fifteenth-Century

England,” Law and History Review 2 (1984): 21–43. Contemporary feuds

included the Courtenay-Bonville dispute in Devon and the Neville-Percy

feud in northern England. Watts, Henry VI, 176–79, 202–4, 298–301; Ralph

A. Griffiths, “Local Rivalries and National Politics: The Percies, the Nevilles,

and the Duke of Exeter, 1452–55,” in King and Country: England and Wales

N O T E S192

in the Fifteenth Century (London: Hambledon Press, 1991), 321–64; Martin

Cherry, “The Struggle for Power in Mid-Fifteenth-Century Devonshire,”

in Patronage, the Crown and the Provinces in Later Medieval England, ed. Ralph A.

Griffiths (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1981), 123–44; Simon Payling, “The

Ampthill Dispute: A Study in Aristocratic Lawlessness and the Breakdown

of Lancastrian Government,” EHR 104, no. 413 (1989): 881–907.

116. Mann, “Taking the Adventure,” 82.

117. MED, s.v. “vengeaunce” (n.), accessed 4 April 2014, http://quod.lib

.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED50860.

2 Counsel and Rule in The Tale of King Arthur and

Arthur and Lucius

1. Catherine Batt, Malory’s “Morte Darthur”: Remaking Arthurian Tradition

(New York: Palgrave, 2002), 67; Dorsey Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s “Morte d’Arthur” (Gainesville: University Press of

Florida, 2003), 56–58; Kenneth Hodges, Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur” (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 39–41.

2. Vinaver, introduction to Works, liv–lv. See also Terence McCarthy

“Sequence of Malory’s Tales,” in Aspects of Malory, Arthurian Studies 1, ed.

Toshiyuki Takamiya and Derek Brewer (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1981),

107–24 on the order of the tales

3. For further discussion see: N. F. Blake, Caxton and His World (New

York: London House and Maxwell, 1969), 183–85; Robert L. Kindrick,

“Introduction: Caxton, Malory and an Authentic Arthurian Text,” in

The Malory Debate: Essays on the Texts of “Le Morte Darthur,” Arthurian

Studies 47, ed. Bonnie Wheeler, Robert L. Kindrick, and Michael N.

Salda (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), xv–xxxii; Edward D. Kennedy,

“Caxton, Malory and the Noble Tale of King Arthur and the Emperor Lucius,”

in Wheeler, Kindrick, and Salda, The Malory Debate, 217–32; P. J. C.

Field, “Caxton’s Roman War,” in Wheeler, Kindrick, and Salda, Malory Debate, 127–67; P. J. C. Field, Malory: Texts and Sources, Arthurian Studies

40 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1998), 128–48; Spisak and Matthews,

introduction to Caxton’s Malory, 2.606–18. On the effect of the allitera-

tive poem on Malory’s prose style see William Matthews, “A Question of

Texts,” in Wheeler, Kindrick, and Salda, The Malory Debate, 69–71.

4. Charles Moorman, “Desperately Defending Winchester: Arguments

from the Edge,” in Wheeler, Kindrick, and Salda, Malory Debate, 114.

For a summary of the debate see Kindrick, “Authentic Arthurian Text,”

xv–xxxii. Kindrick states that the essays in The Malory Debate aim to

present “the final version” of Matthews’s case for Malory as the reviser

of the Roman War episode, xvi. Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, The Two Versions of Malory’s “Morte Darthur”: Multiple Negation and the Editing of the Text, Arthurian Studies 35 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1995), 9–11,

132 observes that only some variants in C can be definitely attributed

to Caxton but concludes that a single editorial process produced C. See

N O T E S 193

also: Vinaver, introduction to Works, xxxviii–xli, c–cxviii; William

Matthews, “The Besieged Printer,” in Wheeler, Kindrick, and Salda, The Malory Debate, 48–61; Matthews, “A Question of Texts,” 65–95; Field,

“Caxton’s Roman War,” 127–67.

5. Winchester, f. 71r, Malory Project, accessed 25 March 2013, http://www

.maloryproject.com/image_viewer.php?gallery_id=8&image_id=131&pos=1.

6. Pierpont Morgan Library ChL1782, Sig. VIv; Sig. h7v; Malory Project,

accessed 25 March 2013, Caxton Sig. VIv, http://www.maloryproject

.com/image_viewer.php?gallery_id=3&image_id=976&pos=1; Caxton

Sig. h7v,http://www.maloryproject.com/image_viewer.php?gallery_id=4

&image_id=978&pos=1.

7. Matthews, “A Question of Texts,” 71; E. D. Kennedy, “Malory and His

English Sources,” in Takamiya and Brewer, Aspects of Malory, 41–42

points out that the interdependence of Arthur and his knights in Arthur and Lucius may have stemmed from the Alliterative Morte.

8. Elizabeth T. Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda: “Le Morte Darthur” as an Historical Ideal of Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,

1971), 91; Raluca L. Radulescu, The Gentry Context for Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 55 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2003), 122;

Raluca L. Radulescu, “Malory and Fifteenth Century Political Ideas,”

Rhetorical Approaches to Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur,” ed. Ann Dobyns

and Anne Laskaya, Special issue, Arthuriana 13, no. 3 (Fall 2003): 41–42;

Hyonjin Kim, The Knight without the Sword: A Social Landscape of Malorian Chivalry, Arthurian Studies 45 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 61–62;

Beverly Kennedy, Knighthood in the “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 11

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985), 35–36.

9. Radulescu, “Political Ideas,” 42.

10. Larry D. Benson, ed., King Arthur’s Death: The Middle English Stanzaic Morte Arthur and Alliterative Morte Arthure, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI:

Medieval Institute Publications, 1994), 134.116–24. Cited by page and

line number. Henceforth Alliterative Morte Arthure.11. Works, 48.19–35 for the whole of this incident.

12. John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1996), 27, 76–78.

13. John Watts, “The Counsels of Henry VI, c. 1435–1445,” EHR 106,

no. 419 (April 1991): 293.

14. A. L. Brown, “The Commons and Council in the Reign of Henry IV,”

EHR 79, no. 310 (1964): 4–5; Watts, “Counsels of Henry VI,” 279–83; Watts,

Henry VI, 84–85. J. R. Lander, “The Yorkist Council and Administration

1461 to 1485,” EHR 73, no. 286 (1958): 28–31, 42–44.

15. Nigel Saul, Richard II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997),

161–68.

16. Brown, “Commons and Council,” 10–11.

17. Watts, “Counsels of Henry VI,” 288.

18. Charles F. Briggs, Giles of Rome’s “De regimine principum”: Reading and Writing Politics at Court and at University, c. 1275–c. 1525 (Cambridge: Cambridge

N O T E S194

University Press, 1999), 5–7, 53–70, 82–88. M. A. Manzalaoui, ed.,

introduction to Secretum Secretorum: Nine English Versions, vol. 1, Text,

EETS, no. 276 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), ix–xvi. The

Secretum is a Latin version of an Arabic book found in around 500 manu-

scripts dating from the twelfth century and translated into French and

English in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. For figures see Lister M.

Matheson, The Prose “Brut”: The Development of a Middle English Chronicle (Tempe, Arizona: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1998),

8–9; Briggs, Giles of Rome’s “De regimine,” 5; Nicholas Perkins, Hoccleve’s “Regiment of Princes”: Counsel and Constraint (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer,

2001), 151; Nigel Mortimer, John Lydgate’s “Fall of Princes”: Narrative Tragedy in Its Literary and Political Contexts (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

2005), 219; Alexandra Gillespie, Print Culture and the Medieval Author: Chaucer, Lydgate and Their Books 1473–1551 (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2006), 35–37. Numbers of extant manuscripts for fifteenth-cen-

tury advice books in England include: John Gower’s Confessio Amantis, 64; Giles of Rome’s De regimine principum, 60; Hoccleve’s Regement of Princes, 43; Lydgate’s Fall of Princes, 34; Lydgate’s Troy Book, 17. For fur-

ther discussion on royal, noble, and gentry book-ownership see Anne F.

Sutton and Livia Visser-Fuchs, Richard III’s Books: Ideals and Reality in the Life and Library of a Medieval Prince (Stroud: Sutton, 1997), 112–18;

Raluca L. Radulescu, “Talkyng of cronycles of kinges and of other poly-

cyez’: Fifteenth Century Miscellanies, the Brut and the Readership of

the Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Literature 18 (2001): 127; Carol M. Meale,

“The Politics of Book Ownership: The Hopton Family and Bodleian

Library Digby MS 185,” in Prestige, Authority and Power in Late Medieval Manuscripts and Texts, ed. Felicity Riddy (Woodbridge and Rochester,

NY: York Medieval Press in association with Boydell Press, 2000), 104;

Watts, Henry VI, 55–56; Briggs, Giles of Rome’s “De regimine,” 55–70.

19. Diane Bornstein, introduction to The Middle English Translation of Christine de Pisan’s “Livre du Corps de Policie,” ed. Diane Bornstein (Heidelberg:

Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1977), 11–18. Christine used both French

and Latin versions of De regimine and knew Aristotle’s Politics and Ethics in

Latin; she also took many of her exempla from a French text of Valerius

Maximus’s Facta et dicta memorabilia, also cited by Hoccleve (Regement, 94,

117). Perkins, Counsel and Constraint, 85–98. Hoccleve’s sources included

Jacobus de Cessolis’s De ludo scaccorum, a text that Perkins argues had a

stronger inf luence on the structure of the Regement than De regimine, from

which the text takes its title.

20. A. I. Doyle and M. B. Parkes, “The Production of Copies of The Canterbury Tales and Confessio Amantis in the Early Fifteenth Century,” in Medieval Scribes, Manuscripts and Libraries: Essays Presented to N. Ker, ed. M. B. Parkes

and Andrew G. Watson (London: Scholar Press, 1978), 163–210.

21. On the possible dates of Trevisa’s translation (c. 1385–1402) see David

C. Fowler, The Life and Times of John Trevisa, Medieval Scholar (Seattle and

London: University of Washington Press, 1995), 189–99; Ralph Hanna,

N O T E S 195

“Sir Thomas Berkeley and His Patronage,” Speculum 64, no. 4 (1989):

891–92. On the reasons for its nonproliferation Briggs, Giles of Rome’s “De regimine,” 82–89, 108–9; Charles F. Briggs, “MS Digby 233 and the

Patronage of John Trevisa’s De regimine principum” in English Manuscript Studies, 1100–1700, ed. Peter Beal and Jeremy Griffiths, vol. 7 (London:

British Library, 1998), 258–59.

22. Fiona Somerset, Clerical Discourse and Lay Audience in Late Medieval England

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 72–73.

23. Carol M. Meale, “Patrons, Buyers and Owners: Book Production and

Social Status,” in Book Production and Publishing in Britain, 1371–1475, ed.

Jeremy Griffiths and Derek Pearsall (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1989), 202–6; Meale, “Politics of Book Ownership,” 126–27;

Karen Cherewatuk, “‘Gentyl’ Audiences and ‘Grete Bookes’: Chivalric

Manuals and the Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Literature 15 (1997): 211–14;

Daniel Wakelin, Humanism, Reading and English Literature 1430–1530

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 23–31, 37–42.

24. Sutton and Visser-Fuchs, Richard III’s Books, 2, 14–18; Watts, Henry VI, 55–56.

25. John Trevisa, The Governance of Kings and Princes: John Trevisa’s Middle English Translation of the “De Regimine Principum” of Aegidius Romanus, ed.

David C. Fowler, Charles F. Briggs, and Paul G. Remley (New York and

London: Garland, 1997), 4.24–31.

26. Fayttes, 14–16.

27. John Gower, The English Works of John Gower, vol. 2, Confessio Amantis, Lib. 5–Lib. 8; and “In Praise of Peace,” ed. G. C. Macaulay, EETS e.s.

82 (London: Oxford University Press, 1901, repr. 1957), 351–52. Watts,

Henry VI, 84–85; Brown, “Commons and Council,” 7–8, A. L. Brown,

“The King’s Councillors in Fifteenth Century England,” TRHS, 5th

ser., 19 (1969): 106. For example, Brown counts the average attendance

of councilors in 1415 as five or less.

28. De Pisan, Christine de Pisan’s “Livre du Corps de Policie,” 91–92, 94–99.

Henceforth Body of Polycye.29. Manzalaoui, Secretum, 27–30. Henceforth Secretum. Sir Gilbert Hay, The

Prose Works of Sir Gilbert Hay, vol. 3, The Buke of the Ordre of Knychthede and the Buke of the Gouernaunce of Princis, ed. Jonathan A. Glenn (Edinburgh:

Scottish Text Society, 1993), 57–60.

30. Adam Usk, The Chronicle of Adam Usk 1377–1421, ed. and trans. by

C. Given-Wilson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 63.

31. Hoccleve, Regement, 176; Gower, Confessio, 346–47 recounts the story of the

Fool who is the only one able to offer the king good advice. Secretum, 76 gives

the example of the weaver’s child who was suited to be a wise counselor.

32. Brown, “King’s Councillors,” 102–15 tracks the changing level of mag-

nate participation in council during Lancastrian rule.

33. Secretum, 75–77.

34. Radulescu, “Talkyng of cronicles,” 137. On the Brut: Felicity Riddy,

“Reading for England: Arthurian Literature and National Consciousness,”

N O T E S196

Bibliographical Bulletin of the International Arthurian Society 43 (1991): 326–27;

Matheson, Prose “Brut,” 6–16 counts 181 medieval manuscripts and 13

early printed editions of the English prose Brut. See also, John Taylor,

English Historical Literature in the Fourteenth Century (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1987), 110–11.

35. Hay, Buke of the Ordre of Knychthede, 16.130–33. Cited by page and line

number.

36. “At the last Kyng Arthur aspyed where Lucius th’Emperour fought and dyd

wonder with his owne handes. And anon he rode to hym, and eyther smote

other fyersly, and atte last Lucyus smote Arthur thwart the vysage and gaf

hym a large wound. And whanne Kyng Arthur felte hymself hurte, anon he

smote hym ageyne with Excalibur, that it clefte his hede fro the somette of

his hede and stynted not tyl it cam to his breste. And thenne th’Emperour

fylle doune dede and there ended his lyf” (Caxton’s Malory, V.8).

37. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 145–47; Hodges,

Forging, 111–12; Jill Mann, “Malory and the Grail Legend,” in A Companion to Malory, Arthurian Studies 37, ed. Elizabeth Archibald and A. S. G.

Edwards (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1996), 209–10; Elizabeth S. Sklar,

“Adventure and Spiritual Semantics of Malory’s Tale of the Sankgreal,”

Arthurian Interpretations 2, no. 2 (Spring 1988): 34–46.

38. John Hardyng, Chronicle of Hardyng, ed. Henry Ellis (London: Rivington:

1812), 134.

39. Patricia Clare Ingham, Sovereign Fantasies: Arthurian Romance and the Making of Britain (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 88.

40. Malory Project, Winchester f.35r, accessed 26 March 2013, http://www

.maloryproject.com/image_viewer.php?gallery_id=7&image_id=59&pos=49.

41. R. Howard Bloch, “Merlin and the Modes of Medieval Legal Meaning,”

in Archeologie du signe, ed. Lucie Brind’Amour and Eugene Vance, Papers

in Medieval Studies 3 (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies,

1982), 129–30; Caroline D. Eckhardt, “The Figure of Merlin in Middle

English Chronicles,” in Comparative Studies in Merlin from the Vedas to C. G. Jung, ed. James Gollnick (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), 23.

42. Events in the Middle English versions of the Merlin story are similar. O. D.

Macrae-Gibson, ed., Of Arthour and of Merlin, vol. 1, Text. EETS, no. 268

(London: Oxford University Press, 1973), 190–95; John Conlee, ed., Prose Merlin, TEAMS (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1998),

81–86. The Prose Merlin follows the French Vulgate cycle most closely.

43. Works 43.27–44.23. Merlin later tells Arthur about his parentage in a pri-

vate discussion. Works 45.28–46.15. His story is corroborated by Igrayne

and Ector. This episode follows events in the Suite de Merlin where Merlin

first tells Arthur who his parents are in private and then reveals the infor-

mation at court (Lancelot-Grail, 4.169–74).

44. Eckhardt, “Figure of Merlin,” 23, 26–32. Matheson, Prose “Brut,”

72–76; Ingham, Sovereign Fantasies, 65–68. The Brut author added a long

prophecy made by Merlin to Arthur of the Six Last Kings, which late

medieval interpretations linked to Henry III, Edward I, and Edward II.

N O T E S 197

See Radulescu, “Talkyng of cronycles,” 128–36; Riddy, “Reading for

England,” 325–27, on the importance of the Brut to the formation of

historical identity in England.

45. Batt, Remaking Arthurian Tradition, 53–54.

46. Mark Lambert, Malory: Style and Vision in “Le Morte Darthur” (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 115–16.

47. Meredith Reynolds, “Malory’s Use of ‘Counsel’ and ‘Advyce’ in Creating

a King,” Arthuriana 16, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 40–44. Reynolds dis-

cusses the repetition of “counsel” and “advyce” but assumes this denotes

Arthur’s development “towards becoming a wise and powerful king.”

48. Lambert, Style and Vision, 12–13.

49. John Watts, “The Pressure of the Public on Later Medieval Politics,” in

Political Culture in Late Medieval Britain, The Fifteenth Century 4, ed. Linda

Clark and Christine Carpenter (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004), 168–71.

50. Watts, Henry VI, 62. The counselor was also protected to some extent by

the conventions of advice-taking: the familiar clichés that the counselors

should be old, wise, and virtuous, that counsel should be taken in private,

and from many advisors, all attempted to guard those giving counsel to

the king against accusations that the advice was prejudiced in favor of a

single party, vicious, overhasty, or negligent of the common good. For

examples of such conventions see Trevisa, Governance of Kings, 354–56;

Hay, Gouernance of Princis, 115–18; de Pisan, Body of Polycye, 86–87;

Secretum, 77–78; Hoccleve, Regement, 175–79. Hoccleve and Hay recount

the test of a good counselor from the Secretum.

51. J. A. Giles, ed., Incerti Scriptoris Chronicon Angliae de Regnis Henrici IV, Henrici V et Henrici VI (London, 1848), 32–48.

52. This statement is repeated virtually word for word later in the bill: “For it is a

grete pite to thinke on that so gracieux and mighty prince for the singularite

of the thristelewe, coveitous and colde kowardise I broughte up of noughte,”

188. See Sarah L. Peverley, “Political Consciousness and the Literary Mind

in Late Medieval England: Men ‘brought up of nought’ in Vale, Hardyng,

‘Mankind’ and Malory,” Studies in Philology 105, no. 1 (2008): 1–29 for more

on the use of the phrase “brought up of noughte” in this period.

53. Richard Firth Green, A Crisis of Truth: Literature and Law in Ricardian England

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 9. MED, http://

quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED46999,

accessed 3 March 2008.

54. Warnings against covetise recur in the rhetoric of bad counsel, e.g., Margaret

Lucille Kekewich et al., The Politics of Fifteenth Century England: John Vale’s Book (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1995), 209, 218–19; Hoccleve, Regement, 177;

George Ashby, George Ashby’s Poems, ed. M. Bateson. EETS e.s. 76 (London:

Oxford University Press, 1899, repr. 1965), 20. See Watts, Henry VI, 40–42.

55. Watts, “Counsels of Henry VI,” 293.

56. Watts, Henry VI, 155–80, 216–54.

57. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, trans. and

ed. by Michael A. Faletra (Toronto: Toronto Broadview Editions, 2008),

N O T E S198

166–67; Lancelot-Grail, 1.170–72; Conlee, Prose Merlin, 25–27; Macrae-

Gibson, Arthour and Merlin, 49–75; Works, 1.126.20.

58. Gaston Paris and Jacob Ulrich, eds., Merlin: Roman en Prose du XIIIe Siècle, 2 vols. (Paris: Librairie de Firmin Didot, 1886), 1.212. Ensi acorda Merlins le roi as ses barons, si em peust grant mal estre avenu ou pais, si Merlins n’i eust mise cest[e] acorde.

59. C. S. Lewis, “The English Prose Morte,” in Essays on Malory, ed. J. A. W.

Bennett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 8.

60. See, for example, de Pisan, Body of Polcye, 89. Watts, Henry VI, 59–61.

61. Vinaver, commentary in Works, 1335; Thomas L. Wright, “The Tale of

King Arthur: Beginnings and Foreshadowings,” in Malory’s Originality: A Critical Study of “Le Morte Darthur,” ed. R. M. Lumiansky (Baltimore:

Johns Hopkins Press, 1964), 36–40; Radulescu, Gentry Context, 86;

D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 30–34.

62. Robert L. Kelly, “Royal Policy and Malory’s Round Table,” Arthuriana 14, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 53–63. B. Kennedy, Knighthood, 28, 35–55. Both

Kennedy and Kelly emphasize Arthur’s mastery of patronage to control

his knights. Radulescu, Gentry Context, 108–11; Kim, Knight without the Sword, 61–62, 65; Hodges, Forging, 42. On secular orders of chivalry see

Malcolm Vale, War and Chivalry: Warfare and Aristocratic Culture in England, France and Burgundy at the End of the Middle Ages (London: Duckworth,

1981), 34–42; Richard Barber, The Knight and Chivalry (New York:

Harper & Row, 1982), 345–46, 353; B. Kennedy, Knighthood, 28–35.

Stephen Knight, Arthurian Literature and Society (London: Macmillan,

1983), 114–15; Batt, Remaking Arthurian Tradition, 67–68; Pochoda,

Arthurian Propaganda, 54, 84.

63. Christopher Cannon, “Malory’s Crime: Chivalric Identity and Evil

Will,” in Medieval Literature and Historical Inquiry: Essays in Honor of Derek Pearsall, ed. David Aers (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 179–80; Kelly,

“Royal Policy,” 56.

64. Larry D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press, 1976), 148–49; Barber, Knight and Chivalry, 345–46,

353; B. Kennedy, Knighthood, 34–35.

65. Watts, Henry VI, 298–303, p. 303n187; RP 5.241 articles delivered to

the king mention the establishment of “a discrete and sadde Counsaill”

and ask for members to be named. For the oath see Harvard University

(Houghton Library) fMS Eng. 751 fols. 211v–214v printed in Ralph A.

Griffiths, “The King’s Council and the First Protectorate of the Duke of

York, 1453–1454,” EHR 99, no. 390 ( January 1984): 77–78.

66. Griffiths, “The King’s Council,” 77.

67. Felicity Riddy, Sir Thomas Malory (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987), 117.

68. MED, s.v. quest(e (n.), accessed 30 January 2013, http://quod.lib.umich

.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?size=First+100&type=headword&q1=queste

&rgxp=constrained. Tomomi Kato, Concordance to the Works of Sir Thomas Malory (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974), 983. “Quest” is also used

in this sense in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur. See p. 152.

N O T E S 199

69. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 58. Kato, Concordance, 983. Compare Alliterative Morte Arthure, 39.925.

70. Corinne Saunders, Rape and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2001), 20, 60–62, 234–35; Kathryn Gravdal,

Ravishing Maidens: Writing Rape in Medieval French Literature and Law

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), 4–11. Abduction or

ravishment in the Middle Ages could be legally indistinguishable from rape.

71. See Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1335. C omits the phrase “never

enforce them.” Caxton’s Malory, III.15.

72. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 36–37, 81–83.

Quotation from 44. See also Batt, Remaking Arthurian Tradition, 68–69.

73. Louise Olga Fradenburg, “Introduction: Rethinking Queenship,”

in Women and Sovereignty, ed. Louise Olga Fradenburg (Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 1992), 1–9.

74. Paul Strohm, Hochon’s Arrow: The Social Imagination of Fourteenth-Century Texts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), 95–104.

75. Helen E. Maurer, Margaret of Anjou: Queenship and Power in Late Medieval England (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003), 51–65; Diana Dunn,

“Margaret of Anjou, Queen Consort of Henry VI: A Reassessment of Her

Role, 1445–1453,” in Crown, Government and People in the Fifteenth Century, ed. Rowena Archer (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1995), 109–38.

76. Maurer, Margaret of Anjou, 127–39; Anthony Gross, The Dissolution of Lancastrian Kingship: Sir John Fortescue and the Crisis of Monarchy in Fifteenth Century England (Stamford: Paul Watkins, 1996), 49–51.

77. Maurer, Margaret of Anjou, 155–57.

78. Hodges, Forging, 131–33.

79. Maurer, Margaret of Anjou, 178; Katherine Lewis, Kingship and Masculinity in Late Medieval England (New York: Routledge, 2013), 232–33; Thomas

A. Prendergast, “The Invisible Spouse: Henry VI, Arthur and the

Fifteenth-Century Subject,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 32, no. 2 (2002): 306.

80. Maurer, Margaret of Anjou, 8.

81. Hodges, Forging, 53.

82. Caxton’s Malory, I.124. In C, the sequence of events is the same but the

editor has cut out the sentence quoted from W.

3 Malory’s Lancelot and the Politics of Worship

1. Further discussion of the tale’s opening can be found in the following:

R. M. Lumiansky, “‘The Tale of Lancelot’: Prelude to Adultery,” in

Malory’s Originality: A Critical Study of “Le Morte Darthur,” ed. R. M.

Lumiansky (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1964), 93; Kenneth Hodges,

Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur”(New York:

Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 72–73; D. S. Brewer, “Malory’s ‘Proving’

of Sir Launcelot,” in The Changing Face of Arthurian Romance: Essays on

N O T E S200

Arthurian Prose Romance in Memory of Cedric E. Pickford, Arthurian Studies

16, ed. Alison Adams, Armel H. Diverres, Karen Stern, and Kenneth

Varty (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1986), 124–25.

2. Andrew Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms: The Narrative of Combat in “Le Morte Darthur.” Arthurian Studies 39 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1997),

80–82; Larry D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 1976), 109–10, 116–28.

3. Christopher McBride, “A Collocational Approach to Semantic Change:

The Case of Worship and Honour in Malory and Spenser,” Language and Literature 7, no. 1 (1998): 9–13.

4. Quotation from D. S. Brewer, introduction to The Morte Darthur: Parts Seven and Eight, by Sir Thomas Malory, ed. D. S. Brewer (London: Edward

Arnold, 1968), 25; D. S. Brewer, “Honour in Chaucer,” In Tradition and Innovation in Chaucer (London: Macmillan, 1982), 89.

5. MED s.v. worship (n), accessed 13 April 2012, http://quod.lib.umich

.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED53452&egs=all&egdisplay

=compact; worshipen (v) http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-id

x?type=byte&byte=248991482&egdisplay=compact&egs=249013809.

6. Vinaver, introduction to Works, xxxii–xxxiii. Vinaver discusses Malory’s

view of chivalry as a practical one, but suggests Arthur is responsible for mak-

ing it a “useful discipline.” On honor as a social ideal and practical chivalry

see also Brewer, introduction to The Morte Darthur: Parts Seven and Eight, 25;

D. S. Brewer, “The Compulsions of Honour,” in From Arabye to Engelond: Medieval Studies in Honour of Mahmoud Manzalaoui on His 75th Birthday, ed.

A. E. Christa Canitz and Gernot R. Wieland (Ottawa: University of Ottawa

Press, 1999), 86–89; L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 151–52, 191–97; P. E.

Tucker, “Chivalry in the Morte,” in Essays on Malory, ed. J. A. W. Bennett

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 68–69; Beverly Kennedy, Knighthood in the “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 11 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985),

148; Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms, 32–33.

7. Raluca L. Radulescu, The Gentry Context for Malory’s “Morte Darthur,”

Arthurian Studies 55 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2003), especially 2–14,

39–45, specifically on worship 17–23, 83–96; Hyonjin Kim, The Knight without the Sword: A Social Landscape of Malorian Chivalry, Arthurian Studies

45 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 100–34. See also Thomas H. Crofts,

Malory’s Contemporary Audience: The Social Reading of Romance in Late Medieval England, Arthurian Studies 66 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2006), 1–4, 50–51.

8. Karen Cherewatuk, “‘Gentyl’ Audiences and ‘Grete Bookes’: Chivalric

Manuals and the Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Literature 15 (1997): 205–16;

Karen Cherewatuk, “Sir Thomas Malory’s ‘Grete Booke,’” in The Social and Literary Contexts of Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 42, ed.

D. Thomas Hanks Jr. (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 42–67.

9. There is no need to go over the well-covered ground of Malory’s iden-

tity in detail here. P. J. C. Field, “The Malory Life-Records,” in A Companion to Malory, Arthurian Studies 37, ed. Elizabeth Archibald and

A. S. G. Edwards (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1996), 118–28 lists all known

N O T E S 201

references to Malory. For the argument that the author of the Morte is Sir

Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel see P. J. C. Field, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory, Arthurian Studies 29 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1993),

1–24, 35; Christine Carpenter, “Sir Thomas Malory and Fifteenth-century

Local Politics,” Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 53 (1980): 36–43;

Christine Carpenter, Locality and Polity: A Study of Warwickshire Landed Society, 1401–1499 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992),

452–64. For alternative views see William Matthews, The Ill-Framed Knight: A Skeptical Inquiry into the Identity of Sir Thomas Malory (Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1966). Richard R. Griffith, “The Authorship

Question Reconsidered: A Case for Thomas Malory of Papworth St Agnes,

Cambridgeshire,” in Aspects of Malory, Arthurian Studies 1, ed. Toshiyuki

Takamiya and Derek Brewer (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1981), 159–77.

Anne F. Sutton, “Malory in Newgate: A New Document,” The Library

7th ser., 1, no. 3 (2000): 246–48 establishes Malory’s presence in prison

around the time of the writing of the Morte. Colin Richmond, “Thomas

Malory and the Pastons,” in Readings in Medieval English Romance, ed.

Carol M. Meale (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1994), 195–208. For a link

between Malory’s father and one of the gentry families whose letter col-

lections I will discuss here see Christine Carpenter, ed., introduction to

The Armburgh Papers: The Brokholes Inheritance in Warwickshire, Hertfordshire and Essex, c.1417–c.1453 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1998), 14, 18–19 and

Armburgh Papers, 142. John Malory is also mentioned, 139. Citation by

page number, henceforth referred to as AP.

10. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 200. Quoted by Kim, Knight without the Sword,

17. Richmond, “Thomas Malory and the Pastons,” 195; Felicity Riddy,

Sir Thomas Malory (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987), 71–72, 113, 163–64.

11. Christine Carpenter, “Gentry and Community in Medieval England,”

Journal of British Studies 33, no. 4 (October 1994): 353–55, 360–67; Elizabeth

Noble, The World of the Stonors: A Gentry Society (Woodbridge: Boydell

Press, 2009), 17–18; Roger Virgoe, “Aspects of the County Community in

the Fifteenth Century,” in Profit, Piety and the Professions in Later Medieval England, ed. Michael Hicks (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1990), 2–3.

12. Philippa Maddern, “Gentility,” in Gentry Culture in Late Medieval England,

ed. Raluca Radulescu and Alison Truelove (Manchester: Manchester

University Press, 2005), 26–30; Philippa Maddern, “Honour among the

Pastons: Gender and Integrity in Fifteenth Century English Provincial

Society,” Journal of Medieval History 14 (1988): 359.

13. Carpenter, Locality and Polity, 245.

14. Radulescu, Gentry Context, 13–16. Although she mentions the Stonors

and Armburghs, Radulescu concentrates mainly on the Pastons, regard-

ing their letters as the “clearest expression” of gentry values. Kim, Knight without the Sword, 16–17 takes the Pastons as “a unique, but by no means

anomalous example” of gentry society.

15. Helen Castor, The King, Crown and Duchy of Lancaster: Public Authority and Private Power, 1399–1461 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000),

N O T E S202

especially 128–55; Philippa Maddern, Violence and Social Order: East Anglia 1422–1442 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 2–17.

16. I have paid less attention here to a fourth gentry family for whom we have

fifteenth-century letters, the Plumptons, in which references to worship

are limited. Possibly this is connected to the fact that more of the let-

ters are from the last years of the fifteenth century when the term “wor-

ship” seems to have been falling out of use. It could also be because the

Plumptons, a Yorkshire family with strong retaining links to the Percy

earls of Northumberland, are more focused on service to their lords.

A. J. Pollard, North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses: Lay Society, War and Politics 1450–1500 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 9–27, 127–28;

Rosemary Horrox, Richard III: A Study of Service (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1989), 6; Joan Kirby, ed. The Plumpton Letters and Papers. Camden 5th Series 8 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

17. Malory Project, f.96v, accessed 15 October 2011, http://www.maloryproject

.com/image_viewer.php?gallery_id=8&image_id=181&pos=51. There are

only four major divisions of blank space in Winchester that indicate new

starts. See Helen Cooper, “Opening up the Malory Manuscript,” in The Malory Debate: Essays on the Texts of “Le Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies

47, ed. Bonnie Wheeler, Robert L. Kindrick, and Michael N. Salda

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 258–60.

18. Vinaver, introduction to Works, xxxiii. Vinaver discusses Malory’s view

of chivalry as a practical one, but suggests Arthur is responsible for mak-

ing it a “useful discipline.” Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms, 32–33; Brewer,

introduction to The Morte Darthur: Parts Seven and Eight, 25; L. D. Benson,

Malory’s “Morte,” 151–52.

19. Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms, 29–30; D. S. Brewer, “The Paradoxes

of Honour,” in New Directions in Arthurian Studies, ed. Alan Lupack

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2002), 38; Dorsey Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s “Morte d’Arthur” (Gainesville: University

Press of Florida, 2003), 68–69.

20. Dhira B. Mahoney, “Malory’s ‘Tale of Sir Tristram’: Source and Setting

Reconsidered,” in Tristan and Isolde: A Casebook, ed. Joan Tasker Grimbert

(New York and London: Garland, 1995), 232; D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 70; Molly Martin, Vision and Gender in Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2010), 12–13;

21. Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms, 5–6.

22. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 115.

23. Alexandre Micha, ed., Lancelot: Roman en Prose du XIIIe Siècle, 9 vols.

(Geneva: Librarie Droz, 1978), 5.29–30. Lancelot-Grail, 3.213.

24. Richmond, “Thomas Malory and the Pastons,” 196–206; Kim, Knight without the Sword, 15–17. Benson acknowledges the difficulties of this

approach but also writes extensively on the activities of fifteenth-century

knights in relation to the Morte. L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 200–1.

25. See introduction, p. 4.

26. PL, 1.574–75.48–56. For Ector’s elegy see Works, 1259.10–21.

N O T E S 203

27. G. A. Lester, Sir John Paston’s “Grete Boke”: A Descriptive Catalogue with an Introduction of British Library MS Lansdowne 285 (Cambridge: D. S.

Brewer, 1984), 31–34. On the relationship between Paston’s “Grete Boke”

(Lansdowne 285) and Astley’s manuscript (Pierpont Morgan 775).

28. Cherewatuk, “‘Gentyl’ Audiences,” 205–16; Cherewatuk, “Malory’s

‘Grete Boke,’” 57–61; Radulescu, Gentry Context, 43–53.

29. See Colin Richmond, The Paston Family in the Fifteenth Century: The First Phase (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990),16–17 on John’s

imprisonment.

30. Christine Carpenter, ed., Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and Papers, 1290–1483

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 224. References are to

Carpenter’s page numbers. Henceforth SL&P.

31. MED. s.v. possibilite (n.), accessed 29 April 2014, http://quod.lib.umich

.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED34142. MED gives “prerog-

atives” as a definition for this use of “possiblyte.”

32. Davis, introduction to PL, 1:xli–xlii. The lost document, “A Remembraunce

of the wurshypfull Kyn and Auncestrye of Paston,” describes Clement

Paston, John I’s grandfather, as “a good pleyn husbond” with “bonde lond

to Gemyngham-halle.” See also Richmond, Paston Family: First Phase, 2–3.

33. PL, 1:140.3–9, 392.5; SL&P, 270, 347; AP, 185, 127.

34. Maddern, “Honour among the Pastons,” 362.

35. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 70–83; Catherine

Batt, Malory’s “Morte Darthur”: Remaking Arthurian Tradition (New York:

Palgrave, 2002), 83–84; M. Martin, Vision and Gender, 51, 60.

36. Brewer “Compulsions of Honor,” 86–87. Brewer counts five instances of

disworship (in fact there are eight) and suggests that disworship together

with shame outweighs worship and honor. Tomomi Kato, Concordance to the Works of Sir Thomas Malory (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974),

338. MED. s.v. disworship (n), accessed 13 April 2012, http://quod.lib

.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=byte&byte=4364404&egdisplay

=compact&egs=43649404; disworshippen (v) http://quod.lib.umich.edu

/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=byte&byte=43649425&egdisplay=compact

&egs=43652219.

37. Noble, World of the Stonors, 29, 169–71. This Edmund was the grandson of

the first Edmund Hampden who married Joan Belknap, Thomas Stonor

I’s mother.

38. Noble, World of the Stonors, 26–29, 103–7, 126, 156.

39. P. R. Coss, “The Formation of the English Gentry,” Past and Present 147

(1995): 48–49.

40. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 107–8; Brewer,

“Malory’s ‘Proving,” 130.

41. Richmond, Paston Family: First Phase, 12, 117–22; Castor, King, Crown and Duchy, 134.

42. Castor, King, Crown and Duchy, 134–39.

43. Rebecca Krug, Reading Families: Women’s Literate Practice in Late Medieval England, Ithaca and (London: Cornell University Press, 2002), 34–53.

N O T E S204

44. Krug, Reading Families, 58–59.

45. For discussion of whether or not Lancelot and Guinevere have begun their

affair at this point see M. Martin, Vision and Gender, 59; D. Armstrong,

Gender and the Chivalric Community, 101–2; B. Kennedy, “Malory’s

Lancelot: ‘Trewest Lover, of a Synful Man,” Viator 12 (1981): 416–19.

46. MED, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?size=First+100&type

=headword&q1=noise&rgxp=constrained. Accessed 2 November 2009.

47. “Mulirer, millierier” is a child born in wedlock. AP, 62, n. 11. Horrell was

also guilty, according to Joan, of furnishing Christine and Ellen with infor-

mation so that they could support their false claim. For further comments

on the public opinion of the legitimacy of the girls see AP, 62, 130–31, 136.

48. See for example AP, 152–53, 176–78; Carpenter, introduction to AP,

14–15, 41–43.

49. Carpenter, introduction to AP, 52. For examples of Robert Armburgh’s

attempts to utilize the Mountford network in Warwickshire, see AP,

138–40, 142–43, 144–48.

50. D. Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community, 72.

51. Maurice Keen, Chivalry (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University

Press, 1984), 16; John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1996), 31.

52. Micha, Lancelot, 5.85.38–39; Lancelot-Grail, 3.213.

53. Watts, Henry VI, 92–93. Carpenter, Locality and Polity, 618; Horrox, Richard III, 2–3, 18–24.

54. Simon Payling, Political Society in Lancastrian England: The Greater Gentry of Nottinghamshire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 219–20. Castor, King, Crown and Duchy, 59–77; 82–95. Henry IV was able to dominate East

Anglia through the duchy connection but relied partly on existing net-

works to establish his position. In the 1430s the earl of Suffolk became

regionally powerful, though the Crown remained important. Carpenter,

Locality and Polity, 288; Watts, Henry VI, 95–97.

55. Noble, World of the Stonors, 114–16.

56. Noble, World of the Stonors, 118–19.

57. SL&P, 270.

58. AP,102–3. See also Robert Armburgh’s letter to Ellen, Lady Ferrers, 114–16,

59. Watts, Henry VI, 94–100; Horrox, Richard III, 22; Carpenter, Locality and Polity, 288–89.

60. Carpenter, Locality and Polity, 479; Susan M. Wright, The Derbyshire Gentry in the Fifteenth Century, Derbyshire Record Society 8 (Chesterfield:

Alan Sutton for the Derbyshire Record Society, 1983), 66. Similarly in

Derbyshire competing lordships left the gentry with considerable room

for independence.

61. Christine Carpenter, “The Stonor Circle in the Fifteenth Century,” in

Rulers and Ruled in Late Medieval England: Essays Presented to Gerald Harriss, ed. Rowena Archer and Simon Walker (London: Hambledon Press,

1996), 179–90. Noble, World of the Stonors, 41–43; 109–10 for network in

the early part of the fifteenth century, 169–78 for network under Thomas

N O T E S 205

II and William Stonor. The Stonors’s achievement was especially remark-

able considering the family suffered repeatedly from the early deaths of its

heads and consequent instability during the minority of heirs.

62. SL&P, 143–54.

63. Carpenter, “Gentry and Community,” 358–66; Simon Walker, “Communities

of the County in Later Medieval England,” in Political Culture in Later Medieval England: Essays by Simon Walker, ed. Michael Braddick (Manchester:

Manchester University Press, 2006), 68–75; Horrox, Richard III, 1–12.

64. Noble, World of the Stonors, 99–104.

65. Pollard, North-Eastern England, 121.

66. Castor, King, Crown, and Duchy, 139–41, 149–55.

67. The Accolon episode foregrounds Arthur’s worship, p. 17. Lancelot’s simi-

lar statements: “Yet had I lever dye in this preson with worshyp than to

have one of you to my peramoure.” (Works, 257.36–258.2); “‘Alas!’ seyde

sir Launcelot, ‘in all my lyff thus was I never bestad that I shulde be thus

shamefully slayne, for lake of myne armour.’” (Works, 1166.1–3).

68. Watts, Henry VI, 59–61.

69. Watts, Henry VI, 32–34.

70. Fayttes, 9–11.

71. On the connections between Llull and the French Prose Lancelot see Keen,

Chivalry, 11; Elspeth Kennedy, “Social and Political Ideas in the French

Prose Lancelot,” Medium Aevum 26 (1957): 103. On Llull and the Morte see:

B. Kennedy, Knighthood, 13–20.

72. Ramon Llull, The Book of the Ordre of Chyualry, trans. and printed by

William Caxton, ed. A. T. P. Byles, EETS o.s. 168 (London: Oxford

University Press, 1926), 121–22. Henceforth Ordre.73. Ordre, 11–12.

74. Hodges, Forging, 6–8.

75. Keen, Chivalry, 184–85; Richard W. Kaeuper, Chivalry and Violence in Medieval Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 109; Sydney

Anglo, ed., The Great Tournament Roll of Westminster: A Collotype Reproduction of the Manuscript with an Historical Introduction by Sydney Anglo (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 20–21. G. L. Harriss, Henry V: The Practice of Kingship (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 19–22.

76. Watts, Henry VI, 35.

77. Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms, 86; Hodges, Forging, 87; Vinaver, introduc-

tion to Works, xxxiii; Laurie A. Finke and Martin B. Shichtman, “No

Pain No Gain: Violence as Symbolic Capital in Malory’s Morte d’Arthur,”

Arthuriana 8, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 120.

78. Robert H. Wilson, “Malory and Perlesvaus,” Modern Philology 30, no. 1

(August 1932): 13–22; Vinaver, Works, 1423, n. 279; P. J. C. Field,

“Malory and Perlesvaus,” Medium Aevum 62 (1993): 259–69. See William

Nitze and T. Atkinson Jenkins, eds., Le Haut Livre du Graal Perlesvaus, vol.

1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 337–49.

79. Maurice Keen, Origins of the English Gentleman: Heraldry, Chivalry and Gentility in Medieval England c. 1300–c. 1500 (Stroud: Tempus, 2002), 36.

N O T E S206

Sir Ralph Grey’s sentence for treason in the Court of Chivalry in 1464

included that his coat of arms (though not his shield) should be reversed.

80. Raluca L. Radulescu, “Emotions and Ideals,” Conference Presentation,

26 July 2011, 23rd Triennial Congress of the International Arthurian

Society, University of Bristol, 25–30 July 2011.

4 Courtesy and Service in The Tale of Sir Gareth

1. On possible sources see: Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1427–34; Wilfred

L. Guerin, “The Tale of Gareth: The Chivalric Flowering,” in Malory’s Originality: A Critical Study of “Le Morte Darthur,” ed. R. M. Lumiansky

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1964), 100–6; Thomas L. Wright,

“On the Genesis of Malory’s Gareth,” Speculum 57, no. 3 (1982): 569–82;

Robert H. Wilson, “The ‘Fair Unknown’ in Malory,” PMLA 58, no. 1

(1943): 1–21; Larry D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press, 1976), 92–102; P. J. C. Field, Malory: Texts and Sources, Arthurian Studies 40 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1998),

246–60; P. J. C. Field, “The Source of Malory’s Tale of Gareth,” Aspects of Malory, Arthurian Studies 1, ed. Toshiyuki Takamiya and Derek Brewer

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1981), 57–70; Beverly Kennedy, Knighthood in the “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 11 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer,

1985), 128–29. Helen Cooper, The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from Geoffrey of Monmouth to the Death of Shakespeare (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 2004), 332–34, 337 for comments on the Fair

Unknown theme in general and Gareth, in particular.

2. The effect of the insistent references to “Beawmaynes” is heightened

in the Caxton edition where the name appears in 19 out of 36 chapter

titles. On the nickname see: Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1430–32;

Roger Sherman Loomis, “Malory’s Beaumains,” PMLA 54, no. 3 (1939):

656–68; Field, Texts and Sources, 258–59; Field, “Source of Gareth,”

69–70. Several ingenious attempts to explain away Kay’s derisive and

ungrammatical moniker for Gareth have foundered on the question of

the ‘lost’ source.

3. MED, s.v. hēnd(e (adj.) Also heind, hænde, hind(e, hiende, ende, einde,

eande & (as noun) hindin, accessed 30 March 2013, http://quod.lib

.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED20378&egs=all&eg

display=compact.

4. Felicity Riddy, Sir Thomas Malory (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1987), 79–80.

5. Molly Martin, Vision and Gender in Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 2010), 27.

6. Imogen Baker, The King’s Household in the Arthurian Court from Geoffrey of Monmouth to Malory (Washington DC: Catholic University of America,

1937), 141. Tomomi Kato, Concordance to the Works of Sir Thomas Malory

(Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1974), 305–7 for references to

“courte”; 582, 585 for references to “house/howse,” “household.”

N O T E S 207

7. John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1996), 86–87. David Starkey, “Introduction: Court

History in Perspective,” The English Court: From the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War, ed. David Starkey (London: Longman, 1987), 4, 8–9.

Fifteenth-century historians, in contrast to their early modern counter-

parts, have tended to prefer “household” to “court” to describe the politi-

cal, administrative, and institutional structures about the king.

8. Malcolm Vale, The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe, 1270–1380 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 15–31,

56–57. Watts, Henry VI, 87–88; Starkey, “Court History,” 4; David

Starkey, “Age of the Household,” in The Later Middle Ages, ed. S. Medcalf

(London, 1981), 261–63. Chris Given-Wilson, The Royal Household and the King’s Affinity: Service, Politics and Finance in England, 1360–1413 (New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986), 2. Given-Wilson makes the

distinction between the “domus,” the permanent household that dealt

with domestic and administrative needs and guarded the king and the

“familia” that had an expansive and shifting membership. See also

John Watts, “Was there a Lancastrian Court,” in The Lancastrian Court: Proceedings of the 2001 Harlaxton Symposium, Harlaxton Medieval Studies

13, ed. Jenny Stratford (Donnington: Shaun Tyas, 2003), 267–68.

9. Edward Peters, The Shadow King: “Rex Inutilis” in Medieval Law and Literature (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1970), 171. Sydney Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry and Early Tudor Policy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), 2, 11.

10. Vale, Princely Court, 16; Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry and Policy, 21. Christine

Carpenter, The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, c. 1437–1509 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 72–73, 158.

11. J. G. Bellamy, “Justice under the Yorkist Kings,” American Journal of Legal History 9, no. 2 (1965): 136–38; Watts, Henry VI, 337–40.

12. Jonathan Nicholls, The Matter of Courtesy: Medieval Courtesy Books and the Gawain-Poet (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985), 18; C. M. Woolgar,

The Great Household in Late Medieval England (New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press, 1999), 21–25

13. Riddy, Sir Thomas Malory, 76.

14. Christopher Dean, “Sir Kay in Medieval Romances: An Alternative

Tradition,” English Studies in Canada 9, no. 2 (1983): 126–27; Whetter,

“Reassessing Kay,” 359. Alliterative Morte Arthure, 137.209. Malory knew

“Sir Kayous the courtais” of the Alliterative Morte Arthure, which he drew

on for the Roman War episode.

15. Baker, King’s Household, 94–96. Alliterative Morte Arthure, 137.208–9,

159.892–93, 211.2638–45. The Alliterative Morte Arthure has Kay as chief

butler or cupbearer, Bedivere as sword-bearer, and Gawain as a knight of the

king’s chamber. The Lancelot-Grail has Kay as steward, but not of food.

16. Woolgar, Great Household, 16–18.

17. Riddy, Sir Thomas Malory, 62.

18. Frederick J. Furnivall, ed., The Babees Book, The Bokes of Nurture of Hugh Rhodes and John Russell, Wynkyn de Worde’s Boke of Kervynge, The Booke of

N O T E S208

Demeanor, The Boke of Curtayse, EETS o.s. 32 (London, 1868, repr. 1960),

285, 311. Henceforth Babees Book. “In halle, marshalle alle men schalle sett/

After here degré, with-outen lett.” (Boke of Curtasye). “Also, the marshall

must take heed vnto straungers & put them to worshyp & reverence.” (Boke of Kervynge). See also Walter W. Seton, ed., A Fifteenth-Century Courtesy Book and Two Franciscan Rules, EETS o.s. 148 (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1914, repr. 1937), 11–16. The marshal is responsible for the hall.

19. Kate Mertes, English Noble Household, 1250–1600: Good Governance and Politic Rule (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 6–7; D. A. L. Morgan, “The

House of Policy: The Political Role of the Late Plantagenet Household,

1422–1485,” in Starkey, The English Court, 27–34; A. R. Myers, intro-

duction to The Household of Edward IV: The Black Book and the Ordinance of 1478 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1959), 21–25; Vale,

Princely Court, 42–51. As documents of reform, ordinances tend to give

an idealized view of the household as more organized and systematized

than it may have been in practice.

20. Given-Wilson, Royal Household, 3, 9–10.

21. RP, 5.179.

22. Mertes, English Noble Household, 22; Woolgar, Great Household, 17–18;

Starkey, “Court History,” 4.

23. Myers, Black Book, 143. Henceforth Black Book.

24. Frederick J. Furnivall, ed., Caxton’s Book of Curtasye, EETS e.s. 3

(London: Oxford University Press, 1868, repr. 1932), 23. Furnivall,

Babees Book, 31.67–68, 308.345. “Loke þou sytt—and make no stryf”

(Boke of Kervyng).25. Woolgar, Great Household, 123;

26. Susan E. Farrier, “Hungry Heroes in Medieval Literature,” in Food in the Middle Ages, Garland Medieval Casebooks 12, ed. Melitta Weiss

Adamson (London: Garland, 1995), 145–47; Claire Sponsler, “Eating

Lessons: Lydgate’s Dietary and Consumer Conduct,” in Medieval Conduct, ed. Kathleen Ashley and Robert L. A. Clark (Minneapolis: University of

Minnesota Press, 2001), 13.

27. Helen Cooper, “Malory’s Language of Love,” Arthurian Studies in Honour of P. J. C. Field, Arthurian Studies 57, ed. Bonnie Wheeler (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 2004), 299. Lyonet may be based on the disdainful lady in

Ipomedon and shares features with the damsel Maledysaunte in the story of

La Cote Male Tayle. Dorsey Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s “Morte d’Arthur,” (Gainesville: University Press of Florida,

2003), 116–20 on Lyonet’s inf luence on Gareth’s knightly identity.

28. See, for example, Babees Book, 29.

29. Furnivall, Caxton’s Book of Curtesye, 9, 17; Babees Book, 74, 100, 305.

30. Rosemary Horrox, “Service,” in Fifteenth Century Attitudes: Perceptions of Society in Late Medieval England, ed. Rosemary Horrox (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1994), 61.

31. Rosemary Horrox, “Personalities and Politics,” in The Wars of the Roses, ed. A. J. Pollard (London: Macmillan Press, 1995), 89–90. Horrox,

N O T E S 209

“Service,” 61–63. Christine Carpenter, “The Beauchamp Affinity: A

Study of Bastard Feudalism at Work,” EHR 95, no. 376 ( July 1980): 514.

32. Kirby, Joan, ed., The Plumpton Letters and Papers, Camden 5th Series 8

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 89.

33. Caxton’s Book of Curtesye, 7, 27; Babees Book, 29, 78, 300, 308 for advice

on hands. Caxton’s Book of Curtesye, 9, 17; Babees Book, 74, 100, 305 on

careful speech.

34. Catherine Batt, “‘Hand for Hand’ and ‘Body for Body’: Aspects of

Malory’s Vocabulary of Identity and Integrity with Regard to Gareth

and Lancelot,” Modern Philology 91, no. 3 (1994): 274, 276.

35. Diane Bornstein, Mirrors of Courtesy (Hamdon, CT: Archon Books, 1975), 79.

36. Batt, “Hand for Hand,” 276.

37. Horrox, “Service,” 62.

38. Given-Wilson, Royal Household, 63–65.

39. Andrew Lynch, Malory’s Book of Arms: The Narrative of Combat in “Le Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 39 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1997), 46–47.

40. Anthony W. Annunziata, “The Pas d’Armes and Its Occurrences in Malory,”

in Chivalric Literature: Essays on Relations between Literature and Life in the Middle Ages, ed. Larry D. Benson and John Leyerle, Studies in Medieval

Culture 14 (Kalamazoo, MI: Western Michigan University, 1980), 39–48

for an explanation of pas d’armes and its appearance in the Morte.41. Lin Yiu, “Richard Beauchamp and the Uses of Romance,” Medium Aevum

74, no. 2 (2005): 273–75 for discussion of the idea that Beauchamp was a

model for Lynn S. Martin, “Was Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,

the Model for Sir Gareth?,” Studies in Medieval Culture 4, no. 3 (1974):

517–23 is the most fervent promoter of this theory that was first men-

tioned by Dugdale and perpetuated by Kittredge and Vinaver, though

the latter rejected it in 1947. William Matthews, The Ill-Framed Knight: A Skeptical Inquiry into the Identity of Sir Thomas Malory (Berkeley: University

of California Press, 1966), 60–63 treats it with well-deserved skepticism.

See also Joseph Ruff, “Malory’s Gareth and Fifteenth Century Chivalry,”

in Benson and Leyerle, Chivalric Literature, 101–16.

42. G. A. Lester, Sir Paston’s “Grete Boke”: A Descriptive Catalogue with an Introduction of British Library MS Lansdowne 285 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer,

1984), 98–102. Henry Noble MacCracken, “The Earl of Warwick’s Virelai,”

PMLA 22, no. 4 (1907): 601–3 prints the account of the Guînes tournament

from Lansdowne 285. Viscount Dillon and W. H. St. John Hope, eds., Pageant of the Birth Life and Death of Richard Beauchamp Earl of Warwick K.G. 1389–1439

(London: Longmans, Green, 1914), 57–62. C. E. Wright, “The Rous Roll:

The English Version,” British Museum Quarterly 20, no. 4 (1956): 77–81.

43. Yiu, “Beauchamp and the Uses of Romance,” 281.

44. Works, 337.18. Arthur also mentions Ironsides’s reputation as “a perelouse

knyght” when he comes to court.

45. Works, 320.15–19. Ironsides is described as “full lykly” by Lyonet. Works, 303.31–32. The Black Knight, on seeing Gareth, says, “he is a full lykly

persone, and full lyke to be a stronge man.”

N O T E S210

46. Lester, Paston’s “Grete Boke,” 123–33. Lansdowne 285, f.29v–f.43r.

Sydney Anglo, “Anglo-Burgundian Feats of Arms: Smithfield, June

1467,” Guildhall Miscellany 2 (1965): 271–83. Anglo compares the version

of the event in Paston’s book with three other eyewitness accounts.

47. Anglo, “Anglo-Burgundian Feats,” 275.

48. Anglo, “Anglo-Burgundian Feats,” 280.

49. M. Martin, Vision and Gender, 27.

50. John Trevisa, The Governance of Kings and Princes: John Trevisa’s Middle English Translation of the “De Regimine Principum” of Aegidius Romanus, ed.

David C. Fowler, Charles F. Briggs, and Paul G. Remley (New York and

London: Garland, 1997), 280.

51. Sir John Fortescue, The Governance of England, ed. Charles Plummer

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885, repr. Hyperion, 1979), 118–19.

52. Works, 293.29 on his arrival at court, Gareth is described as “the fayreste

that ever they all sawe.” Gareth addresses the earls, barons, and knights in

this scene as “Fayre lordys,” (325.22).

53. MED s.v. disposen (v.) Of persons: (a) disposed, having a (certain) disposi-

tion, inclination,or aptitude; ~ (un)to (pride, sinne, etc.); (b) wel (right)

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knightli ~, chivalrous;il ~, mis ~, ill-willed, ill-tempered, accessed 29

July 2013, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=byte

&byte=43143472&egdisplay=compact&egs=43161381.

54. Thomas Hahn, ed., introduction to Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales, Medieval Institute Publications (Kalamazoo, MI: TEAMS, 1995),

2–3; B. J. Whiting, “Gawain: His Reputation, His Courtesy and His

Appearance in Chaucer’s Squire’s Tale,” Medieval Studies 9 (1947): 215–30;

Bonnie Wheeler, “Romance and Parataxis and Malory: The Case of

Sir Gawain’s Reputation” in Arthurian Literature XII, ed. James Carley

and Felicity Riddy (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1993), 119–21. Loomis,

“Malory’s Beaumains,” 656–68. Loomis suggests that Gareth absorbs the

characteristics of courtesy that were Gawain’s in other romances.

55. Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1433–34.

5 Fellowship and Treason

1. Larry D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press, 1976), 239–40; Raluca L. Radulescu, The Gentry Context for Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 55 (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 2003), 138–39; Beverly Kennedy, Knighthood in the “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 11 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1985), 328–30;

C. David Benson, “The Ending of the Morte Darthur,” in A Companion to Malory, Arthurian Studies 37, ed. Elizabeth Archibald and A. S. G.

Edwards (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1996), 231; Kenneth Hodges, Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s “Le Morte Darthur” (New York: Palgrave

Macmillan, 2005), 94–99; Elizabeth T. Pochoda, Arthurian Propaganda:

N O T E S 211

“Le Morte Darthur” as an Historical Ideal of Life (Chapel Hill: University of

North Carolina Press, 1971), 138. D. S. Brewer, introduction to The Morte Darthur: Parts Seven and Eight, by Sir Thomas Malory, ed. D. S. Brewer

(London: Edward Arnold, 1968), 28.

2. Mark Lambert, Malory: Style and Vision in “Le Morte Darthur” (New

Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 168.

3. Elizabeth Archibald, “Malory’s Ideal of Fellowship,” Review of English Studies 43, no. 171 (1992): 311–21.

4. Christopher Cannon, “Malory’s Crime: Chivalric Identity and Evil

Will,” in Medieval Literature and Historical Inquiry: Essays in Honor of Derek Pearsall, ed. David Aers (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 160–62.

5. Megan Leitch, “Speaking (of ) Treason in Malory’s Morte Darthur,”

Arthurian Literature 27 (2010): 109–14; Megan Leitch, “Thinking Twice

about Treason in Caxton’s Prose Romances: Proper Chivalric Conduct

and the English Printing Press,” Medium Aevum 81 (2012): 58–59.

6. E. Kay Harris, “Censoring Disobedient Subjects: Narratives of Treason

and Royal Authority in Fifteenth-Century England,” in Reputation and Representation in Fifteenth-Century Europe, ed. Douglas L. Biggs, Sharon D.

Michalove, and A. Compton Reeves (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2004),

219–20.

7. Jill Mann, “Malory: Knightly Combat in Le Morte D’Arthur,” in The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, vol. 1, Medieval Literature, ed. Boris

Ford (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1954, repr. 1982), 334.

8. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish, trans. Alan Sheridan, 2nd edn.

(New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 25.

9. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 47.

10. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 135–38.

11. Quoted in J. G. Bellamy, The Law of Treason in England in the Later Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 1; Richard

Firth Green, A Crisis of Truth: Literature and Law in Ricardian England

(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999), 207.

12. Green, Crisis of Truth, 207–21.

13. Leitch, “Thinking Twice about Treason,” 48–49.

14. J. G. Bellamy, The Criminal Trial in Later Medieval England: Felony before the Courts from Edward I to the Sixteenth Century (Toronto: University of

Toronto Press, 1998), 61; J. G. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order in England in the later Middle Ages (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), 30–31.

Late medieval English law acknowledged a distinction between pardonable

homicide (accidental manslaughter, murder in self-defense and murder in

hot blood) and non-pardonable homicide, including killing by ambush,

deliberate attack, or malicious intent. The distinction, established by a

statute of 1390, however, was not recognized in the courts. Thus there

were no graduations in penalties between the different offenses.

15. Helen Cooper, “The Book of Sir Tristram de Lyones,” in Archibald

and Edwards, Companion to Malory, 184; Archibald, “Malory’s Ideal of

Fellowship,” 311–28.

N O T E S212

16. Once rejected as irrelevant and messy, Tristram has long since been recuper-

ated by critics as both structurally and thematically significant to the “hoole

book” especially in its depiction of chivalry. Discussions of the tale’s impor-

tance include: L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 109–10; Dhira B. Mahoney,

“Malory’s ‘Tale of Sir Tristram’: Source and Setting Reconsidered,” in

Tristan and Isolde: A Casebook, ed. Joan Tasker Grimbert (New York and

London: Garland, 1995), 224; Cooper, “Book of Sir Tristram,” 184; Dorsey

Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s “Morte d’Arthur”

(Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 111–12.

17. Mahoney, “Malory’s ‘Tale of Sir Tristram,’” 246; Cooper, “Book of Sir

Tristram,” 188.

18. L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 126–27.

19. Mahoney, “Malory’s ‘Tale of Sir Tristram,’” 249–51.

20. Works, 667.12–18. For example, at Surluse: “Whan sir Lamerok saw his

two bretherne downe he was wrothe oute of mesure; and than he gate

a grete speare in his honde and therewithall he smote downe four good

knyghtes, and than his speare brake. Then he pulled oute his swerde and

smote aboute hym on the ryght honde and on the lyffte honde, and raced

of helmys and pulled down knyghts.”

21. Catherine Batt, “‘Hand for Hand’ and ‘Body for Body’: Aspects of

Malory’s Vocabulary of Identity and Integrity with Regard to Gareth

and Lancelot,” Modern Philology 91, no. 3 (1994): 271–72.

22. Ernest C. York, “Legal Punishment in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur,” English Language Notes 11, no. 1 (1973): 17; Jacqueline Stuhmiller, “Iudicium Dei, iudicium fortunae: Trial by Combat in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur,” Speculum

81, no. 2 (April 2006): 438; Kennedy, Knighthood, 280; Ryan Muckerheide,

“The English Law of Treason in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur,” Arthuriana 20,

no. 4 (2010): 50–51, 58–60; R. Howard Bloch, Medieval French Literature and Law (Berkeley, LA: University of California Press, 1977), 16.

23. Bellamy, Law of Treason, 71–72.

24. A. R. Myers, English Historical Documents, vol. 4: 1327–1485 (London:

Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969), 403.

25. Green, Crisis of Truth, 221–30. Bellamy concurs that Richard II was the

only king who really tried to alter the law after 1352 until the reign of the

Tudors. Bellamy, Law of Treason, 71–87, 109–37.

26. Nigel Saul, Richard II (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997),

401–2; Maurice Keen and Mark Warner, eds., Morley vs. Montagu (1399): A Case in the Court of Chivalry, in Camden Miscellany 34, Camden 5th Series

10 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 154. Henceforth

Morley vs. Montagu.

27. Keen and Warner, introduction to Morley vs. Montagu, 160.

28. Keen and Warner, Morley vs Montagu, 170–73.

29. Keen and Warner, introduction to Morley vs Montagu, 156–57.

30. Keen and Warner, introduction to Morley vs Montagu, 165–66.

31. Keen and Warner, introduction to Morley vs Montagu, 167–68. Saul,

Richard II, 401–2. As Richard II intervened to prevent a duel between

N O T E S 213

Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, and Henry Bolingbroke, duke of

Hereford, in 1398.

32. Bellamy, Law of Treason, 143, 146; Keen and Warner, introduction to

Morley vs Montagu, 166–67.

33. Lansdowne 285, f.11r.

34. Bellamy, Law of Treason, 143–46. In 1429–30 a petition was presented in

parliament to prohibit appeals of treason in the court of chivalry but the

crown returned an evasive answer.

35. See also Works, 691.24 where Tristram refrains from attacking the Orkney

brothers “for kynge Arthurs sake.”

36. Hyonjin Kim, The Knight without the Sword: A Social Landscape of Malorian Chivalry, Arthurian Studies 45 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000), 85–98.

37. Christine Carpenter, “The Beauchamp Affinity: A Study of Bastard

Feudalism at Work,” EHR 95, no. 376 ( July 1980): 514; Rosemary

Horrox, “Personalities and Politics,” in The Wars of the Roses, ed. A. J.

Pollard (London: Macmillan Press, 1995), 89.

38. Carpenter, “Beauchamp Affinity,” 527; Rosemary Horrox, “The State

of Research: Local and National Politics in Fifteenth-Century England,”

Journal of Medieval History 18 (1992): 401 points out that noble intervention

could resolve disputes but equally could cause their escalation. On the

relationship between feuding and the causes of the Wars of the Roses see

John Watts, Henry VI and the Politics of Kingship (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1996), 299–301. R. L. Storey, The End of the House of Lancaster (London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1966), 8–10, 27 views feuding as

a major cause of the civil wars. Martin Cherry, “The Struggle for Power

in Mid-Fifteenth-Century Devonshire,” in Patronage, the Crown and the Provinces in Later Medieval England, ed. Ralph A. Griffiths (Gloucester:

Alan Sutton, 1981), 123–44; Simon Payling, “The Ampthill Dispute:

A Study in Aristocratic Lawlessness and the Breakdown of Lancastrian

Government,” EHR 104, no. 413 (1989): 881–907; Ralph A. Griffiths,

“Local Rivalries and National Politics: The Percies, the Nevilles, and the

Duke of Exeter, 1452–55,” in King and Country: England and Wales in the Fifteenth Century (London: Hambledon Press, 1991), 321–64 for details of

particular feuds and their impact.

39. Vinaver, commentary to Works, 1586; D. Armstrong, Gender and Community, 176–82.

40. Lancelot-Grail, 4.110–12.

41. Ryan Muckerheide, “The English Law of Treason in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur,” Arthuriana, 20, no. 4 (2010): 60.

42. Lancelot-Grail, 4.112. “Sir, now I ask you as my king that you grant me

justice.”

43. D. Armstrong, Gender and Community, 182.

44. The first part of the episode, where Lancelot is memorably wounded by

a lady huntress in the buttock, is taken from La Mort Artu (Lancelot-Grail 4.111). The tournament has no known source.

45. This speech has been discussed in more depth in chapter 3, 96–97.

N O T E S214

46. L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 228; Muriel Whitaker, Arthur’s Kingdom of Adventure: The World of Malory’s “Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 10

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 1984), 49; Lambert, Style and Vision, 61–64.

47. Kenneth Hodges, “Wounded Masculinity: Injury and Gender in Sir

Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur,” Studies in Philology 106, no. 1 (2008): 24.

48. Cooper, “Book of Sir Tristram,” 188; Mahoney, “Malory’s ‘Tale of Sir

Tristram,’” 251–52.

49. Lambert, Style and Vision, 62.

50. P. E. Tucker, “Chivalry in the Morte,” in Essays on Malory, ed. J. A. W.

Bennett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 99; C. S. Lewis, “The English

Prose Morte,” in Bennett, Essays on Malory, 20; L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 229. Among the causes for Lancelot’s weeping, critics have sug-

gested spiritual humility, a sense of his own unworthiness, and Malory’s

sadness at the last adventure.

51. Jane Gallop, Thinking through the Body (New York: Columbia University

Press, 1988), 71–74.

52. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New

York: Routledge, 1990), 25; E. Jane Burns, Bodytalk: When Women Speak in Old French Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,

1993), 5–8.

53. Burns, Bodytalk, 5–8; Peggy McCracken, The Romance of Adultery: Queenship and Sexual Transgression in Old French Literature (Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 31–35.

54. Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and Politics of History, revised edn. (New York:

Columbia University Press, 1999), 45.

55. McCracken, Romance of Adultery, 49.

56. D. Armstrong, Gender and Community, 56, 193–95; Kenneth Hodges,

“Guinevere’s Politics in Malory’s Morte Darthur,” Journal of English and Germanic Philology 104, no. 1 (2005): 54–60.

57. Hodges, “Guinevere’s Politics,” 64.

58. John Carmi Parsons, “Ritual and Symbol in English Medieval Queenship

to 1500,” Women and Sovereignty, ed. Louise Olga Fradenburg (Edinburgh:

Edinburgh University Press, 1992), 60–62; McCracken, Romance of Adultery, 10–11

59. Thomas A. Prendergast, “The Invisible Spouse: Henry VI, Arthur and

the Fifteenth-Century Subject,” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 32, no. 2 (2002): 310, 317–18.

60. Louise Olga Fradenburg, City, Marriage, Tournament: Arts of Rule in Late Medieval Scotland (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991),

84–88.

61. Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957, reprinted

with preface by William Chester Jordan, 1997), 212–23; Prendergast,

“Invisible Spouse,” 307.

62. Molly Martin, Vision and Gender in Malory’s “Morte Darthur” (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 2010), 1.

N O T E S 215

63. Chrétien de Troyes’s Chevalier de la Charette provided the basis for the

reworked story that appears in the French Prose Lancelot. Malory probably

used a version of the Prose Lancelot story from a source no longer extant.

Vinaver, Commentary in Works, 1592–94.

64. Corinne Saunders, Rape and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England

(Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2001), 259.

65. Batt, “Hand for Hand,” 274–75.

66. Robert S. Sturges, “Epistemology of the Bedchamber: Textuality,

Knowledge and the Representation of Adultery in Malory and the Prose

Lancelot,” Arthurian Adultery, Spec. issue of Arthuriana 7, no. 4 (Winter 1997):

59; M. Martin, Vision and Gender, 61–62. MED, s.v. wacche (n.), accessed

1 May 2012, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=byte&

byte=233705194&egdisplay=compact&egs=233719447; wacchen (v.), http://

quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED51466.

67. In the French version, Lancelot does not disarm (Lancelot-Grail 3.32).

68. Robert L. Kelly, “Malory and the Common Law: ‘Hasty jougement’

in the ‘Tale of the Death of King Arthur,” Medievalia et Humanistica,

n.s. 22 (1995): 123–24. In La Mort the queen is condemned for sleeping

with Lancelot; his crime of murdering (only) two knights is virtually

ignored.

69. Tomomi Kato, Concordance to the Works of Sir Thomas Malory (Tokyo:

University of Tokyo Press, 1974), 741. Six of the nine references to “law”

or “lawe” refer to Christian belief. Two are mentioned in the context of

Guinevere’s condemnation. One concerns Melyodas’s wife.

70. Kelly, “Malory and the Common Law,” 117–19.

71. Maurice Keen, “Treason Trials under the Law of Arms,” TRHS 5th ser.,

12 (1962): 91–101.

72. A. R. Myers, “The Captivity of a Royal Witch: The Household Accounts

of Queen Joan of Navarre, 1419–21,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 24

(1940): 263–84; Paul Strohm, England’s Empty Throne: Usurpation and the Language of Legitimation, 1399–1422 (New Haven: Yale University Press,

1998), 163–66. Joanne of Navarre, wife of Henry IV, was blamed for

attempting to kill the king by means of sorcery in 1419 and was impris-

oned for three years without trial. Griffiths, “Trial of Eleanor Cobham,”

398–99; Maura B. Nolan, “Necromancy, Treason, Semiosis, Spectacle:

The Trial of Eleanor Cobham, Duchess of Gloucester,” Proteus 13, no. 1

(1996): 7–8. Cobbling together secular and spiritual powers to condemn

Eleanor Cobham eventually resulted in the duchess being sentenced to

public penance. Ralph A. Griffiths, “The Trial of Eleanor Cobham: An

Episode in the Fall of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester.” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 51 (1969): 381–99.

73. Stuhmiller, “Trial by Combat,” 460 on the unsatisfactory nature of trial

by combat in the Morte.74. In La Mort Artu, the queen is richly attired in a red silk robe, tunic, and

mantle (Lancelot-Grail, 4.122).

75. L. D. Benson, Malory’s “Morte,” 145.

N O T E S216

76. Marcelle Thiébaux, “The Mouth of the Boar as a Symbol in Medieval

Literature,” Romance Philology 22 (1968–1969): 281–82.

Conclusion Malory’s Contested Language

1. Lindsay E. Holichek, “Malory’s Gwenevere: After Long Silence,” Annuale Mediaeval 22 (1982): 124–26.

2. Helen Cooper, “Opening up the Malory Manuscript,” in The Malory Debate: Essays on the Texts of “Le Morte Darthur,” Arthurian Studies 47, ed.

Bonnie Wheeler, Robert L. Kindrick, and Michael N. Salda (Cambridge:

D. S. Brewer, 2000), 268–71. I follow Cooper in considering the margina-

lia in Winchester to be the scribes’ own rather than being copied from an

exemplar. James Wade, “Malory’s Marginalia Reconsidered,” Arthuriana 21, no. 3 (2011): 70–86; Thomas H. Crofts, Malory’s Contemporary Audience: The Social Reading of Romance in Late Medieval England, Arthurian Studies

66 (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2006), 62–93 on the scribal responses.

On their working practices see Orietta da Rold, “Materials,” in The Production of Books in England, 1350–1500, ed. Alexandra Gillespie and

Daniel Wakelin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 27–33.

3. David Wallace, “Imperium, Commerce and National Crusade: The

Romance of Malory’s Morte,” New Medieval Literatures 8 (2006): 46.

4. William Kuskin, Symbolic Caxton: Literary Culture and Print Capitalism

(Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008), 205; Yu-Chiao

Wang, “Caxton’s Romances and Their Early Tudor Readers,” Huntington Library Quarterly 67, no. 2 (2004): 173–88.

5. Marilyn Jackson Parins, ed., Malory: The Critical Heritage (London and

New York: Routledge, 1988), 53.

6. Roger Ascham, English Works: Toxophilus; Report of the Affaires and State of Germany; The Scolemaster, ed. William Aldis Wright (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1970), 231.

7. Parins, Critical Heritage, 52.

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Accolon, 17, 75, 101

Adam of Usk, 53

adultery. See under treason

adventure. See under chivalry,

chivalric

advice. See counsel, counselors;

council, councilors

advice books, 2, 35, 38, 47, 52–5, 67,

71, 132

affinity, affinities, 22, 132, 135, 139,

149–51, 153–7

Agglovale, 148

Aggravain, 95, 105, 135–7, 149–50,

153, 163–4, 166

Aiscough, William, bishop of

Salisbury, 22

Alexander the Great, 44, 106

Alliterative Morte Arthure, 4, 7, 39–40,

42, 48–9, 50, 53, 55, 58–9, 168

Angwysshe, Anguysshe, 53–4.

See also Blamour-Angwysshe

conf lict

Anne Neville, (queen of

Richard III), 21

appetite. See food

Archibald, Elizabeth, 140

Aristotle and pseudo-Aristotelian,

44, 52–3

Armburgh family, 89, 94–6, 99–100,

128

Armburgh letters, 80, 91, 94–6, 99, 128

armor, 97, 104, 131

Armstrong, Dorsey, 5, 10, 71, 73, 97

Arnolde le Bruse, 127

Arrivall of Edward IV, the, 33–4

Arthur, Arthurian

accession, 4, 12, 17–24, 25–6, 29,

34, 46, 54, 59

and anger, 41–2, 44, 50, 55, 57,

164–5

authority, weakened, 64, 70, 81,

89, 102, 118, 132, 140–3, 149,

152–3, 158–60, 168–71

in battle, 39–43, 56–7, 60, 62,

65, 170, 173 (see also combat,

single, in Morte: Arthur’s)

birth, 20, 60–1

as a character, 7–8

as conqueror, 15, 18, 29, 39–40,

43, 58

of Rome, 4, 7, 12, 47–9, 54–8, 78

court, 37, 44, 71, 77, 87–8, 105,

110–21, 123–5, 130–2,

134–6, 145, 149 (see also king,

kingship, court, the)

death, 3, 15, 62, 173

historicity debate, 2–3

as ideal king, 3, 4–6, 15–17, 142

king/knight, 17, 41, 44, 47, 56–8,

75, 97, 101–2, 152

law, 159

legend of, 3, 29, 176

overlordship, 56–7

rule, 5–6, 12–13, 21, 35–8, 47–51,

55, 58–9, 66–7, 70, 74, 76, 78,

99, 101–3, 108, 109–10, 112,

118, 142, 155, 157, 160, 167,

170, 174

war against the kings, 36, 38–9,

45–6, 57, 59, 149

INDEX

I N D E X238

Arthur, Arthurian—Continuedwedding, 50–1, 68, 75, 89

See also king, kingship; Round

Table. See names of other

characters for Arthur’s

relationship with them

Ascham, Roger, 175

Ascolat, maid of (Elaine), 153

Astley, Sir John, 52, 84

Bademagu, 161

Bagdemagus, 88, 97

Balan, 46

Balin, 7, 43–6, 58, 62, 72

Ban of Benwick (Lancelot’s father),

98, 114

barons. See nobility, nobles

Batt, Catherine, 10, 62, 120, 122, 161

battle, battlefield

historical, 7, 26, 126, 128–9

(see also names of individual

battles)

in Morte Darthur, 39, 56, 60, 79–80,

85, 104, 109–11, 120, 122–5,

127–8, 131–2, 136–7, 145,

164, 170

in romance, 39–40

trial by (see under combat)

See also Arthur, in battle; chivalry,

chivalric; combat, single; king,

kingship, in battle

Bawdwyn, 53, 75–6

Beauchamp, Richard, earl of

Warwick, 126, 129

Beauchamp, Thomas, earl of

Warwick, 146

Beawmaynes (nickname for Gareth).

See Gareth

Bellers, James, 94

Belleus, 98–9

Benson, Larry D., 11, 143

Bernard, Thomas, 94

betrayal. See treason and betrayal

Black Book, 115

Blamour-Angwysshe conf lict, 146,

148, 151–2

Body of Polycye. See de Pisan,

Christine

body politic. See king, kingship

body, the, 27, 171

female, 75, 141, 158–63, 167–8

fight “body for body,” 145–6, 148,

152

knightly, 140–1, 143–5, 149–50,

155, 158, 161–3

mutilation of, 71, 144, 149, 155, 170

See also king, kingship

Boke of Noblesse, 31–2, 41

Boleyn, Anne, 166

Book of Curtesye, 119

Book of Fayttes of Armes. See de Pisan,

Christine

Book of the Ordre of Chyvalry. See Llull,

Ramon

Booke of Nurture and Schoole, 119

Bosworth, battle of (1485), 4, 7, 16, 39

Bracton, Bractonian, 27–9

Brewer, Derek, 8, 78

Brown Knight, The (Breunys Sanze

Pyté), 127

Brut, 36, 54–5, 61

Burgundy, Antoine of (“Bastard of

Burgundy”), 85, 128–9

Burgundy, Charles, duke of (“Charles

the Bold”), 4, 84

Burns, E. Jane, 158

Butler, Judith, 158

Cade, Jack and his rebellion (1450),

22–3, 27–8, 64

Cador, 53–5

Caister, manor of, (Pastons), 85, 92

Camelot, 112

Cannon, Christopher, 68, 140

Carlisle, 112

Carpenter, Christine, 79, 100

Castor, Helen, 80

Caxton, William

edition of the Morte Darthur (Caxton’s Malory), 11, 16, 46,

47, 48, 49–51, 54, 59, 106,

174–5

I N D E X 239

other printed translations and

editions, 143

preface to the Morte Darthur, 4, 10, 15–16, 18, 58, 66,

106, 175

See also titles of these works

chamberlain (royal official), 114

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 78

Chaucer, Thomas, 99

chivalry, chivalric

action, actions, 78, 119, 123, 156

adventure, 20, 40, 49, 57, 70–2, 77,

80–1, 87, 89, 98, 102–4, 117,

120, 132, 145, 156, 160

forest of, 145

“strange adventures,” 112, 114

code, 57, 71–3, 75, 91, 107, 147

court of, 104, 147–8, 165

deeds, 78, 80, 148 (see also worship,

worshipful; deeds)

disguise and incognito, 42, 104,

110, 118, 126, 130, 154

honor, 35, 56, 71, 147

(see also worship, worshipful)

ideals, 3, 10, 12, 17, 68, 72, 85, 107,

128, 133, 141, 154, 176

identity, 42, 73, 81–3, 88, 108, 110,

112, 122, 130

orders, 47–8, 69 (see also Round

Table, the)

literature, 84 (see also specific titles)

prowess, 35, 39–40, 57, 74, 80, 83,

85, 91, 93, 97, 103, 106–7,

109, 120, 122–6, 128, 130–2,

143, 154

quest, questing, 67–75, 77, 80–1,

87–8, 104, 110, 112, 119–20,

122–7, 130–1, 156, 174

(see also Grail Quest; “queste

of ladies”)

romance (see romance)

token, 153

tournament, historical, 85, 126

in Morte Darthur, 77, 88, 96–7,

123–4, 130–1, 134, 144, 149,

153–6

See also knighthood, knights;

worship, worshipful; nobility,

nobles

Chronicles of England, 2. See also BrutChurchill, Winston, 3

Cobham, Eleanor, duchess of

Gloucester, 165

Columbe, 44–5, 62

combat, single

historical, 84–5, 128–9, 147–8

in Morte Darthur, 7, 10, 67, 70, 77,

80, 88, 103, 112, 125, 140,

144–5, 156

Arthur’s, 17, 42, 56–7, 76, 101, 170

Gareth’s, 125–34, 145

Lancelot’s, 83, 90–1, 98, 103–4,

127, 160–2, 166–7

pas d’armes, 125

Tristram’s, 83–5

trial by, 143, 145–8, 152, 158, 165–7

See also battle, battlefield; chivalry,

chivalric

common good, common interest,

28–9, 30–2, 34, 39–41, 51, 56,

67, 76, 81, 97, 103, 147

common law, 30, 146–7, 165

common terms, 2, 6, 8–9, 11–13, 16,

34, 47, 64, 66, 77–9, 88–9,

109–11, 119, 124, 139–40, 142,

161, 173–4

See also language, political

commons, comyns, the, 2, 17–26, 28,

33–4, 46, 169. See also common

good; justice

commonwealth, 39, 41

Confessio Amantis. See Gower, John

conquest. See under Arthur,

Arthurian; king, kingship

Conquest, the, (battle of 1066), 86, 95

constable (royal official), 114, 147

Constantine, 75

Cooper, Helen, 143, 156

Cornwall, 83, 157

council, councilors, 25, 28, 44, 48,

50–5, 63, 64–5, 69–70

“great councils,” 51–3, 63

I N D E X240

council, councilors—Continuedminority councils, 51, 65

under Henry VI, 28, 51, 64–5, 69

counsel, counselors, 2, 6, 12, 22–3,

29, 47–8, 52–5, 64, 142, 169

as distinct from council, 47, 51–4

historical examples, 51, 64–5, 69

in Morte Darthur, 59–76, 48–59, 165

and rule, 12, 47–8, 59

in Stanzaic Morte Arthure, 164

See also advice books; council; Merlin

court. See Arthur, Arthurian; king,

kingship; court

courtesy, courteous, 2, 12, 16, 36,

109–11, 142, 169, 174

behavior and manners, 109–11,

113–14, 116–18, 120, 122–4,

129, 132–7

and combat, 125–32 (see also combat)

discourtesy, discourteous and lack

of, 111, 113–18, 121, 123–4,

135–6

and justice, 132–7

manuals and literature, 110, 115,

117, 120–1 (see also individual

titles of courtesy manuals)

speech and language, 114, 118–25,

135

See also common terms; service

Crane, Susan, 42

custom, customary, 143, 145–6, 148,

151–2, 158, 163, 165–7, 169

and law, 22, 27–8

De Laudibus Legum Anglie. See Fortescue, Sir John

De Pisan, Christine, 52

Body of Polycye, 52–3

Book of Fayttes of Armes, 31–2, 38,

40, 53, 102

Epistle of Othea, 52

De regimine principum. See Giles of Rome

de Worde, Wynkyn, 175–6

deeds. See chivalry, chivalric;

worship, worshipful

deposition, 27

“despyte,” 44, 88–9, 98. See also shame

Dinadan, 148

disguise. See chivalry, chivalric

Dolorous Stroke, the, 7, 44–6

duke de la Rouse, 116, 118, 124, 131,

134, 136

Ector, Round Table knight, 20, 84,

98, 105, 109, 155

Ector, Trojan hero. See Hector

Edward III, king of England, 103

Edward IV, king of England, 7, 16,

20, 21, 23, 26, 27, 33–4, 52,

64, 73–4, 112, 115, 128, 169

Edward, prince (son of Henry VI), 73

Elaine (mother of Galahad), 105

Elaine, maid of Ascolat, 153

Epistle of Othea. See de Pisan,

Christine

equity. See under justice

equivocal oath, 27

Ewain, 53

Excalibur, 43

Fastolf, Sir John, 41, 92

“fall of princes,” 106

family and kinship, 45, 79, 81, 85–6,

92, 95, 132, 134–5, 150, 155.

See also affinity; nobility, nobles

fellowship, 2, 13, 69, 139–43, 156,

158–9, 169, 174. See also Round

Table, the; common terms

feud, feuding, 12, 18, 43–6, 139, 144,

148–50, 154

feudal law, 146

Fiennes, James, Lord Saye and Sele, 22

Firth Green, Richard, 27, 142

food and appetite, 113, 116, 118,

122–3, 126

Fortescue, Richard, 93, 99–100

Fortescue, Sir John, 28–9, 132

De Laudibus Legum Anglie, 28

Governance of England, 28–9, 132

Fortune’s Wheel, 106

Foucault, 8, 141, 167

friend, friendship, 92, 100, 109, 121, 142

I N D E X 241

Gaheris, 71, 84, 87, 98, 101, 135, 149,

153

death, 106, 136, 139, 157, 168

murder of mother (Morgawse), 150

See also Orkney brothers

Gaheris of Carahew, 151

Galahad, 46, 70

Gararde le Breuse, 127

Gareth, 93

and Arthur, 96–7, 111, 113, 117–18,

124, 133, 154, 174

and Arthurian court, 116–17, 119,

124, 132

as Beawmaynes, 110, 117, 120

death, 106, 136–7, 139, 157, 168

and Gawain, 114, 118, 131–2,

134–7

and Kay, 113–16, 118

and Lamerok, 45, 144, 148–9, 154,

157

and Lancelot, 114, 118, 127, 132,

135, 154–5, 168

and Lyones, 118, 122–3, 127, 130,

135–6

and Lyonet, 117, 120–1, 123, 125–6

and Morgawse, 116, 124, 133, 150

and Orkney brothers, 45, 96, 124,

134, 136, 144, 148, 150, 155

as premier knight, 12, 37, 79, 127,

154

and Round Table, 12–13, 109–12,

118–19, 131, 133, 135–6, 154

See also combat, combats, single,

Gareth’s; Orkney brothers

Gate, Thomas (Stonor correspondent),

85–6

Gawain, 48, 68, 70–4, 91, 127, 139,

150–1, 170

and Arthur, 58, 124, 136–7, 141,

154, 165, 167

in English romance, 40, 134

(see also Sir Gawain and the Green Knight)

and Gareth (see Gareth)

and Lamerok, 45, 141, 144, 149–51,

153–7

and Lancelot, 105–6, 114, 118,

149–50, 157–8, 167

and Morgawse, 124

and Pellinor, 149–50

as premier knight, 37, 79

See also Orkney brothers

gaze, the, 129–31, 160

gender, 10, 73–4, 81, 88–9, 158–60

identity, 88, 129

“gentilesse,” gentility, 78, 86

gentlemen, 82, 86

gentry, 11, 13, 52, 78–9, 85, 87–9, 91,

95, 108, 150

and law, 85–6, 94–5

letters, 2, 78–81, 85–6, 88–94, 96,

103 (see also names of family

letter collections)

and nobility, 11, 85, 90, 99–101

Geoffrey of Monmouth

Historia Regum Britannie, 2–3, 29,

61, 65

giant, giants, 40, 82, 87, 127

of St Michael’s Mount, 40, 56, 76,

127

Giles of Rome

De regimine principum, 27, 52

Gloucester, Humphrey of Lancaster,

duke of (d. 1447), 52

Gloucester, Thomas of Woodstock,

duke of (d. 1397), 147

Governance of England. See Fortescue,

Sir John

Governance of Kings and Princes. See Trevisa, John

Gower, John

Confessio Amantis, 52–3

Grail Quest, 12–13, 29, 46, 57–9,

69–70, 150, 156, 174

Gray, Thomas, 29

Green Knight, The. See Pertolope.

See also Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Gryngamoure, 122

Guinevere

and Arthur, 49, 56, 67–8, 71, 75,

89, 91, 152, 163–8, 175

I N D E X242

Guinevere—Continuedand Lancelot, 89, 91, 94–6, 99, 105,

136, 139, 150, 153, 157, 161–8,

173, 175

and Leodagrance, 60

and Meleagant, 160–3

as queen, 47–8, 60, 70–6, 89, 91,

139, 141, 151–3, 158–68

hall, the, 112–13, 115–16, 118, 120,

123–6, 131–2, 135

Hampden, Edmond, 89–90, 93

Hardyng, John

Chronicle, 4, 29, 58

Harleston, William, 86

Harris, E. Kay, 10, 140

Havelok the Dane, 39–40, 116

Hay, Sir Gilbert

Buke of Gouernaunce of Princis, 38, 42

Buke of the Ordre of Knychthede, 55

heal, healing, 5, 104, 106, 154–7.

See also wound, wounding

Hector, Trojan hero, 106

Heng, Geraldine, 3

Henry IV, king of England, 33–4,

51, 147

Henry V, king of England, 103, 126

Henry VI, king of England, 7, 16, 24,

28, 30, 33–4, 51, 64–5, 69,

73–4, 112, 147, 159, 169

Henry VII, king of England, 6, 16,

20, 40

Historia Regum Britannie. See Geoffrey

of Monmouth

Hoccleve, Thomas

Regement of Princes, 27, 30–1, 36,

42, 44, 52, 53

Hodges, Kenneth, 6, 10, 75, 103, 155

homage, 124. See also king, kingship,

homage to

Horrell, John (Armburgh

correspondent), 94–5

Horrox, Rosemary, 118

hospitality, 113, 116, 123, 125–6, 131

household, 117, 123

gentry, 81, 86

the king’s, 51, 65, 110–11, 115–16,

118, 125, 132

ordinances, 110–11, 115

Ider, 53

incest, incestuous, 4, 62, 168

incognito. See chivalry, chivalric,

disguise and incognito

injustice, 142. See also justice

Ironsides, (“The Red Knight of the

Red Lands”), 122, 124, 127–33

Isode, 93–4, 165

Joanne, Queen of Navarre (wife of

Henry IV), 165

John Vale’s Book, 64

“just war,” the, 35, 39–41, 102

justice, 2, 5, 9, 12, 140

and the commons, 22–3

equity, 30–1, 110

injustice, 142

mercy, 2, 30–2, 35–6, 39, 42, 70–3,

91, 111, 127–9, 134, 136

See also king, kingship; knights,

knighthood, and justice

Kantorowicz, Ernst, H., 159

Kay, 87, 97–8, 110, 113–18, 120, 125,

135

Keen, Maurice, 147

Kelly, Robert, 10, 68, 164–5

Kim, Hyonjin, 11, 37, 78, 150

king, kingship

acclamation (see election)

authority and sovereignty, 23, 31,

34, 45, 47, 58, 70, 74, 140–2,

150, 159

from counselors, 65, 67, 69

in court of chivalry, 148

in battle, 35, 40, 42, 48

body natural/private person, 20,

25, 41, 56–7, 110, 174

body politic /public persona, 2,

7–8, 18, 56–7, 76, 110–11,

140–1, 160

and conquest, 16, 20, 42

I N D E X 243

coronation, 5, 12, 17–26, 37–8, 59,

114, 168–9

coronation oath (see oaths)

and counsel (see counsel, counselors;

council, councilors)

court, 110–11 (see also Arthur,

Arthurian, court)

crown, 20, 58, 159

deposition, 27

election, 21, 24–5

homage to, 42, 68, 142

illegitimacy/legitimacy,

legitimization, 19–20, 22,

24–5, 29, 33–5, 37–8

and justice, 26, 30–2, 34–7, 42–6,

56–7, 64, 73–4, 76, 102, 112,

132, 143, 145, 147–9, 151–3,

158–9, 163–5 (see also justice;

kings, kingship, virtues of

rule; knights, knighthood, and

justice)

and law, 28, 35, 71, 112

(see also common law)

and love, 66

and loyalty, 27, 29, 33, 38, 62, 66,

103, 108, 148

and nobility (see noble, nobility)

and obedience, 30, 103

office, 30, 132

representativeness, 21, 28, 31–2, 51,

64, 76

sovereignty (see king, kingship,

authority and sovereignty)

and treason (see treason and betrayal)

tyranny, tyrant, 3, 18, 29–31, 33–5,

43, 46, 51, 56, 74, 127, 142, 168

usurper, usurpation, 7, 12, 16, 18,

23, 26, 33–4, 38, 40, 46, 56,

58, 140, 168–71

virtues of rule, cardinal, 35–6, 43,

132

will, willful, 29, 35, 43, 48, 51, 65,

74, 76, 142, 166

See also Arthur, Arthurian; common

good; queen, queenship

kinship. See family and kinship

knight, knighthood

errant, 7, 101

and justice, 70–2, 110–11, 132–4, 143,

145, 151–2, 158 (see also king,

kingship, justice; justice)

office, 71–2, 102, 147

See also body; chivalry, chivalric;

nobility, nobles; Round Table

knightliness. See chivalry, chivalric;

knight, knighthood; nobility,

nobles; worship

Kynke Kenadonne, 112–14, 117–18,

124–5, 136

La Cote Male Tayle, 114

La Mort le Roi Artu, 151–2, 163–4.

See also Lestoire de Merlin; Prose Lancelot; Suite du Merlin;

Vulgate Cycle

Lady of the Lake, the, 43, 72

Lambert, Mark, 7, 10, 16–17, 62, 139

Lamerok, 13, 45, 127, 131–2, 136,

141–4, 148–51, 153–8, 173

Lancelot

and Arthur, 52, 58, 77, 81, 91,

95–6, 99, 101–2, 107, 136,

139, 141, 152, 156, 162–7,

170, 175

and Guinevere (see under Guinevere)

as premier knight, 12–13, 37, 50,

77–9, 81–4, 91, 93, 103, 107,

127

and Round Table, the, 77, 80–2,

84, 87–9, 96–108, 118, 153–7,

161, 168, 174

and women, 82, 90, 94, 97

See also names of other knights

Lancelot-Grail. See Vulgate Cycle

Lanceor, 44

language, political, 2, 5, 7–9, 11, 18, 89,

140, 173–4. See also common

terms

Laurel, 135

Leitch, Megan, 10, 140, 143

Leland, John, 175

Leodagrance, 60

I N D E X244

Lestoire de Merlin, 19–21, 26, 38, 59

See also La Mort le Roi Artu; Prose Lancelot; Suite du Merlin;

Vulgate Cycle

Lewis, C. S., 66

lineage, 16, 46, 60–1, 79, 83, 85–6, 113,

116, 121–2, 131. See also nobility,

noble; worship, worshipful

Lionel, 98

Livre du Corps de Policie. See de Pisan,

Christine

Llull, Ramon

Book of the Ordre of Chyvalry, 78, 102

lordship, 79, 96, 99–101, 150

Lot, 17, 45–6, 61, 149–50. See also feud,

feuding, Lot-Pellinor

love, romantic, 45, 61, 119, 122–3,

127, 133, 135. See also king,

kingship, love

Lucius, Emperor, 40, 42, 48–50, 51,

55–8

Lydgate, John, 52

Lynch, Andrew, 10, 17, 82, 125

Lyones, 117–18, 122–3, 127, 130, 135–6

Lyonet, 93, 117, 120–1, 123, 125–6,

130, 135

Maddern, Philippa, 79–80

Mador, 150–2

Maitland, Frederic, 142

Malory, Sir Thomas

biography, 10, 78–9

Morte Darthur, the, major divisions

final books, 13, 48, 81, 95–6,

105–6, 108, 109, 135–6,

139–42, 151, 157, 173–4

The Book of Sir Tristram, 5–6, 13,

77–8, 80–3, 88, 93, 97, 101,

105, 134, 141, 143–5, 148,

150, 165

The Most Piteous Tale of the Morte Arthur Saunz Guerdon, 58, 163

The Tale of Arthur and Lucius (Roman War episode), 7, 12,

26, 39, 47–50, 52, 55–9, 63–4,

67, 72, 75–7, 81, 127

The Tale of King Arthur, 12, 15,

17–18, 39, 41–2, 46, 47–8, 60,

64, 67, 70, 91, 114

The Tale of Sir Gareth, 12, 93,

110–12, 114–15, 129, 132–6,

145

The Tale of Sir Lancelot, 77–8,

80–3, 87, 94, 98, 103, 106

The Tale of the Sankgreal, 13,

57–8, 69

individual episodes

“Balin or the Knight with Two

Swords,” 43–5

“Slander and Strife,” 159, 163, 165

“The Great Tournament,” 149,

153, 156

“The Healing of Sir Urry,” 149,

154, 156

“The Knight of the Cart,” 27,

89, 159–60

“The Poisoned Apple,” 149–50,

152, 158, 160

magnates. See nobility, nobles

Mahoney, Dhira, 156

Mann, Jill, 5, 10, 17, 45, 140

Margaret of Anjou, queen of England,

73–4, 112, 159

Margaret of York (duchess of

Burgundy), 4, 84

Marhalt, 82

Mark, 7, 82

marshal (royal official), 114

Martin, Molly, 129, 160

Matthews, William, 49–50

McCarthy, Terence, 2

Meleagant, 89, 160–3

Melyodas, 165

Melyot, 103–5

mercy. See under justice

Merlin, 20–1, 38–9, 43–5, 89

birth of, 65

as counselor, 12, 47–8, 59–67,

69–72, 74

death of, 12, 74

and magic, 61–2, 74–5

“mirrors for princes.” See advice books

I N D E X 245

Moleyns, Adam, bishop of

Chichester, 22

Montagu, John, earl of Salisbury, 147–8

Moorman, Charles, 49

Mordred, 42, 58, 65–6, 87, 95, 105,

139, 144, 149, 153, 155, 163–4,

166, 168–71

Morgan Le Fay, 17, 47, 73–5, 94

Morgawse, 45, 62, 116, 124, 133, 148,

150, 168

Morley, Lord Thomas, 147–8

mutilation. See under body

Nenyve, 17, 47–8, 72–5, 153

Neville, George, archbishop of York, 99

Neville, Richard, earl of Warwick

(“the Kingmaker”), 16, 169

nobility, nobles, noble, 11, 38, 44, 51,

56, 111, 116, 126, 129, 147, 150

birth, 82, 121–2

as a concept and virtue, 5, 16, 53,

119, 124, 132, 134

as councilors/counselors, 23, 50–4,

63–5, 67 (see also counsel;

council)

culture, 52, 84–5

and gentry, 79, 90, 99–101

lineage, 116, 121

women, 165

See also affinity, affinities; lineage;

knighthood, knights

nostalgia, nostalgic, 146

“noyse.” See slander and “noyse”

oath

coronation, 21–2, 26–31, 34–6,

46, 64

equivocal, 27

Pentecostal, 12, 18, 32, 48, 67–75,

91, 133, 144, 174

See also perjury

obedience. See king, kingship

officials, royal, 114–15. See also titles

of officials

Ordenaunce and Forme of Fightyng within Listes, the, 147

order, chivalric. See under chivalry,

chivalric; Round Table

Orians, 65–6

Orkney brothers, the, 96, 124, 134–6,

150, 155

and Lamerok, 45, 141, 144, 148–51,

153–7

and Morgawse, 150

See also Aggravain; feud, feuding;

Gaheris; Gareth; Gawain;

Morgawse; Lot

Palomides, 101, 143–4, 148

parliament, parliamentary, 16, 22,

25–6, 28, 51, 53, 55, 63–4,

111, 115, 146, 148, 168

of 1459, 31

of 1461, 34, 64, 73–4

“Wonderful Parliament” (1386), 51

Paston family, 78–9, 84–7, 89, 91–2, 96

Paston Letters, 4, 80, 84–7, 92

Paston’s “Grete Boke,” 52, 79, 85,

126, 148

Patryse, 150–1, 153

Patterson, Lee, 3

Pedivere, 90–1, 103

Pedivere’s wife, 90–1

Pellam, 7, 45–6

Pellinor, 43, 45–6, 68, 72–4, 149–50,

155

Pentecost, Pentecostal

feast, 93, 112, 115, 118, 123

Oath (see oaths)

Perarde (“The Black Knight”), 127, 145

Percival, 148, 156

Percival’s aunt, 69–70, 174

perjury, 33

Perlesvaus, 103–4

Persaunte (“The Blue Knight”), 118,

124–5

Pertolope (“The Green Knight”), 93,

120–1, 124, 145

Perymones (“The Red Knight”), 121,

124–5

Plumpton Letters, 119

Pochoda, Elizabeth, 4, 11

I N D E X246

Pocock, 8–9

Prose Lancelot, 40, 99, 102, 104, 161

See also La Mort le Roi Artu; Lestoire de Merlin; Suite du Merlin;

Vulgate Cycle

prowess. See under chivalry, chivalric

public interest. See common good

Pynell, 151

queen, queenship, 48, 67, 70, 73–6,

91, 94, 140–1, 143, 158–60,

164–5. See also names of

individual queens

quest, judicial, 152

quest, questing. See chivalry,

chivalric

“queste of ladies,” 48, 71–3. See also chivalry, chivalric

Radulescu, Raluca L., 4–5, 11, 42,

50, 78, 107

rape, 56, 72–6, 127, 161

rebel, rebellion, 32

1381, 23, 32–3

Cade’s (see Cade)

Red Knight of the Red Lands, the.

See Ironsides

Red Knight, the. See Perymones

Regement of Princes. See Hoccleve,

Thomas

representativeness. See under king,

kingship

revenge and vengeance, 12, 30, 36,

38, 41–6, 55, 72, 135–7, 149,

163–4, 167, 171

See also feud, feuding

Richard II, king of England, 21, 51,

53, 65, 146, 147–8

deposition of, 27

Richard III, king of England, 7, 16,

20, 21, 23, 27, 36, 40–1, 52

Riddy, Felicity, 70, 110, 113

romance

conventions, 20, 27, 39, 42, 110,

115, 143

genre of, 1, 3, 29, 79, 134

hero, 35–7, 39–42, 46, 89, 111–12,

116

and politics, 3, 6, 11, 8–9, 79, 126,

128, 174–5

See also titles of French and English

romances

Round Table, the (fellowship of )

and Arthur, 12–14, 48, 55–9,

68–9, 72, 75, 80, 97, 99,

102–3, 107, 109–10, 118,

123, 125, 141–3, 160–1, 169,

170–1, 174

as a chivalric order, 68–9, 80, 97,

140, 142

divisions in/collapse of, 2, 5, 46,

58, 69–70, 81, 95, 118, 124,

132, 139–42, 144, 149–58,

162, 168–9, 170, 173–6

formation of, 18, 48, 67–70, 144

involvement in governance, 12,

47–8, 56–9, 67, 70–3, 75–6,

80, 166, 171, 174

knights, 14, 32, 47, 50, 55–8,

68, 70, 72, 82, 87–8, 96–8,

103–9, 113, 118–19, 125,

131–2, 133, 142–3, 148,

151, 154–5, 160–1, 174

(see also names of individual

knights)

oath (see oath)

as public/political body, 2, 12–13,

48–9, 59, 69, 80, 97–8, 131,

139–40, 141–5, 173

See also chivlary, chivalric; knights,

knighthood; worship,

worshipful

Royns, 41–3

rule, 1–2, 13, 22–3, 28–9, 34, 35,

51–2, 55–6, 64–5, 69, 112, 132

cardinal virtues of (see king,

kingship, virtue(s))

female rule (see queen, queenship)

see also king, kingship

ruler. See king, kingship

rumor, 94–5, 159. See also slander and

“noyse”

I N D E X 247

Scott, Joan, 158–9

Secretum Secretorum, 52–4

seneschal (royal official), 114

service, 2, 12, 67–8, 97, 103, 109–11,

118–27, 129, 131, 135–6, 142,

169, 174

shame, shameful, 82, 84, 88, 91–3,

96, 98, 103–6, 108, 117, 133,

152, 161, 166

shields. See under weapon

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, 4, 37

Skinner, Quentin, 9

slander and “noyse,” 88, 90, 92–6, 142

Somnium Vigilantis, 31

spear. See under weapon

Spisak, James W., 49

St Albans, battle of (1455), 7, 30, 73

Stanzaic Morte Arthur, 151–2, 163,

167–8, 170

Stapleton, Sir Miles, 85

steward (royal official), 113–16

Stonor family, 80, 85–6, 89–91, 93,

96, 99–100

Strohm, Paul, 9, 33

Sudeley, Lady Alys, 100

Suffolk, Elizabeth de la Pole, duchess

of, 99

Suffolk, William de la Pole, earl,

marquess, and duke of, 22–3,

64–5, 99, 115

Suite du Merlin, 59, 65–6, 71

See also Lestoire de Merlin; La Mort le Roi Artu; Prose Lancelot; Vulgate Cycle

Sumpter, Christine and Ellen, 94–5

sword. See weapon

sword in the stone, the, 18–21, 34, 38

Tarquin, 83–4, 91, 98, 103–6

See also Tericam

Tennyson, Lord Alfred, 4

Tericam, 83, 98

See also Tarquin

token. See chivalry, chivalric

Tor, 72

“Torre and Pellinor,” 59

“French book,” 80, 154

“hoole book,” 8, 10, 15, 49

sources, 4–5, 7–10, 18–19, 25, 29, 38,

48, 50, 55, 58–62, 70, 78, 83,

98, 110, 114–15, 134–5, 143–4,

146, 149–52, 157, 159–61,

163–4, 174 (see also titles of

French and English source texts)

tournament. See chivalry, chivalric

tragedy, tragic, 139, 171

treason and betrayal, 2, 9–10, 13, 38,

139–42, 144, 146, 149, 155,

158–60, 166

1352 statute of, 146–7, 159–60, 164

accusation(s) of, 13, 139–40, 141,

143, 145–7, 151–3, 157–63,

166–7

and adultery, 139, 141, 158–68

high (against the king), 13, 75–6,

105, 139, 142, 146–8, 158–61,

166, 170–1

historical, 104, 142, 146–8, 159–60,

165

and murder, 141–58, 164–7

Trevisa, John

Governance of Kings and Princes, 52–4, 132

Tristram, 7, 81–5, 93–4, 97, 101–2,

127, 131–2, 143–4, 148–9

death of, 149, 154, 156–7, 165–6, 170

and Lancelot, 12–13, 37, 50, 77, 79,

83, 85, 88, 93, 102, 131, 143,

154, 166

truth, true, “trew,” 12, 17–18, 26–7,

30, 32–4, 64, 120, 133

Tudor, Henry. See Henry VII

unity, political, 2, 13, 59, 70, 81,

96–9, 103, 107, 109, 131, 135,

142, 150, 153–4, 156, 161, 168

of Morte Darthur (see Malory, Morte Darthur)

See also wholeness

Uriens, 75

Urry, 105, 149, 154–7

I N D E X248

usurper, usurpation. See king, kingship

Uther, 18, 20–1, 38, 59–60, 169

Verneuil, battle of (1424), 40

Vinaver, Eugéne, 4–5, 7–8, 15, 43,

48–9, 59, 77, 134–5, 150, 153

Vulgate Cycle, 1, 8, 38, 40, 60–1, 65

See also Lestoire de Merlin; Prose Lancelot; Suite du Merlin

Wace, 29

Wakefield, battle of (1460), 24

Wales, Welsh, 6, 16, 38, 43, 53, 112,

157

Wallace, David, 175

war against the kings. See under Arthur, Arthurian

Warner, Mark, 147

Waste Land, 7, 46

Watts, John, 9, 31

weapon, 83, 134, 156

shield, 42, 84, 104, 130

spear (“glayve”), 128, 144, 156–7, 170

sword, 43–4, 58, 91, 104, 144, 170

See also sword in the stone, the

wholeness, 2, 5–6, 8, 59, 70, 96–8,

103–6, 140, 149, 154–6.

See also unity

Wilson, Robert, 4

Winchester Manuscript, 4, 8, 11, 15,

49, 59, 81, 174

Woodville, Anthony, Lord Scales and

Earl Rivers, 84–5, 128–9

worship, worshipful, 2, 12–13, 71,

77–80, 97, 109–10, 126, 134,

142, 156–7, 169, 174

ancestry/ lineage, 79, 83, 85–6, 95

and Arthur, 5, 17, 62, 75, 101

“best knight,” 17, 78–9, 82, 87–8,

156

deeds, 78, 80–3, 87, 89–90, 93–4,

97, 103, 105–6, 108

and dishonor, 88, 104

“disworship,” 2, 82, 88–96, 97,

108 (see also despite; shame;

slander)

family, 81, 85–7, 89–90, 92, 99–100

and honor, 77–9, 80–1, 86–7, 96–7,

104, 108

individual, 80–1, 87–8, 92–3, 97–8,

107–8

and lordship, 40, 100

man of, 17, 114–15

most, 7, 84, 87, 106

“name”and reputation, 80–7,

89–98, 103–8

prove, proving, 81, 96, 103–4, 106

of the Round Table, 70, 77, 80–1,

89, 97–8, 102–3, 105–8, 156–7

and status, 78, 81–4, 87, 94, 103,

107

and women, 88–9, 91, 96

See also chivalry, chivalric; knight,

knighthood; names of

individual knights

wound, wounding, 5, 72, 83, 104,

144, 154–5, 164. See also heal,

healing

York (city) 55

York, Richard, duke of, 23–4, 28,

64–5, 73